The Human Body: An Orientation PDF

THE HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION MS. MARIE VONNE OLIVAR-VENUS  Study of the structure and shape of the body parts and their relationships to one another  1. Gross ( macroscopic ) anatomy  2. Microscopic anatomy  3. Surface anatomy  4. Systematic anatomy ...

THE HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION MS. MARIE VONNE OLIVAR-VENUS  Study of the structure and shape of the body parts and their relationships to one another  1. Gross ( macroscopic ) anatomy  2. Microscopic anatomy  3. Surface anatomy  4. Systematic anatomy  5. Regional anatomy  6. Radiographic anatomy  7. developmental anatomy  8. Pathological anatomy  Study of large, easily observable body structures  Example: Heart or bones  Study of very small structures of the body, requiring microscope  Example : Histology and Cytology  Study of the form ( morphology ) and markings of the body surface  Study of the specific systems of the body  Study of specific region of the body  Study of a specific structure of the body that includes the use of x-ray  Study of development from the fertilized egg to adult form  Study of structural changes ( from gross to microscopic ) associated with disease  Study of functions of the body or body parts  1. Cell physiology  2. Pathophysiology  3. Exercise physiology  4. Neurophysiology  5. Endocrinology  6. Cardiovascular physiology  7. Immunology  8. Respiratory physiology  9. Renal physiology  Study of cell function  study of functional changes associated with disease and aging  Study of changes in cell or organ functions during muscular activity  Study of functional characteristics of nerve cells ( neuron )  Study of hormones ( chemical regulators in the blood ) and how they control body functions  Study of functions of the heart and blood vessels  Study of body’s defense mechanisms  Study of functions of the air passages and the lungs  Study of renal functions  A. Levels of Structural Complexity  B. Organ System Overview  1. Chemical level  2. Cellular level  3. Tissue level  4. Organ level  5. Organ system level  6. Organismal level  Simplest level of the structural complexity  Atoms ( tiny building blocks of matter ), combine to form molecules ( water, sugar, proteins )  Association of molecules to form cells  Cells are the smallest units of all living things  Individual cells vary widely in size and shape, reflecting their particular functions in the body  Consists of groups of similar cells that have common function  A structure composed of two or more tissues that performs a specific function for the body  Group of organs that cooperate to accomplish a common purpose  The living body made of 11 organ systems  Highest level of structural organization  1. integumentary system  2. skeletal system  3. muscular system  4. nervous system  5. endocrine system  6. cardiovascular system  7. lymphatic system  8. respiratory system  9. digestive system  10. urinary system  11. reproductive system  External covering of the body or the skin  Functions:  1. waterproofs the body and cushions and protects the deeper tissues from injury  2. excretes salt and urea in perspiration and regulate body temperature  3. sensation  Consists of bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints  1. supports the body and provides a framework that the skeletal muscles can use that cause movement  2. storehouse for minerals  3. formation of blood cells ( hematopoiesis ) occurs within the cavities of the skeleton  The only function of the muscles of the body is to contract or shorten, to produce movements ( “ machines “ of the body )  Types:  1. skeletal muscles  2. smooth muscles  3. cardiac muscles  Body’s fast-acting control system  Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory receptors  Body’s slow acting control system  Consists of endocrine glands producing hormones regulating distant target organs  Endocrine glands:  1. pituitary  2. parathyroid  3. adrenal  4. thymus  5. pancreas  6. pineal  7. ovary  8. testis  Functions:  1. transportation of oxygen, hormones, nutrients and other substances to and from the tissue where exchanges occur  2. protection from foreign invaders such as bacteria, toxins and tumor cells  Complementary to the cardiovascular system  Organs :  1. lymphatic vessels – returns fluid leaked from the blood vessels to keep the blood continuously circulating through the body  2. lymph nodes – cleanse the blood and house the cells involved in immunity  3. lymphoid organs – ( spleen and tonsils )  - cleanse the blood and house the cells in immunity  Organs :  1. nasal passages  2. pharynx  3. larynx  Functions: gas exchange  A tube running through the body from the mouth to anus  Organs :  1. oral cavity  2. esophagus  Functions :  1. breakdown of food and deliver the products to the blood for dispersal to the body cells  2. excretion of undigested food that remain in the tract through the anus as feces  3. water absorption ( major function )  Organs:  1. kidneys  2. ureters  Functions :  1. removal of nitrogen-containing wastes  ( urea and uric acid )from the blood and flushes them from the body urine  2. maintenance of the body’s water and salt balance  3. regulation of acid-base balance of the blood  Exists primarily to produce offspring  Male reproductive system: ◦ 1. testes ( produce offspring ) ◦ 2. scrotum ◦ 3. penis ◦ 4. accessory glands ( prostate and cowper’s gland ) ◦ 5. duct system Female reproductive system: 1. ovary ( produces egg or ova ) 2. uterus ( site for fetal development 3. uterine tube 4. vagina  A. necessary life functions  B. survival factors/needs  1. maintaining boundaries  2. movement  3. responsiveness  4. digestion  5. metabolism  6. excretion  7. reproduction  8. growth  Cellular level: every cell is surrounded by an external membrane to allow entrance of essential substance and restrict harmful substances  Organismal level: integumentary system  ( skin ) protects the internal organs from drying out from bacteria, and from heat, sunlight, and chemicals  Organismal level: promoted by musculoskeletal system  Organ level: cardiac pumping  Cellular level: WBC migration  Organelles : lysosomes  Ability to detect or respond to changes in the external or internal environment  External: withdrawal reflex  Internal : baroreceptor  Breakdown of ingested food into simple molecules  Absorption into the blood  Distribution of nutrients through cardiovascular system  All chemical reactions that occur within body cells  Phases of Metabolism: ◦ A. catabolism – breakdown of large, complex molecules into smaller, simpler molecules ◦ B. anabolism – consumption of energy from catabolism in building body’s structural and functional components  Removal of excreta or wastes from the body  Types : ◦ 1. cellular reproduction – cell division used for growth and repair ◦ 2. organismal reproduction- involves reproductive system, which produces sperms and eggs  Occurs in cellular to organismal levels  1. nutrients  2. water  3. body temperature  4. oxygen  5. atmospheric pressure  Derived from foods containing chemicals for energy and cell building  Types : ◦ A. carbohydrates – major energy fuel for body cells ◦ B. proteins – building blocks of cells ◦ C. fats – fuel reserve and cushion body organs ◦ D. minerals / vitamins – enhances chemical reactions and oxygn transport in the blood  Single most abundant chemical substance in the body ( 60-80 % of body weight )  ↓ T - ↓ metabolism – cessation of chemical reactions – death  ↑ T - ↑ metabolism – breakdown of proteins - death  Plays a key role in the extraction of nutrients / energy from the ingested foods  Force exerted on the body surface by th weight of air that largely affects ventilation  ↑atmospheric P – normal inspiration – labored expiration  ↓ atmospheric P – labored inspiration – normal expiration  Body’s ability to maintain stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in the external environment  Dynamic state of equilibrium, in which internal conditions change or vary, but always within narrow normal limits  Homeo: the same  Stasis : standing still  every organs systems plays a role in maintaining homeostasis  Chief Regulators: ◦ 1. nervous system 2. Endocrine system Components of Homeostatic control mechanisms: 1. Receptor – monitors and responds to stimulus by sending information ( input ) to the second component ( control center ) via afferent pathway 2. Control center – determines the level ( set point ) of a variable and analyzes the information sent by the receptor and determines the appropriate response to the stimulus ◦ 3. effector – medium of the controls centers response to the stimulus ◦ Information from the control center travel via efferent pathway by either depressing ( negative feedback ) or accentuating ( positive feedback ) the stimulus  1. negative feedback mechanism ◦ - compresses majority of the homeostatic control mechanisms ◦ Types:  1. thermoregulation  2. HR and BP regulation 2. Positive feedback mechanisms - Increases the stimulus, pushing the variable farther from the original value - Ex: blood clotting mechanism and birth of a baby  Secondary inability of one or more components to contribute to homeostasis  Moderate = disease  Severe = death  Disease  - pathological process where part or all of the body is not carrying on its normal functions  Types: ◦ 1. local - one part or a limited region of the body ◦ 2. systemic – several parts or entire body  Signs vs Symptoms  Symptoms – felt by the patient ( subjective )  Signs – ( objective )  Anatomical positions – standard position  Directional terms – for accurate location of a body structure and its relation to another  Superior  Toward the head or  ( cranial/cephalad ) upper part of a structure or the body;  Above  Inferior ( caudal )  Away from the head or toward the lower part of a structure or the body;  Below Term Definition  Anterior ( ventral )  Toward or at the front of the body;  Infront of  Toward or at the  Posterior ( dorsal ) backside of the body;  Behind  Toward or at the midline of the body;  Medial  On the inner side of Term Definition  Lateral  Away from the midline of the body;  On the outer side  Intermediate  Between a more medial  and a more lateral structure Close to the origin of the Proximal   body part or at the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk Term Definition  Distal  Farther from the origin of a body part or at the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk  Superficial  Toward or at the body surface  Away from the body  Deep surface Term Definition  A. anterior body landmarks  B. posterior body landmarks  1. abdominal – anterior body trunk inferior to the ribs  2. antecubital – anterior elbow  3. nasal – nose  4. oral – mouth  5. axillary – armpit  6. brachial – arm  7. buccal – cheek  8. carpal – wrist  9. cervical – neck  10. digital – fingers or toes  11. femoral – thigh  12. inguinal – area between the thigh and trunk  13. orbital – eye  14. patellar – anterior knee  15. peroneal – lateral part of leg  16. pubic – genital region  17. sternal – breastbone  18. tarsal – ankle  19. thoracic – chest  20. umbilical - navel  1. cephalic – head  2. deltoid – curve of the shoulder  3. gluteal – buttock  4. lumbar – area between the ribs and hips  5. occipital – posterior surface of the head  6. popliteal – posterior knee  7. scapular – shoulder blade region  8. sural – posterior leg  9. vertebral - spine  Section – cut  Plane – imaginary line along the section through the body wall or organ  Sections : ◦ 1. sagittal – cut dividing the body into right and left parts ◦ midsagittal/midsection – dividing the body or organ into right and left parts with equal size ◦ 2. frontal / coronal section – cut dividing the body or organ into anterior and posterior parts ◦ 3. transverse section – cut dividing the body or organ into superior and inferior parts  1. dorsal body cavity  - has two subdivisions that are continuos with each other ◦ A. cranial cavity –space inside the skull, protecting the brain ◦ B. spinal cavity – space formed by the vertebrae, protecting the spinal cord 2. Ventral body cavity – larger than dorsal cavity containing all the structures of the chest and abdomen, separated by the diaphragm A. thoracic cavity – houses and protects the heart, lungs, and great blood vessels B. abdominopelvic cavity  Divisions of Abdominopelvic cavity: ◦ 1. abdominal cavity – superior portion containing the digestive organs ◦ 2. pelvic cavity – inferior portion containing the reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum ◦ There is no physical structure dividing the abdominopelvic cavity (for the sake of terminology)  Scheme commonly used to divide the abdominopelvic cavity into four equal regions ( for accurate and facilitation of study and clinical procedures )  1. right upper quadrants  2. right lower quadrants  3. left upper quadrants  4. left lower quadrants  1. umbilical region – centermost region, deep to and surrounding the umbilicus  2. epigastric region – superior to the umbilical region  3. hypogastric / pubic region – inferior to the umbilical region  4. right/left iliac ( inguinal ) – lateral to the hypogastric region  5. right/left lumbar region – lateral to the umbilical region  6. right/left hypochondriac regions – lateral to the epigastric region  1. umbilical region – small intestine and transverse colon of large intestine  2. epigastric region – left lobe of liver and stomach  3. hypogastric region – small intestine and urinary bladder  4. right iliac region – cecum and appendix  5. left iliac region – descending colon of large intestine and small portion of small intestine  6. right lumbar region – ascending colon of large intestine  7. left lumbar region – descending colon of large intestine and small portion of small intestine  8. right hypochondriac region – right lobe of liver  9. left hypochondriac region – diaphragm and spleen  1. flexion – an anterior movement that occur in a sagittal plane ( except knee flexion )  2. extension – straightening the joint occurring in a posterior direction ( knee flexion )  3. lateral flexion – lateral movement of the trunk in a coronal plane  4. abduction – movement of a limb away from the midline of the body in the coronal plane  5. adduction – movement of limb toward the body in the coronal plane  6. rotation – movement of a body part around its long axis ◦ A. medial rotation – movement where the anterior surface of the part is facing medially ◦ B. lateral rotation – movement where the anterior surface of the part is facing laterally 7. Circumduction – combination in sequence of the movements of flexion-extension – abduction- adduction 8. Forearm pronation – medial rotation of forearm where the palm of the hand faces posteriorly  9. forearm supination – lateral rotation of the forearm from the pronated position, where the palm of the hand faces anteriorly  10. protraction – forward movement  11. retraction – backward movement  12. inversion – movement of the foot where the sole faces medially  13. eversion – movement of the foot where the sole faces laterally  Thank you, Goodluck and Godbless!