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(Q2 Week 7) Forms and Functions of State and Non-state Institutions www.idscrib.com What is an institution? According to the definition in Encyclopedia Britannica, an institution is composed of a set o...

(Q2 Week 7) Forms and Functions of State and Non-state Institutions www.idscrib.com What is an institution? According to the definition in Encyclopedia Britannica, an institution is composed of a set of formal rules, informal norms or agreed upon, understanding the constraint and prescribed political actors’ behavior and interaction with one another. The main function of an institution is to keep society in order and to implement specific tasks assigned to them. For example, educational, economic, political and social institutions. They all have different objectives and caters to different groups of people. Characteristics of an institution. 1. It has a cluster of social usage. It is used in different aspects of an individual's life. For example, educational institutions are there to improve the acquiring of knowledge and application of such knowledge to prepare the students for a career or higher education. 2. It has a relative degree of permanence. The objectives and principles of an institution are tested over time. For example, banks have been around for as long as the human history can remember, and they will be more and more incorporated in our daily lives seeing how they are essential. 3. Well-known and define the objectives, depending on the core objective with which an institution is founded. This is also where the institution establishes its processes and practices. 4. A bit resistant to social changes due to will solidify, beliefs. Due to this well-defined objective, an institution resists being affected by various influences that may lead to changes 5. Transmitters of social heritage, traditions and practices are carried on the processes, hierarchy, culture and policies within the institutions. State institutions are institutions that have state functions and are established to govern the state, including all other agencies, bureaus and offices under these institutions. We all know that the Philippine Government has three branches, namely executive, legislative, and judiciary branch. The Office of the President embodies the executive department. They handle decision making, the implementation and execution of laws and the power of the sword if national security is threatened. The Office of the Vice President handles administrative advisory consultative government agency which aids the vice president in performing his/her role. The Vice president may have his/her own special projects, or he/she can also be assigned by the president with as a specific role within the cabinet. The Congress of the Philippines, divided into the Upper House, the Senate and the Lower House, the House of Representative embodies the legislative branch. They handle tasks, such as amending, repealing and making laws and budgetary appropriation. The Supreme Court of the Philippines embodies the judiciary branch, they hear and decide on cases brought upon them, as well as supervise all other courts in the Philippines such as Regional Trial Courts, Municipal Circuit Trial Courts, Municipal Trial Courts metropolitan trial courts. Shahryar circuit courts Shahryar District Court, and other specialized courts. Sandiganbayan ombudsmen court of Tax Appeals and the Court of Appeals. Some agencies that are also under the Office of the President: Metropolitan Manila Development Authority or MMDA is tasked in planning, monitoring and coordinating functions, as well as regulating and supervising over the delivery of Metro wide services within Metro Manila. the National Statistics Office are now currently known as the Philippine Statistics Authority or PSA, the agency that collects compiles analyzes and releases statistical information on socio economic demographics, political and general affairs of the citizens in the Philippines. Other agencies, our Tariff Commission, National Intelligence coordinating agency, National Security Council, Office of the press secretary, Philippine news agency, Philippine anti-graft commission and others constitutional commissions: the constitutional Commissions are established for specific tasks. There are four constitutional commissions in the Philippines: 1. Commission on Human Rights or CHR 2. Commission on audit or COA 3. Commission on Elections or COMELEC and 4. Civil Service Commission or CSC, National government agencies such as: Department of the Interior and Local Government Department of National Defense Department of agrarian reform, Department of Agriculture Department of Education, and all other departments and bureaus under the government are also state institutions. We also have what we call GOCC's or government owned or controlled corporations, these corporations are under the supervision of the government, but they do not get budget from the national government and they exercise autonomy and management, budgeting, and other processes within their own offices. However, they are established to help the government enrich the lives of its citizens. Some examples are the: Government Service Insurance System, PAG-IBIG, National Food Authority, Philippine Health Insurance Corporation, Social Security System. All the local government units (LGUs) and agencies and offices under them are also state institutions, Non-state institutions, are institutions also called the non-state actors. They are people or organizations that participate in international affairs and relations but are not affiliated with any state or nation. The following are the non-state institutions we will discuss in this lesson, banks, corporations, cooperatives, trade unions, advocacy groups, and international organizations, A. Banks, or financial institutions licensed to provide several financial services to different types of customers. Some of the services offered by banks are depositing and lending functions, financial intermediation for different transactions remittance or sending money domestically or internationally currency exchange and safety deposit boxes, not just for money but for other valuables items such as jewelry, wills and testaments, and others. Some common types of banks, although banks nowadays are somewhat similar due to the services that they offer, they are distinct on the set of customers they prioritize 1. Retail bank, a type of bank that focuses on consumers or the general public has its customers, 2. Commercial bank. Banks that prioritizes businesses and business, and as its main clientele 3. investment or Industrial Bank, also known as industrial loan companies, investment or industrial banks provide medium and long-term loans and deposits to business, industries, 4. Agricultural bank banks that provide short term and long-term loans to facilitate agricultural activities loans from this type of bank is used for buying seeds, fertilizers, land, or any materials needed for farming. B. Corporations is an organization created by a group of people known as shareholders, which is legally recognized to act as a single person in carrying out certain goals and objectives as a legal person. A corporation is mandated to enjoy the rights, privileges, and responsibilities of an individual, using its own name, a corporation has the right to enter into contracts to hire employees, and to loan and borrow money. It is also authorized to have its own assets, any corporation owned property belongs to the corporation itself and not to the owners of the corporation. C. Cooperative is an autonomous association of persons, united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise. These are mainly structured to benefit its members and to satisfy its members’ needs. They exist among different industries and are composed of different types of people, may it be farmers, consumers, or workers c.1. Credit cooperative provides financial services to its members, including securing savings and creating funds to be used for issuing loans c.2. Consumer cooperative operates mainly to obtain and distribute products and commodities to its customers, both members and non-members. c.3. Producer cooperatives aids those in the sector of production, either agricultural or industrial a subtype of a producer cooperative is agricultural cooperatives which  help producers or farmers in marketing their crops as well as in purchasing supplies needed for further production, c.4. Multi-purpose cooperative undertakes two or more functions of different cooperatives, for example, multi-purpose cooperative could act as a consumer cooperative and establish a supermarket. At the same time, it could also provide financial services like a credit cooperative. D. Trade Unions, a trade union or labor union is an organization with a membership composed of workers or employees from related fields, which aims to represent the interests and rights of its members, both in the workplace and in the society. Types of Trade Unions: d.1 General union represents workers with a range of jobs and skills from different industries and companies, for example, the union of drivers, janitors, office workers and other general jobs that we know of d.2. Industrial Union are composed of workers from one particular industry across different levels of the hierarchy. For example, in the BPO industry. Most call center agents have different positions or levels belong to a single union that can represent their interests and problems, d.3. Craft union seeks to represent skilled workers doing the same work who may be employed in different industries. For example, there is a craft union for carpenter or a craft union for sculptors, d.4. White-collar union is composed of professionals doing similar jobs across different industries. The most common example of this is the trade union of teachers and professors. E. Advocacy groups. These are groups that spread information in support of a cause across borders in attempt to change international policies and practices. T This started in community-based advocacy groups, but later on moved to the world stage, as some of the problems they focus on are common in various nations, the members of these groups can range from local members to transnational members all over the world, programs and activities can reach different countries. Some common examples are People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals or PETA World Wildlife Fund. Human Rights Watch, and many others. F. International Organization is an umbrella term used to refer to institutions, established by three or more states as voluntary members, formed through a formal agreement or treaty, in order to promote cooperation and coordination among them. Main feature of an international organization is its membership being entirely composed of national states or governments, these member states give power to the international organization which gives the institution some degree of authority to manage and govern the same number of states. The most popular examples are the Association of Southeast Asian Nations or ASEAN, European Union and United Nations International organizations tend to focus on different agenda. Some agendas may be economic, humanitarian, or environmental in nature. Sovereignty vs. Nation Sovereignty - The supreme authority of a state to govern itself without external interference. Nation - A group of people who share a common culture, history, language, or ethnicity.  (Q2 Week 8) Functions and Importance of Education THE MEANING OF EDUCATION ◼ the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life. ◼ a social institution through which a society’s children are taught basic academic knowledge, learning skills and cultural norms. ◼ the word education is derived from the Latin word “educare” which means “to train”, “to rear or bring-up (a child)”. Hence, it plays a significant role in transferring culture and social norms among members of society, in the process of training and various modalities of education. (https://www.slideshare.net/Jovelynspresentation/education-and-school-function) THE MEANING OF SCHOOL ◼ is an organization that provides instruction. ◼ an institution for teaching children. FUNCTIONS OF SCHOOL McNergy and Herbert (2001) described that the school as a first and foremost a social institution, that is an established organization having an identifiable structure and asset of function means to preserve and extend social order. Schools certainly act as a dispenser of knowledge and academic skills development such as the basics (reading, writing, arithmetic). Education serves many functions and importance in our society. Shown below are the broad functions of education (Cheng, 1996).  On the other hand, there is another category on the functions of education in the society. This could either be a manifest function or a latent function. Discussed below are their nature and differences. Manifest Functions of Education. It is the intended and open goals of the institution. Meaning to say, education has that primary and recognized function in the society. For instance, in elementary, pupils are expected to learn the basics of education (reading, writing, arithmetic) as foundational to the spiral and complex- becoming concepts as they go to higher levels. Described below are the two major manifest functions of education. MANIFEST FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION 1. Socialization. Socialization is an essential ingredient in creating a society. Since school is an agent of socialization, thus, education helps transform human in becoming literate and recognize its function in the society. Through education as a means of socialization, we also learn social norms, values and culture that are fortified by our teachers, our textbooks, and our classmates as well. 2. Transmission of Culture Through socialization, in school (teachers to learners and learner to learner), the transmission of culture is at the highest possible. Through education, human learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture. 3. Social Integration As the saying goes “nations are built because of education”, this is because education portrays an important role to unify individuals by teaching the common values and social norms. 4. Social Placement It could be a cliche’ that “all other professions rooted from teachers” though, it is indeed the reality. Education provides a social placement for everyone. It prepares us for the later station of our lives and to buy the necessities of life. Now, this makes sense to “productive citizenry” and self-actualization. LATENT FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION 1. Off the streets School days usually take 8 hours of children spent in school. This lessens the opportunity of the children to have brawls and troubles in the streets unlike those who have not schooled. 2. Matchmaking People meet their future husbands and wife at school. Endearments like ‘high school sweethearts’ and ‘college sweethearts’ are not new to you. It is not the intention of the school to match the students and have them enter in a relationship. However, it is unavoidable for people. 3. Creation of generation gap Students may learn information in school that contradicts beliefs held by their parents or their religion. In the Philippines, the government recognizes the vitality of education in the development of the country. In fact, the education sector receives the biggest budget allocation every fiscal year as mandated in the Philippine Constitution. The Constitution mandates specific section about the education in the country. Please read them below and try to reflect if the government fulfills these provisions in the 1987 Philippine Constitution. 1. Formal Education refers to the standardized method of hierarchically structured and progressive schooling that corresponds to the general notion of elementary, secondary and tertiary  level of education. Yet only the primary and secondary level is compulsory to the students. In the educational system of the Philippines, the elementary and secondary level is administered and supervised by the Department of Education. Elementary level is composed of kindergarten and six (6) years of primary education. Whereas, the secondary contains four (4) years of junior high school and two (2) years of senior high school. Furthermore, the tertiary level is administered and supervised by the Commission on Higher Education. The actual years spent in this level depends on the curriculum of each course. 2. Non-Formal Education -refers to an educational activity carried outside the structure of a formal education. According to UNESCO, non-formal education can cover programs contributing to adult and youth literacy and education for out-of-school children, as well as programs on life skills, work skills and social or cultural development. (Q2 Week 9) Social Stratification Social stratification is a particular form of social inequality. All societies arrange their members in terms of superiority, inferiority and equality. Stratification is a process of interaction or differentiation whereby some people come to rank higher than others. In one word, when individuals and groups are ranked, according to some commonly accepted basis of valuation in a hierarchy of status levels based upon the inequality of social positions, social stratification occurs. Social stratification means division of society into different strata or layers. It involves a hierarchy of social groups. Members of a particular layer have a common identity. They have a similar life style. Social stratification can be examined from different sociological perspectives— functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. In sociology, the functionalist perspective examines how society’s parts operate. According to functionalism, different aspects of society exist because they serve a needed purpose. What is the function of social stratification? According to Davis and Moore, a firefighter’s job is more important than, for instance, a grocery store cashier. The cashier position does not require the same skill and training level as firefighting. Without the incentive of higher pay and better benefits, why would someone be willing to rush into burning buildings? If pay levels were the same, the firefighter might as well work as a grocery store cashier. Davis and Moore believed that rewarding more important work with higher levels of income, prestige, and power encourages people to work harder and longer. Conflict theorists are deeply critical of social stratification, asserting that it benefits only some people, not all of society. For instance, to a conflict theorist, it seems wrong that a basketball player is paid millions for an annual contract while a public-school teacher earns $35,000 a year. Stratification, conflict theorists believe, perpetuates inequality. Conflict theorists try to bring awareness to inequalities, such as how a rich society can have so many poor members. Symbolic interactionism is a theory that uses everyday interactions of individuals to explain society as a whole. Symbolic interactionism examines stratification from a micro- level perspective. This analysis strives to explain how people’s social standing affects their everyday interactions. Symbolic interactionists also note that people’s appearance reflects their perceived social standing. Housing, clothing, and transportation indicate social status, as do hairstyles, taste in accessories, and personal style. Definitions: 1. Ogburn and Nimkoff: ‘The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification” 2. Lundberg: “A stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences among people that are evaluated by them as being “lower” and “higher”. 3. Gisbert: “Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups of categories linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordinations”. 4. Williams: Social Stratification refers to “The ranking of individuals on a scale of superiority- inferiority-equality, according to some commonly accepted basis of valuation. 5. Raymond W. Murray: Social stratification is horizontal division of society into “higher” and “lower” social units.” 6. Melvin M Tumin: “Social stratification refers to “arrangement of any social group or society into hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power, property, social evaluation and psychic gratification”. Origin of Stratification: Regarding the origin of stratification many views have been given. (i) According to Davis, social stratification has come into being due to the functional necessity of the social system. (ii) Professor Sorokin attributed social stratification mainly to inherited difference in environmental conditions. (iii) According to Karl Marx, social factors are responsible for the emergence of different social strata, i.e. social stratification. (iv) Gumplowioz and other contended that the origin of social stratification is to be found in the conquest of one group by another. (v) According to Spengler, social stratification is founded upon scarcity which is created whenever society differentiates positive in terms of functions and powers. (vi) Racial differences accompanied by dissimilarity also leads to stratification. Types of Social Stratification: Social stratification is based upon a variety of principles. So we find different type of stratification. (i) Caste is a hereditary endogamous social group in which a person’s rank and its accompanying rights and obligations are ascribed on the basis of his birth into a particular group. For example-Brahmins, Kshyatryas, Vaishyas and Sudra Caste. (ii) Class-Stratification on the basis of class is dominant in modern society. In this, a person’s position depends to a very great extent upon achievement and his ability to use to advantage the inborn characteristics and wealth that he may possess. (iii) Estate system of medieval Europe provides another system of stratification which gave much emphasis to birth as well as to wealth and possessions. Each estate had a state. (iv) Slavery had economic basis. In slavery, every slave had his master to whom he was subjected. The master’s power over the slave was unlimited. Characteristics of Social Stratification: On the basis of the analysis of the different definitions given by eminent scholars, social stratification may have the following characteristics. (a) Social stratification is universal: There is no society on this world which is free from stratification. Modern stratification differs from stratification of primitive societies. It is a worldwide phenomenon. According to Sorokin “all permanently organized groups are stratified.” (b) Stratification is social: It is true that biological qualities do not determine one’s superiority and inferiority. Factors like age, sex, intelligence as well as strength often contribute as the basis on which statues are distinguished. But one’s education, property, power, experience, character, personality etc. are found to be more important than biological qualities. Hence, stratification is social by nature. (c) It is ancient: Stratification system is very old. It was present even in the small wondering bonds. In almost all the ancient civilizations, the differences between the rich and poor, humble and powerful existed. During the period of Plato and Kautilya even emphasis was given to political, social and economic inequalities. (d) It is in diverse forms: The forms of stratification is not uniform in all the societies. In the modern world class, caste and estate are the general forms of stratification. In India a special type of stratification in the form of caste is found. The ancient Aryas was divided into four varnas: the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. The ancient Greeks were divided into freemen and slaves and the ancient Romans were divided into the particians and the plebians. So every society, past or present, big or small is characterized by diversed forms of social stratification. (e) Social stratification is Consequential: Social stratification has two important consequences one is “life chances” and the other one is “life style”. A class system not only affects the “life- chances” of the individuals but also their “life style”. The members of a class have similar social chances but the social chances vary in every society. It includes chances of survival and of good physical and mental health, opportunities for education, chances of obtaining justice, marital conflict, separation and divorce etc. Life style denotes a style of life which is distinctive of a particular social status. Life-styles include such matters like the residential areas in every community which have gradations of prestige-ranking, mode of housing, means of recreation, the kinds of dress, the kinds of books, TV shows to which one is exposed and so on. Life-style may be viewed as a sub-culture in which one stratum differs from another within the frame work of a commonly shared over-all culture. Social Stratification and Social Mobility: Social mobility refers to the movement within the social structure, from one social position to another. It means a change in social status. All societies provide some opportunity for social mobility. But the societies differ from each other to extent in which individuals can move from one class or status level to another. It is said that the greater the amount of social mobility, the more open the class structure. The concept of social mobility has fundamental importance in ascertaining the relative “openness” of a social structure. The nature, forms, direction and magnitude of social mobility depends on the nature and types of social stratification. Sociologists study social mobility in order to find out the relative ‘openness’ of a social structure. Any group that improves its standard will also improve its social status. But the rate of social mobility is not uniform in all the countries. It differs from society to society from time to time. In India the rate of mobility is naturally low because of agriculture being the predominant occupation and the continuity of caste system as compared to the other countries of the world. Types of Social Mobility: In social stratification the movement occurs in three directions. (a) From lower to higher (b) From higher to lower (c) Between two positions at the same level. Social mobility is of two types: (i) Vertical mobility. It refers to the movement of people from one stratum to another or from one status to another. It brings changes in class, occupation and power. It involves movement from lower to higher or higher to lower. There are two types of vertical mobility. One is upward and other is downward mobility. When an individual moves from lower status to higher status, it is called upward mobility. For example, if the son of a person joins a bank as an officer, it is said to be upward social mobility but if he loses the job due to any other reason or inefficiency, he is downwardly mobile from his previous job. So downward mobility takes place when a person moves down from one position to another and change his status. (ii) Horizontal Mobility: It refers to the movement of people from one social group to another situated on the same level. It means that the ranks of these two groups are not different. It indicates change in position without the change in status. For example, if a teacher leaves one school and joins another school or a bank officer leaves one branch to work in another or change of residence are the horizontal mobility. Stratification and Caste: Under the caste system status is hereditary. It is based on birth; it is purely an ascribed status. Once such positions are assigned, they cannot advance and improve their social status in any way. Hence, caste as a major type of social stratification does not facilitate vertical social mobility. Social Stratification and Class: Class is an “open” system. Under this system vertical mobility is absolutely free. Movement from one status to another has no barrier. Status is based on achievement. It is determined by the talents, wealth, money, intelligence, power, education, income, etc. of a person. There is no inheritance of parental status. Gender: Like caste and class gender is another kind of social stratification system. Gender, perhaps is the oldest and permanent source of social differentiation. But within the broad hierarchy of caste and class, gender cuts across caste and class. In present day Indian society caste, class and gender are dynamic phenomena which vary between groups, communities and regions. Recent years have witnessed a thorough and widespread discussion on gender. It has claimed critical address within ender as a concept and as a set of practices has occurred during the last three decades. The origin of the concept gender can be traced to the 19th century women’s movement and in Marxism. But it seems to have first appeared among American Feminists who wanted to reject biological determinism. Feminists prefer the term gender than sex. But the term gender means much more than sex and more inclusive than sex. It is a socially constructed category rather than biologically determined. The gender of a man is masculine and a woman is feminine. Neither a man nor a woman is sex alone. Gender refers to the socially constructed and culturally determined role that men and women play in their day-to-day lives. Gender is the most potent significant and enormously useful analytical concept used by the feminists. It is a matter of social ascription, a socio-cultural construction and provided a deeper analysis of inequalities existing between male and female. It refers to the social institutionalization of sexual difference. In feminist literature gender is not a value free concept rather a value loaded term and has acquired new dimensions. It is a conceptual tool for analysis and is used to highlight different structural relationships of inequality between men and women. As a socially constructed differences and relations between males and females it very from time to time and from place to place. Gender is defined as the social construction of relations between women and men and among various groups of women and men. Feminist consider gender as the socio-cultural manifestation of being a man or a woman. It involves power structure and economic relationships. It is used to analyze the role, responsibilities, constraints, needs of men and women in all areas. It encompasses the social division and cultural distinctions between women and men. It plays an important role in shaping institutions and practices in every society. Gender and Sex: The term gender does not replace the term sex. It is necessary to distinguish between sex and gender. The distinction between sex and gender is fundamental, since many differences between males and females are not biological in origin. Sex refers to the physical differences of body whereas gender refers to social, cultural and psychological differences between males and females. Sex refers to biological differences between male and female which are much more the same over time and space where as gender refers to socially and culturally constructed differences and relations between males and females which vary from place to place and from time to time. Sex refers to male and female whereas gender refers to masculinity and femininity. Gender is a structural feature of a society. (Q2 Week 10) Social Inequalities Equality is about making sure that everyone has an equal opportunity to make the most of their desire to live. it is also the belief that no one should have poorer life chances because of the way they were born, where they come from, what they believe, or whether they have a disability. Social Inequality occurs when resources in each society are distributed unevenly, typically through norms of allocation, that engender specific patterns along lines of socially defined categories of persons. (https://www.slideshare.net/jazibb/social-inequality-7928329) Major Examples of Social Inequality Gender inequality - Philippine government recognizes the gender inequalities and trying to solve the problem. And to address these issues there are some laws to ensure the gender equally must be properly addressed. Health Care -some individuals receive better and more professional care compared to others. They are also expected to pay more for these services. Social Class Proofs that the Philippine Government is trying to address Gender Equality: 1. Philippine Law RA 7610 or also known as Women and Children rights or This Act shall be known as the “Special Protection of Children Against Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination Act.” The Philippines has finally enacted gender equality legislation after years of lobbying from female rights campaigners. President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo signed the country’s Magna Carta for Women in Manila, helping to define gender discrimination and outlining approaches to eliminate it. 2. Allowing Top Government Position to be handled by women Women nowadays taking top position both in private and government posts, former President Corazon C. Aquino and Former President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo & the former Supreme Court Justice Maria Lourdes Sereno. Note: The factors that contribute to social inequality consists of educational attainment, wealth and poverty, power, & gender Inequality which lead to social inequality between individuals and groups of people. Factors that Affect Social Inequality 1. Educational Attainment Inequality and Educational Attainment is evidence from many instances. The reality of rich can get better education in an easy way but poor hardly get their diploma. Educational inequality is the unequal distribution of academic resources and still needs policies that encourage educational attainment for men and women based on merit rather than gender. 2. Wealth & Poverty Social inequality brought about by unequal distribution of wealth. The Covid19 pandemic teach us the advantages of the upper and the lower class. Evidently, the struggles get by middle and lower class compared to the upper class. There’s a huge difference between the rich and the poor in terms of the allocation of wealth. 3. Power Power in the context of social inequality connotes economic, cultural and social positions. Thus, there’s symbolic with its reputation and certain position in society. 4. Gender Inequality Acknowledges that men and women are not equal and that gender affects an individual’s living experience. These differences arise from distinctions in biology, psychology and cultural norms. Some of these distinctions are empirically grounded while others appear to be socially constructed. Studies show the different lived experience of genders across many domains including education, life expectancy, personality, interests, family life, careers and political affiliations. Gender Inequality is experienced differently across different cultures. Social Issues in the 21st Century A social issue in the contemporary times is essential topic when talking about social inequality. Thus, government programs and initiatives in addressing social inequalities (ex. local, national, global to address these issues is a continuous process). Local Inequality Current state of the Indigenous Cultural communities. Ethnic group is involved in the local inequality. Sometimes, they are less fortunate whose right are violated with rich people. An ascribed status, a form of organization, a focus of identity and a subculture are the characteristics of an ethnic group. National Inequality Economic and Political current circumstances. Economic policy is a national interest, and it gives direction to the future. If national government fail to do its job effectively and candid way, the equilibrium of the rich and the poor arises much. Thus, if political policies fail to give national interest for all with consideration of better futures, then discrimination also take place. Global Inequality International inequality refers to the idea of inequality between countries.  This can be compared to global inequality which is inequality between people across countries. This may refer to economic differences between countries. As well as medical care and education differences. Inequality does not exist only in societies and states, but also among states. There are states that are wealthier and more powerful than other states, and the former end up being more influential in the global community. This leads to a situation of global inequality where poorer and less powerful states end up being controlled and influenced the richer and more powerful states. (https://www.slideshare.net/AamirShahzadAhmadSha/global-inequality) (Q2 Week 11) Social Inequalities Social stratification is directly related to the concept of social inequality. The latter defined by the United Nations as “the unequal access to social, political, and symbolic capital of individuals in society”. This may occur based on gender, religion, ethnicity, or physical capability. Because of the existence of a dominant culture, practice, or norm, less-recognized sectors have become evidently discriminated against in different aspects of life and society. Like the given example, unequal treatment in various forms may occur in any setting and may be made for even the slightest reasons. There are 3 manifestations of social inequalities: social, political, and cultural Social, Political, and Cultural Capital Capital is accumulated labor that can produce profits or expand in form. The misconception is that capital only consists of financial value, but according to Bourdieu, capital can take three forms—social, political, and cultural. These forms of capital initiate and significantly contribute to social inequalities. Social Capital It is a network of mutual relationships within a particular social group. It deals with interactions that strengthen group solidarity. Political Capital It involves passing on public political policies to build up "goodwill" with the public. Public goodwill may be utilized whenever socially controversial policies or bills need to be approved without damaging public interest for politicians. Cultural Capital It is an accumulation and sharing of symbolic elements of society (e.g. skill, language, mannerism) within a specific social class. It may be embodied by a person, objectified by tangible materials, or institutionalized by qualifications or titles. Minority groups are groups composed of less-dominant classifications in a society that experience disproportionately lower opportunities than their dominant counterparts. Minority groups are characterized by distinct physical or cultural traits, unequal social treatment, subordination in society, and high-level of group solidarity. Some relevant issues involving minority groups: Gender Inequality In some countries, women are paid relatively lower than men due to their sexuality and biological differences. The LGBT community has always been treated differently and discriminatively because they do not fall within a biologically-defined group. Ethnic Minorities Because some minorities live traditionalistic lives far away from the city and technology, and some may appear differently than usual, they have been consistently labelled and treated as people with minimal knowledge and capabilities. Lack of resources easily available for many are not utilized within their group, thus, they receive negative attention from the dominant public. Other Minorities This may include people with disabilities or people with religions that are less prevalent in society. These minorities experience discrimination at work, especially when the physically challenged have physical limitations, while the religious have practices and beliefs that are greatly disagreed upon by the majority. Minority Groups in Functionalist and Conflict Societies The existence of minority groups in functionalist and conflict societies are also embedded in each type of society’s principles. In functionalist societies, minorities also play social roles that contribute to social balance and equilibrium. However, these functions are bound by limitations and social norms. While in conflict societies, minority groups are seen as lower-class individuals that will not be able to keep up with the consistent competition occurring within the environment. In both societies, discrimination against minorities is possible. (Q2 Week 12) Human Responses to Emerging Challenges in Contemporary Societies Global Warming happens when carbon dioxide (CO2) and other air pollutants and greenhouse gases build up in the atmosphere, they absorbed sunlight and solar energy that has bounced off the earth’s surface. Normally, this radiation would escape into space, but these pollutants, which may linger in the atmosphere for years to centuries, trap the heat and cause the planet to become hotter. The greenhouse effect is the result of this. The term “global warming” refers to a gradual rise in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere and oceans, a phenomenon that is thought to be irreversibly altering the Earth’s climate. (https://www.slideshare.net/mariaeulaliacs/contemporary-society-62260710) Effects of Global Warming Temperature rises on average Seasonal Changes Severity of harsh weather events Water and food shortages Increase health risks Coastal inundation Increased frequency and intensity of cyclones and hurricanes are all factors to consider Climate Change Climate change has arisen as a result of global warming. These terms are sometimes used interchangeably but they are distinct. Changes in weather patterns and growing seasons all around the world are referred to as climate change. It also refers to the rise in the sea level caused by warmer oceans expanding and melting ice sheets and glaciers. Climate change is a result of global warming, and it poses a severe threat to human life on the planet in the form of widespread flooding and catastrophic weather. Typhoon Haiyan, also known as Super Typhoon Yolanda in the Philippines, was one of the most intense tropical storms ever recorded and was caused in part by climate change. Climate change is characterized by irregular changes in the world’s weather system, as evidenced by the following indicators: rising sea levels, habitat destruction, Ocean acidification, extreme weather. These occurrences in various parts of the globe have an impact on all people on the planet. Climate change, on the other hand, will have an impact on every area of society, the environment and the economy. Human behavior, livelihoods, infrastructure, laws and regulations and institutions are likely to be impacted. Ways to Adapt the situation of global warming Practice conservation of natural resources Air, water, soil, mineral, plants and animals are all natural resources on the planet. Conservation is taking care of these resources so that all living beings can benefit from them now and in the future. Reduce pollution and waste 1. For on-the-go refreshments, use a reusable bottle or cup. 2. Reusable supermarket bags are useful for more than simply groceries. 3. Make prudent purchases and recycle what you can. 4. Is should be composted. Re-use water Collecting part of the water you use in the shower is the simplest way to start reusing water at home. The water can then be used to flush the toilet or irrigate your garden. Recycle products Newspapers, magazines, mixed paper, cardboard, tin cans, aluminum cans, glass, jars and plastic containers are examples of products that can contain recycled material. Conserve energy The efforts to reduce energy consumption by utilizing less of an energy service is known as energy conservation. This can be accomplished by either using energy more efficiently (using less energy for a consistent service) or lowering the amount of service provided (for example, by driving less) Global Responses Adaptation is long time process of making lasting changes in response to climate change, with strong policy connections to economic development, poverty reduction and disaster management measures. Citizen engagement and awareness are required to maintain and prioritize climate change actions. Transnational Migration and Overseas Filipino Worker Transnational migration occurs when people move from one country to another while maintaining their social ties. It’s a global phenomenon that’s only becoming bigger in terms of scope, complexity and influence. Migration is a source and result of larger development process as well as a fundamental component of our globalizing world. Trans-migrants are immigrants whose everyday lives are reliant on many and continuous interconnections across international borders and whose public identities are shaped by multiple nation-states. Factors of Transnational Migration Overpopulation  Poverty Underemployment Unemployment and Low wage level Advantages of Transnational Migration Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs), are a well-known example of transnational migration. According to the 2011 Philippine Overseas Employment Agency (POEA) report, the Philippines has 10,455,788 million OFWs spread throughout 236 countries and territories, making it one of the top three labor-sending countries in the world, after India and China. The goal of sending a million workers per year indicates that migration will play a significant role in the country’s long-term development plans and prospects. Filipino society has changed into a migration -savvy society, capable of responding to and adapting to the shifting demands of the global labor market. Filipinos’ educational and professional objectives were integrated into their perceptions of the international labor market. (https://www.slideshare.net/AdrianChristianBulgan/chapter-21-social-change) Disadvantages of Transnational Migration Include anxiety about destabilizing impacts of migrations and families. Delegation of responsibility to grandparents/nannies to care for their children, Apprehensions about materialism, etc. Cultural Capital It is an accumulation and sharing of symbolic elements of society (e.g. skill, language, mannerism) within a specific social class. It may be embodied by a person, objectified by tangible materials, or institutionalized by qualifications or titles. Minority groups are groups composed of less-dominant classifications in a society that experience disproportionately lower opportunities than their dominant counterparts. Minority groups are characterized by distinct physical or cultural traits, unequal social treatment, subordination in society, and high-level of group solidarity. Some relevant issues involving minority groups: Gender Inequality In some countries, women are paid relatively lower than men due to their sexuality and biological differences. The LGBT community has always been treated differently and discriminatively because they do not fall within a biologically-defined group. Ethnic Minorities Because some minorities live traditionalistic lives far away from the city and technology, and some may appear differently than usual, they have been consistently labelled and treated as people with minimal knowledge and capabilities. Lack of resources easily available for many are not utilized within their group, thus, they receive negative attention from the dominant public. Other Minorities This may include people with disabilities or people with religions that are less prevalent in society. These minorities experience discrimination at work, especially when the physically challenged have physical limitations, while the religious have practices and beliefs that are greatly disagreed upon by the majority. Minority Groups in Functionalist and Conflict Societies The existence of minority groups in functionalist and conflict societies are also embedded in each type of society’s principles. In functionalist societies, minorities also play social roles that contribute to social balance and equilibrium. However, these functions are bound by limitations and social norms. While in conflict societies, minority groups are seen as lower-class individuals that will not be able to keep up with the consistent competition occurring within the environment. In both societies, discrimination against minorities is possible.