The Human Body: An Orientation PDF
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Ms. Marie Vonne Olivar-Venus
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This document provides an overview of the human body, focusing on its structure and function. Topics covered include various anatomical systems, cellular structures, and biological processes. It also details homeostatic mechanisms and different types of diseases.
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THE HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION MS. MARIE VONNE OLIVAR-VENUS Study of the structure and shape of the body parts and their relationships to one another 1. Gross ( macroscopic ) anatomy 2. Microscopic anatomy 3. Surface anatomy 4. Systematic anatomy ...
THE HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION MS. MARIE VONNE OLIVAR-VENUS Study of the structure and shape of the body parts and their relationships to one another 1. Gross ( macroscopic ) anatomy 2. Microscopic anatomy 3. Surface anatomy 4. Systematic anatomy 5. Regional anatomy 6. Radiographic anatomy 7. developmental anatomy 8. Pathological anatomy Study of large, easily observable body structures Example: Heart or bones Study of very small structures of the body, requiring microscope Example : Histology and Cytology Study of the form ( morphology ) and markings of the body surface Study of the specific systems of the body Study of specific region of the body Study of a specific structure of the body that includes the use of x-ray Study of development from the fertilized egg to adult form Study of structural changes ( from gross to microscopic ) associated with disease Study of functions of the body or body parts 1. Cell physiology 2. Pathophysiology 3. Exercise physiology 4. Neurophysiology 5. Endocrinology 6. Cardiovascular physiology 7. Immunology 8. Respiratory physiology 9. Renal physiology Study of cell function study of functional changes associated with disease and aging Study of changes in cell or organ functions during muscular activity Study of functional characteristics of nerve cells ( neuron ) Study of hormones ( chemical regulators in the blood ) and how they control body functions Study of functions of the heart and blood vessels Study of body’s defense mechanisms Study of functions of the air passages and the lungs Study of renal functions A. Levels of Structural Complexity B. Organ System Overview 1. Chemical level 2. Cellular level 3. Tissue level 4. Organ level 5. Organ system level 6. Organismal level Simplest level of the structural complexity Atoms ( tiny building blocks of matter ), combine to form molecules ( water, sugar, proteins ) Association of molecules to form cells Cells are the smallest units of all living things Individual cells vary widely in size and shape, reflecting their particular functions in the body Consists of groups of similar cells that have common function A structure composed of two or more tissues that performs a specific function for the body Group of organs that cooperate to accomplish a common purpose The living body made of 11 organ systems Highest level of structural organization 1. integumentary system 2. skeletal system 3. muscular system 4. nervous system 5. endocrine system 6. cardiovascular system 7. lymphatic system 8. respiratory system 9. digestive system 10. urinary system 11. reproductive system External covering of the body or the skin Functions: 1. waterproofs the body and cushions and protects the deeper tissues from injury 2. excretes salt and urea in perspiration and regulate body temperature 3. sensation Consists of bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints 1. supports the body and provides a framework that the skeletal muscles can use that cause movement 2. storehouse for minerals 3. formation of blood cells ( hematopoiesis ) occurs within the cavities of the skeleton The only function of the muscles of the body is to contract or shorten, to produce movements ( “ machines “ of the body ) Types: 1. skeletal muscles 2. smooth muscles 3. cardiac muscles Body’s fast-acting control system Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory receptors Body’s slow acting control system Consists of endocrine glands producing hormones regulating distant target organs Endocrine glands: 1. pituitary 2. parathyroid 3. adrenal 4. thymus 5. pancreas 6. pineal 7. ovary 8. testis Functions: 1. transportation of oxygen, hormones, nutrients and other substances to and from the tissue where exchanges occur 2. protection from foreign invaders such as bacteria, toxins and tumor cells Complementary to the cardiovascular system Organs : 1. lymphatic vessels – returns fluid leaked from the blood vessels to keep the blood continuously circulating through the body 2. lymph nodes – cleanse the blood and house the cells involved in immunity 3. lymphoid organs – ( spleen and tonsils ) - cleanse the blood and house the cells in immunity Organs : 1. nasal passages 2. pharynx 3. larynx Functions: gas exchange A tube running through the body from the mouth to anus Organs : 1. oral cavity 2. esophagus Functions : 1. breakdown of food and deliver the products to the blood for dispersal to the body cells 2. excretion of undigested food that remain in the tract through the anus as feces 3. water absorption ( major function ) Organs: 1. kidneys 2. ureters Functions : 1. removal of nitrogen-containing wastes ( urea and uric acid )from the blood and flushes them from the body urine 2. maintenance of the body’s water and salt balance 3. regulation of acid-base balance of the blood Exists primarily to produce offspring Male reproductive system: ◦ 1. testes ( produce offspring ) ◦ 2. scrotum ◦ 3. penis ◦ 4. accessory glands ( prostate and cowper’s gland ) ◦ 5. duct system Female reproductive system: 1. ovary ( produces egg or ova ) 2. uterus ( site for fetal development 3. uterine tube 4. vagina A. necessary life functions B. survival factors/needs 1. maintaining boundaries 2. movement 3. responsiveness 4. digestion 5. metabolism 6. excretion 7. reproduction 8. growth Cellular level: every cell is surrounded by an external membrane to allow entrance of essential substance and restrict harmful substances Organismal level: integumentary system ( skin ) protects the internal organs from drying out from bacteria, and from heat, sunlight, and chemicals Organismal level: promoted by musculoskeletal system Organ level: cardiac pumping Cellular level: WBC migration Organelles : lysosomes Ability to detect or respond to changes in the external or internal environment External: withdrawal reflex Internal : baroreceptor Breakdown of ingested food into simple molecules Absorption into the blood Distribution of nutrients through cardiovascular system All chemical reactions that occur within body cells Phases of Metabolism: ◦ A. catabolism – breakdown of large, complex molecules into smaller, simpler molecules ◦ B. anabolism – consumption of energy from catabolism in building body’s structural and functional components Removal of excreta or wastes from the body Types : ◦ 1. cellular reproduction – cell division used for growth and repair ◦ 2. organismal reproduction- involves reproductive system, which produces sperms and eggs Occurs in cellular to organismal levels 1. nutrients 2. water 3. body temperature 4. oxygen 5. atmospheric pressure Derived from foods containing chemicals for energy and cell building Types : ◦ A. carbohydrates – major energy fuel for body cells ◦ B. proteins – building blocks of cells ◦ C. fats – fuel reserve and cushion body organs ◦ D. minerals / vitamins – enhances chemical reactions and oxygn transport in the blood Single most abundant chemical substance in the body ( 60-80 % of body weight ) ↓ T - ↓ metabolism – cessation of chemical reactions – death ↑ T - ↑ metabolism – breakdown of proteins - death Plays a key role in the extraction of nutrients / energy from the ingested foods Force exerted on the body surface by th weight of air that largely affects ventilation ↑atmospheric P – normal inspiration – labored expiration ↓ atmospheric P – labored inspiration – normal expiration Body’s ability to maintain stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in the external environment Dynamic state of equilibrium, in which internal conditions change or vary, but always within narrow normal limits Homeo: the same Stasis : standing still every organs systems plays a role in maintaining homeostasis Chief Regulators: ◦ 1. nervous system 2. Endocrine system Components of Homeostatic control mechanisms: 1. Receptor – monitors and responds to stimulus by sending information ( input ) to the second component ( control center ) via afferent pathway 2. Control center – determines the level ( set point ) of a variable and analyzes the information sent by the receptor and determines the appropriate response to the stimulus ◦ 3. effector – medium of the controls centers response to the stimulus ◦ Information from the control center travel via efferent pathway by either depressing ( negative feedback ) or accentuating ( positive feedback ) the stimulus 1. negative feedback mechanism ◦ - compresses majority of the homeostatic control mechanisms ◦ Types: 1. thermoregulation 2. HR and BP regulation 2. Positive feedback mechanisms - Increases the stimulus, pushing the variable farther from the original value - Ex: blood clotting mechanism and birth of a baby Secondary inability of one or more components to contribute to homeostasis Moderate = disease Severe = death Disease - pathological process where part or all of the body is not carrying on its normal functions Types: ◦ 1. local - one part or a limited region of the body ◦ 2. systemic – several parts or entire body Signs vs Symptoms Symptoms – felt by the patient ( subjective ) Signs – ( objective ) Anatomical positions – standard position Directional terms – for accurate location of a body structure and its relation to another Superior Toward the head or ( cranial/cephalad ) upper part of a structure or the body; Above Inferior ( caudal ) Away from the head or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; Below Term Definition Anterior ( ventral ) Toward or at the front of the body; Infront of Toward or at the Posterior ( dorsal ) backside of the body; Behind Toward or at the midline of the body; Medial On the inner side of Term Definition Lateral Away from the midline of the body; On the outer side Intermediate Between a more medial and a more lateral structure Close to the origin of the Proximal body part or at the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk Term Definition Distal Farther from the origin of a body part or at the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk Superficial Toward or at the body surface Away from the body Deep surface Term Definition A. anterior body landmarks B. posterior body landmarks 1. abdominal – anterior body trunk inferior to the ribs 2. antecubital – anterior elbow 3. nasal – nose 4. oral – mouth 5. axillary – armpit 6. brachial – arm 7. buccal – cheek 8. carpal – wrist 9. cervical – neck 10. digital – fingers or toes 11. femoral – thigh 12. inguinal – area between the thigh and trunk 13. orbital – eye 14. patellar – anterior knee 15. peroneal – lateral part of leg 16. pubic – genital region 17. sternal – breastbone 18. tarsal – ankle 19. thoracic – chest 20. umbilical - navel 1. cephalic – head 2. deltoid – curve of the shoulder 3. gluteal – buttock 4. lumbar – area between the ribs and hips 5. occipital – posterior surface of the head 6. popliteal – posterior knee 7. scapular – shoulder blade region 8. sural – posterior leg 9. vertebral - spine Section – cut Plane – imaginary line along the section through the body wall or organ Sections : ◦ 1. sagittal – cut dividing the body into right and left parts ◦ midsagittal/midsection – dividing the body or organ into right and left parts with equal size ◦ 2. frontal / coronal section – cut dividing the body or organ into anterior and posterior parts ◦ 3. transverse section – cut dividing the body or organ into superior and inferior parts 1. dorsal body cavity - has two subdivisions that are continuos with each other ◦ A. cranial cavity –space inside the skull, protecting the brain ◦ B. spinal cavity – space formed by the vertebrae, protecting the spinal cord 2. Ventral body cavity – larger than dorsal cavity containing all the structures of the chest and abdomen, separated by the diaphragm A. thoracic cavity – houses and protects the heart, lungs, and great blood vessels B. abdominopelvic cavity Divisions of Abdominopelvic cavity: ◦ 1. abdominal cavity – superior portion containing the digestive organs ◦ 2. pelvic cavity – inferior portion containing the reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum ◦ There is no physical structure dividing the abdominopelvic cavity (for the sake of terminology) Scheme commonly used to divide the abdominopelvic cavity into four equal regions ( for accurate and facilitation of study and clinical procedures ) 1. right upper quadrants 2. right lower quadrants 3. left upper quadrants 4. left lower quadrants 1. umbilical region – centermost region, deep to and surrounding the umbilicus 2. epigastric region – superior to the umbilical region 3. hypogastric / pubic region – inferior to the umbilical region 4. right/left iliac ( inguinal ) – lateral to the hypogastric region 5. right/left lumbar region – lateral to the umbilical region 6. right/left hypochondriac regions – lateral to the epigastric region 1. umbilical region – small intestine and transverse colon of large intestine 2. epigastric region – left lobe of liver and stomach 3. hypogastric region – small intestine and urinary bladder 4. right iliac region – cecum and appendix 5. left iliac region – descending colon of large intestine and small portion of small intestine 6. right lumbar region – ascending colon of large intestine 7. left lumbar region – descending colon of large intestine and small portion of small intestine 8. right hypochondriac region – right lobe of liver 9. left hypochondriac region – diaphragm and spleen 1. flexion – an anterior movement that occur in a sagittal plane ( except knee flexion ) 2. extension – straightening the joint occurring in a posterior direction ( knee flexion ) 3. lateral flexion – lateral movement of the trunk in a coronal plane 4. abduction – movement of a limb away from the midline of the body in the coronal plane 5. adduction – movement of limb toward the body in the coronal plane 6. rotation – movement of a body part around its long axis ◦ A. medial rotation – movement where the anterior surface of the part is facing medially ◦ B. lateral rotation – movement where the anterior surface of the part is facing laterally 7. Circumduction – combination in sequence of the movements of flexion-extension – abduction- adduction 8. Forearm pronation – medial rotation of forearm where the palm of the hand faces posteriorly 9. forearm supination – lateral rotation of the forearm from the pronated position, where the palm of the hand faces anteriorly 10. protraction – forward movement 11. retraction – backward movement 12. inversion – movement of the foot where the sole faces medially 13. eversion – movement of the foot where the sole faces laterally Thank you, Goodluck and Godbless!