Understanding The Self - Part 1 - Ancient Philosophy PDF

**LESSON 1** **A PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNEY TO DISCOVERING THE SELF (ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY)** **LEARNING OUTCOMES** - Define philosophy - Compare and contrast the philosophical views of Plato, Socrates, and St. Augustine on human nature  - Discuss the philosophical perspective of the self. *...

**LESSON 1** **A PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNEY TO DISCOVERING THE SELF (ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY)** **LEARNING OUTCOMES** - Define philosophy - Compare and contrast the philosophical views of Plato, Socrates, and St. Augustine on human nature  - Discuss the philosophical perspective of the self. **ABSTRACTION** **Philosophy**       **I. Ancient History**     **a. Socrates (469 -- 399 BC)**   *** "Know Thy Self"***                                               \- He was born in Athens and married with several children  \- He is known as the "market philosopher" because of his penchant for engaging youths in philosophizing in public markets   For him, there was soul first before man's body. Man's existence was first in the realm of ideas and exists as a soul or pure mind. This soul has knowledge by direct intuition and all these are stored in his mind. However, once he came to the material world or the world of senses, he forgot most of what he knew. This resulted in a **[lack of knowledge or ignorance]** which caused problems for man. But, knowledge can be restored through the process of **[dialectic method]** -- a sort of intellectual midwifery trying to painfully coax knowledge out of a man. This process, which is also known as the **[Socratic method]** is an exchange of question and answer that ultimately aims to make the person remember all the knowledge that he has forgotten, including his former omniscient self.  (the name intellectual midwifery is a homage to socrates who explained that his role was that of a philosophical midwife, not to tell people what the truth is, but rather to help them get out the truths that are already inside them.) **b. Plato (427 -- 347 BCE)**              ***"If we are ever to have pure knowledge of anything, we must get rid of the body and contemplate things by themselves with the soul by itself."***  \- He was born into an aristocratic Athenian family which is involved in the rule of Thirty Tyrants  \- An important part of his philosophy is the dichotomy of the Ideal world or the **[world of Forms]** and [**Material world**.]   This dichotomy is reflected in his idea of the nature of man. He believed that **human beings are composed of two things -- a body and a soul.**                     -  constantly changing, getting older, changing shape  **c. St. Augustine of Hippo (354 -- 430)**  ***            "But my sin was this, that I looked for pleasure, beauty, and truth not in Him but in myself and His other creatures, and the search led me instead to pain, confusion, and error."***   - A self-confessed sinner from North Africa, later became Bishop of Canterbury  \- He was greatly inspired by Plato  \- He abandoned his early Christian faith on his younger years because he found it difficult to reconcile a loving, all-knowing, and all-powerful God with the evils in the world  \- His encounter with the Neo-Platonists and the idea of the world of Forms gave him a philosophical strongpoint for the idea of God and it paved way for his return to the folds of Christianity  \- He **differentiated what are the real world and the temporary world**                                 -reason makes us recognize these laws and thus, we  can  discern the distinction between right and wrong  \- coming from God Himself **LESSON 2** **A PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNEY TO DISCOVERING THE SELF (MODERN PHILOSOPHY)** **LEARNING OUTCOMES** - Define philosophy - Compare and contrast the philosophical views of Descartes, Locke, Hume, Kant, Freud, Ryle, Churchland, and Ponty - Discuss the philosophical perspective of the self **ABSTRACTION** **II. Modern Philosophy** **a. Rene Descartes (1596 -- 1650)** ***"I think, therefore; I am"*** **- Father of Modern Philosophy** \- brilliant in Mathematics \- "I think, therefore, I am" or also known as Cogito (Cogito ergo sum), emphasizes the consciousness of his mind which leads to an evidence of his existence -- despite the fact that he is doubting the existence of everything physical, including his own body. \- His conclusion is that, **he is purely a thinking being** because **he cannot doubt that he is thinking.** \- This echoes the dualism of Plato \- **The mind and the body are separate and very distinct from one another.** \- But he also believes **that the mind is conjoined with the body in such an intimate way** that they casually act upon each other \- **"I am my body and my mind, but these two are still distinct from each other."** \- When the body is gone, the mind may continue to exist and function. **b. John Locke (1632 -- 1704)** ***"What worries you, masters you."*** \- **Father of Classical Liberalism** because of his contribution to the formation of human rights \- Credited for his commitment to the idea that **the sovereign should be the people and not the monarch** \- Influenced by Rene Descartes in his dualism \- He thinks that our **identity is not locked in the mind, soul, or body only.** [- **Memory theory**] -- holds that **we are the same person as we were in the past** \- as long as we have overlapping memories, then we are the same person \- memories make us aware of our existence \- **I am connected with my past for as long as I and another person can remember that experience and still be aware of the present** \- If we want to know if the person is the same one we knew ten years ago, we only have to ask and test his memory to verify the identity. **c. David Hume (1711 -- 1776)** ***"Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them."*** \- Born in Scotland \- A lawyer but known more for the history book he wrote (History of England) \- Regarded the **senses** as our **key source of knowledge** \- He does believe in the **existence of the mind** and what's inside the mind is divided into two: 1[**. Impressions**] -- those things we perceive through our senses as we experience them 2**. [Ideas]** [ ] -- those things that we create in our minds even though we are no longer experiencing them - **[Complex ideas]** happen when we combine simple ideas by arranging and rearranging them. \- In his Treatise on Human Nature (Hume, 1738), he argues that when he looks into his mind, he finds a stream of impressions and ideas, but **no impression corresponding to a self that endures through time.** The **self keeps on changing, like how one looks, feels, and thinks.** There is **no permanent and no unchanging self.** The **self will be constantly changing** because the **different experiences one has for every constant change will affect and reshape that person.** Thus, we cannot observe any permanent self. In conclusion, **there is no self.** **d.) Immanuel Kant (1724 -- 1804)** ***"All our knowledge begins with the senses, proceeds then to the understanding, and ends with reason. There is nothing higher than reason."*** \- From Konigsberg, East Prussia \- Spurred into philosophical activism when he encountered Hume's scepticism and took it upon himself to refute it \- It is possible to discover universal truth about the world using our reason. \- **It is possible to find the essence of the Self.** **- Man is a free agent, capable of making a decision for himself.** \- As a free agent, **man is gifted with reason and free will.** \- Man is tested in his decision **to be moral or not.** - **[Moral person]** -- one who is **driven by duty and acts towards the fulfilment of that duty.** \- should acknowledge that **each individual is capable of thinking** that **we must give them respect** by tr We eating every individual as ends in themselves. \- **Every person should not be exploited or used.** \- In refuting Hume's ideas that there is no self, he said that **since man is gifted with reason and free will, man can organize the data gathered by the senses**. From these data, and the way we organize data, **we can now have a good idea of what a man is.** **e.) Sigmund Freud (1856 -- 1939)** **"The ego is not master in its own house."** \- Born in Freiberg, Moravia \- Jewish neurologist \- **Father of Psychoanalysis** \- His works **focused on the mind and its development** \- One of his famous ideas was the three divisions of the mind: **1. [Id]** [ ] -- represents man's biological nature, **the impulses and desires** **2. [Superego]** -- represents the **ethical component** of the personality and **provides moral standards** **3. [Ego]** -- **the self** - The id and superego always clashes, with the superego trying to control the impulses of id and the id trying to satisfy its urges. The winner of this inner battle will be manifested in the ego. - If ego behaves, then the superego wins. If ego misbehaves, then id wins. - This battle is in the subconscious. **f.) Gilbert Ryle (1900 -- 1976)** ***"Minds are things, but different sorts of things from bodies."*** \- Studied and taught in Oxford University \- His philosophy centers on **language** \- He claims that **the problems of philosophy** were brought about only because of the **confusion due to misinterpretation and misunderstanding of words.** \- The **goal of philosophy should be clear** with the use of **linguistic analysis.** \- The concept of the **mind expresses the entire system of thoughts, emotions, and actions that make up the human self.** \- The **mind is not a specific, separate entity**, but is **certainly a part of our body.** \- **The only way by which we can know how the mind is working is through the behaviour of the person**, hence we can only know a person through **how a man behaves and reacts in certain circumstances.** **g.) Paul Churchland** ***"We do have an organ for understanding and recognizing moral facts. It is called the brain."*** \- **Eliminative Materialism** \- American professor from the University of California \- Partners with his wife in believing that **the self is the brain**. \- **Our moods, actions, and consciousness are deeply affected by the state of our brain** \- **By manipulating certain parts of the brain, our feelings, actions, and physical states are altered.** **h.) Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908 -- 1961)** ***"We know not through our intellect but through our experience."*** \- French philosopher \- **Existentialist philosophy** \- For him, a **person is defined by virtue of movement and expression.** \- To be **a self is more than one's body.** \- A **person is a sum of all that he/she makes his/her body do.** This includes the interpretation of the past and how he/she actually makes decision in the present. \- The self **is grounded on the experiences from the past, the possibilities for the future, and the present cognition.** \- **Self is a continuous flow of movement and expression from infancy to adulthood.** **- Self is a product of conscious human experience.** **LESSON 3** **THE SELF AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCT** **LEARNING OUTCOMES** - Articulate what culture means to the self as a part of the society. - Analyze the anthropological and sociological constructs of the self. - Attribute self-understanding and behavior to cultural factors. **ABSTRACTION** **I. THE SOCIOLOGICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL VIEW OF THE SELF** Knowing the self requires understanding our society and its culture, and how it provokes us to make decisions which are culturally influenced and socially constructed. It is one big chunk in helping analyze our self-understanding. It is quite impossible to ultimately know the self without comprehending the culture of our society. The self, as a social being, is influenced by his culture. As products of it, we mirror the values, traditions, and beliefs that our society holds dear. These concepts are embedded in the culture of our people -- the impact of which permeates in the very soul of the self. **THE SELF AS EMBEDDED IN CULTURE** According to Sir Edward B. Tylor, the founder of cultural anthropology, culture is defined as the complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by a human being as a member of society. Anthropology and Sociology, though considered as distinct disciplines, are very much related. - **Anthropology** - Is the inclusive study of the human race, its culture and society, and its physical development. - It deals with the origin of humanity as well as discusses what society is and its cultural development - mainly a study of ancient communities - In simpler terms, anthropology determines how humans live and their evolution. It examines cultural and traditional rituals and ways of living at a very small level. - The physical development of man is significant in humanity's self-understanding. As we grow up, we adjust ourselves and our culture to where it could be beneficial to us. We modify it, to cater to what we need and want. - It is correct to say that man created culture on his own, altered it, and will always have the power to change it. - Culture is as dynamic as how humanity would want it to be. - **Sociology** - defined as the scientific study of human life, social groups, whole societies, and the human world whose subject matter is our own behavior as social beings in relationship with many other people. - study of groups of people living together and their behavioral aspects. - majorly tries to focus on the result or products of such human interactions like families, cities, organizations, technologies, media, and even religion. - focuses more on social problems, gender, race, ethnicity, and behavioral patterns of families, urban communities, institutions, and many more. Culture then, is the meeting point of anthropology and sociology in our self-understanding, digging deep into how we see ourselves, in light of the diverse cultural influences that we have been exposed to. The complexity of culture is seen in many aspects. Almost everything that we see, and hold dear around us, is part of our culture. It was introduced by our parents to us the moment we were born, and then through the society that we belong to as we grow up. The foundation of the self in anthropology is understanding man in light of cultural context, while sociology digs into understanding the self in reference to the behavior of the society. **THE MATERIAL AND NON-MATERIAL CULTURE** - **Material culture** - Consists of human technology and all the things that people make and use - Everything that we see (clocks, kitchen utensils, nipa huts, skyscrapers, the goods we buy, products we use) are part of our material culture - Physical manifestation of culture itself - Because culture is dynamic, it changes from time to time. - The fluidity of culture can be ascribed to man's distinct ability to create, transform, and re-create culture itself. - The evolution of material culture can be attributed to: 1.) technological advances; and 2.) cultural exchanges - Example: The history of mobile phone. - **Non-material culture** - Consists of the intangible human creations that include beliefs, values, norms, and symbols. - No existence in the physical world but exist entirely in the symbolic realm. - Helps shape our perspective of the society, of ourselves, and even of the material world - Non-material culture can manifest in the material culture - Example: Conservatism (non-material) manifest to the kind of people wear (material) - Non-material culture may or may not change depending on the influence of outside factors of the society - Example: The law for same-sex marriage (Passed in US but not in the Philippines) These material and non-material cultures are vital in the understanding of self in the society. The more we get to know our culture, the more we become aware of how we were influenced by it. Similarly, the more we get to know people from other cultures, the more that we are surprised at how different they are, not only in the way they look, or in their language, but more so, in how they view themselves as individuals and members of the social group. **LESSON 4** **LESSON 4 -- THE SELF AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCT (PART II)** **LEARNING OUTCOMES** - Recognize and appreciate differences in cultural behaviors of the self, particularly from the Western and Asian context. - Explain how the modern world has changed our view of the self. - Understand the self in the teachings of Confucius. **ABSTRACTION** **THE SELF IN THE WESTERN AND ORIENTAL THOUGHT** According to Raeff (2006), our self-construction is a form of cultural activity. Since our culture is very much relative, the behavior of the self is also dependent on its context. Hence, our cultural context and the activities inclusive therein, to a great extent, aids in the development of our self-understanding. This relativism is very much evident in the Western and Eastern construction of the self. The Eastern world is comprised of nations in Asia including the Middle East whereas Western world refers to the North and South America, Europe, Australia and New Zealand. The conduct and thinking of individuals differ in Western and Eastern Perspective. The Western mindset is that of individualism while Easterners are known to be more inclusive and collectivists. **A. Individualism** In individualistic societies, the self is a separate entity in the community who decides based on his own logic. The self here concentrates on self-actualization not minding the expectations of the social group where the self is a part of. The value that the Western world gives to independence has allowed the self to be able to live relying on his own strength and fervor, recognizing that the individual is able to freely and intelligently decide for his own good. This perspective is something that is instilled as part of the values that the group hold dear. In the Western context, when a person turns 18, the age when he is perceived to make mature decisions, he is given the freedom to live on his own, be independent, and orchestrate the life he wants to design for himself. Individuals having this perspective are self-centric, which focuses on improving one's quality of life on his own volition, and not depending on the help of family or loved ones. In this individualistic view of self, people are autonomous and are focused on achieving their personal goals over the goals of their in-group. **B. Collectivism** Interdependent view of self, also known as collectivism, explains that a person sees himself as an integral part of the communal group, be it his nuclear family, friends, or even co-workers. Hence, the decisions of that person would cater not only to what he solely believes is right, but would ultimately consider his immediate context. His view of self is not separate from the values that his family holds dear. Close family ties are significantly valued in the Asian context. In the Philippines in particular, a family member discusses even his most personal decisions with his family and even his friends before jumping into choices which would solely affect himself and not the people around him. This is something that Westerners may not easily understand. KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INDIVIDUALIST AND COLLECTIVIST SOCIETIES ------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------------------------------------------------- Individualist **Collectivist** Everyone has the right of their own opinions. Opinions are shaped by the group. Children learn to think in terms of "I". Children learn to think in terms of "we". Individual ownership of resources. Resources should be shared with relatives. Media is primary source of information. Social networks are the primary source of information. Self-actualization by every individual is an ultimate goal. Harmony and consensus in society are ultimate goal. **THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OF THE MODERN WORLD** A significant part of what should be understood about culture is that it is dynamic. Since the self has to keep up with the ever-changing world, he needs to adjust, re-adjust, and re-align his actions with the transformation and evolution of the society. The fast-paced world has made it more difficult to decipher the self, since the source of our identities are no longer stable and secure. The very foundation of our society is questioned to such extent that man tends to veer away from what the society has always been about. Globalization then, as a product of the modern world, has affected the way we view the self. Technology has allowed us to do things unimaginable before. The diversity of these digital technologies in particular forced us to confront the vast array of our cultural traditions, challenging our own belief systems and values, and exposing the strengths and weaknesses of our own worldviews. **THE SELF(IE) GENERATION AS CULTURE CREATORS** The effect of culture in today's younger generation must be highlighted since the Generation Z, those who were born between 1995 to 2010, also known as the self(ie) generation, is not considered as a passive user of culture. In fact, they have become culture creators, who practically live their lives and present themselves in the virtual world. In 2016's research entitled Cross-cultural Gen Z by Jose Villa, it is found out that a majority of Gen Z will define their cultural identity in basically diverse means, an exact opposite from generations who came before them. The same research showed that this generation has embraced and balanced multiple cultures that they are moving their cultural identity beyond simple definitions of race and ethnicity. This generation's relationship with culture has drastically changed. They are not just consumers of culture anymore, but are considered as culture creators, changers, and collaborators. Their self revolves around the virtual world, including the identity and self-construal. **THE SELF AS REFLECTED IN THE COLLECTIVIST TEACHINGS OF CONFUCIUS** China has been known to be very strict in its implementation of its rules about social relationships. This adheres to the teachings of Confucius, whom it considers as the Supreme Sage and the founding father of Chinese civilization (Schuman, 2015) At the heart of Confucianism is a system of social and ethical philosophy rather than a religion, built on an ancient religious foundation to establish the social values,institutions, and transcendent ideals of traditional Chinese society. The teachings of Confucianism is the very fabric of social relationships in China, reflecting collectivism to its core.  The self, as understood in the teachings of Confucius, entails the participation of other members in society. According to Confucius, as we ritualize and perfect human relationships, we in turn develop spiritually (Tu, 1985). **LESSON 5** **THE PSYCHOLOGICAL SELF: MY FAVORITE MYSTERY** **LEARNING OUTCOMES** - Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations of self from a psychological perspective. - Examine the different influences, factors, and forces that shape the psychological self. - Compare and contrast how the self has been represented across the psychological perspective. **ABSTRACTION** **PSYCHOLOGY** - According to the American Psychological Association, it is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. - The four main goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict and change the behavior and mental processes of others **SELF/SELF-CONCEPT** According to Carl Rogers, the self or our self-concept "is an organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself." Our self-concept may be affected by: 1.) past experiences, 2.) personality traits, 3.) abilities, 4.) physical features, 5.) values, 6.) goals, 7.) social roles, 8.) own observations, and 9.) feedback from others. Our self-concept may be fluid because of the fact that all factors are dynamic, ever-changing in a way that it grows, improves, or lessens as we go through life every day and expose ourselves to various interactions and media content. (weiten et al., 2014). **REAL AND IDEAL SELVES** Carl Rogers asserted that we have 2 selves: 1.) ideal self and 2.) real self. - **Ideal self** - essential in guiding and motivating us to believe in a way that would lead us to the best version of who we want to be. - Can be helpful in motivating the real self to strive and continue improving. - **Visual imagining exercises** \- to know who we want to become and achieve \- As specific as possible **HOW ALIGNED ARE YOUR IDEAL SELF AND REAL SELF?** 1. **Congruence** - When we feel good about ourselves - There is alignment - There is small gap between our real self and ideal self - Gives us confidence, satisfaction, and a sense of self-actualization or fulfillment leading to high self-esteem 2. **Incongruence** - When we are disappointed or frustrated about ourselves - There is misalignment - There is a huge gap between our real self and ideal self - Results to us being distressed, anxious, leading to a low self-esteem and self-worth. If the level of incongruence is too much to handle, causing a person's self-worth to be questionable, it is best to seek help through counseling or seeking advice from people who can help. Experiencing incongruence may happen from time to time, most especially in cases or contexts that are new or extreme. In circumstances like these, we need to reflect, evaluate our behavior and be reminded of our ideal self to put us back on track. **SELF ESTEEM AND SELF-EFFICACY** - **Self esteem** - refers to how we value our selves and perceive our worth as a person Specific elements of the self-concept may contribute to self-esteem. This presents evidences that who we are is never defined by one success or one failure. It is helpful to look into our self-esteem coming from several boxes. Hopefully, a success from one box will not make us overconfident because we still need to also work on the other boxes. A failure in one box, will not mean a failure for all boxes. - **Self efficacy** - How one performs - Directly correlated to self-esteem - When our self efficacy or our performance improves, our self-esteem improves which will lead to congruence. For self esteem and self efficacy to increase, we have to learn to give unconditional positive regard. Hopefully, we have experienced being provided with unconditional positive regard so we may also be able to give the same to others. Whether we feel it or not, we have to understand and accept that we are very capable to help ourselves and attain the ideal self we intend to become. We need to decide and stop comparing ourselves to other people especially those we see on social media. Our mind is very hard to change once we become convinced. So it might be very natural to feel demoralized and defeated after you fail. But you cannot allow yourself to become convinced that you cannot succeed. You have to fight feelings of helplessness. You have to gain control over the situation. And you have to break this kind of negative cycle before it begins (Winch, 2014).