The French Revolution Notes PDF

Towards the end of the 18th century the people in France overthrew their government in a major revolution. The king and queen were killed, and a new and different government was established, namely a republic. The people who were most actively involved demanded freedom from the laws which had held...

Towards the end of the 18th century the people in France overthrew their government in a major revolution. The king and queen were killed, and a new and different government was established, namely a republic. The people who were most actively involved demanded freedom from the laws which had held them in poverty and imposed harsh punishments. They wanted to be free as a society and as individuals. They called for \"Liberty, Equality and Fraternity\". Other European countries became alarmed at these changes and attacked France. This was unsettling and threatening to France, and rather than lose their new freedoms, some of the people accepted a new authoritarian government under an army general, Napoleon Bonaparte. He later declared himself Emperor of France. Although the French Revolution came to an end under Napoleon, these events changed the course of history. The idea that popular protest could bring down monarchies and aristocracies was a powerful one. In the French colony of Saint Dominque. Slaves rose up in revolt against their owners and established their own independent country called Haiti. Elsewhere in Europe and the Americas, the example of the French revolutionaries inspired uprisings throughout the 19th century, with demands for more democratic systems of government. The French Revolution therefore started to make people aware of the need for democracy - an important issue in our world today and especially in contemporary South Africa. - The French Revolution showed that people would not accept a government that kept them in poverty and without any opportunity to improve their lives. It was an example of how people managed to overturn a powerful government, and tried to replace it with a better one, so that they could be free, equal, and share a sense of unity and brotherhood with other people in their country. **[What is a revolution?]** ======================================= - A revolution is a time when great or dramatic changes happen. - A political revolution usually means a total change in the system of government. It usually starts when, for a long time, many people have been dissatisfied with conditions in the country. They can see no other way of bringing about change and, therefore, they rise up and overthrow the leaders. They form a new government and bring in a new system of ruling. - Some historians argue that revolutions happen when people have hopes that changes will be made soon, and then the changes are not carried out. This kind of disappointment and frustration is more likely to cause a revolution than when there is no hope of positive change and oppression is at its worst. This was the case in France. - The calling together of the French parliament, called the Estates General, in 1789 created the hope that the king was going to bring about change. When this did not happen, a revolution broke out. This may explain why a revolution took place in France rather than in other parts of Europe. - In the United Kingdom at that time, reforms made in the 17th century meant that the king shared power with a parliament, so his rule was not absolute. - In Russia, on the other hand, the ruler, known as the Tsar, had absolute power and the feudal system existed even more so than in France. There was no hope of reform in Russia, however and so there was no opportunity for revolution at this time. - Not all revolutions are political. They may be economic (such as the Industrial Revolution) or cultural (such as a major change in music styles), or they may involve dramatic changes in technology (such as the computer revolution). **[France in 1789]** ================================ **The conditions in France that made a Revolution possible by 1789.** --------------------------------------------------------------------- - The French Revolution was a political revolution. - It started because there were many things about the political system and social structure that people in France did not like. - They were influenced by the spread of new ideas about freedom and equality, and ideas about how countries should be governed. - Finally, an economic crisis, specifically conditions of poverty and hunger, and the disappointment that the Estates General had been called together to increase taxes, and not to improve things, led to the outbreak of revolution in France in 1789. **The political system** ------------------------ - In 1789 France was an absolute monarchy. - This meant that a king had the right to appoint all government ministers and make all decisions and laws. - In theory, there was a form of parliament, the Estates General, which consisted of elected representatives. - However, it could only meet if the king allowed it to, and no meetings had been held for 175 years. - Therefore, the king had total power. Whatever he said would be the law. He could even put people in jail without a trial. - The king in 1789 was Louis XVI (16th), who had inherited his position from his grandfather. - He was not a good leader and often appointed people unsuitable for position. He was inconsistent and out of touch with the citizens. Additionally, he was easily manipulated. - Many educated people in France began to question the system of absolute monarchy. **The economic situation** -------------------------- - France\'s economy was in a bad state. - The country was in debt, because France had been involved in a number of wars during the 18th Century, and the government had borrowed large sums of money to pay for food, weapons and wages for the army. - France was one of the leading participants in the Seven Years\' War which lasted between 1754 and 1763. France entered the war with the hope of achieving a lasting victory against Prussia, Britain, and their German allies and with the hope of expanding its colonial possessions. - French involvement in the American Revolutionary War of 1775--1783 began in 1776 when the Kingdom of France secretly shipped supplies to the Continental Army of the Thirteen Colonies when it was established in June 1775. - France was a long-term historical rival with the Kingdom of Great Britain, from which the Colonies were attempting to separate. - By the 1780s, it had to borrow more money simply to pay the interest on these debts. - The lifestyle of the king, his family and the royal officials also cost a great deal. - The government did not collect enough money in taxes to pay for all of this. - Those with wealth - the nobles and the church - did not have to pay taxes. All the taxes were paid by the middle class and the peasants, many of whom were desperately poor. - The whole tax system needed to be reformed. **The social structure** ------------------------ - The French population was divided into three groups or social classes, called \"estates ". - The First Estate was the clergy: the people who worked for the Roman Catholic Church, the main religion in France. The Church owned a great deal of land, and many of the high officials in the Church were very wealthy. - The nobles formed the Second Estate. They had inherited their titles and many special rights and privileges dating back to the time of the feudal system. Many of them owned large pieces of land. The nobles held all the main positions in the Church, the army, and the government. - The rest of the people - 98% of the population - formed the Third Estate. They paid all of the taxes and they felt that it was their labour which was supporting the whole system. By 1789 they were very critical of the privileges of the other two estates. The Third Estate included the middle class, urban workers, and poorer farmers. The poor farmers were called the peasants. - The different levels of people in society are called classes. **Classes are defined by the relationship of people to resources.** - For example, peasant farmers produced food by their own labour, but did not always own the land they worked on. - Urban workers sold their labour for pay but did not own the produce they produced. - The middle classes included people such as traders, who had both money and tools for producing goods. - The nobles in France owned land. - In France, the middle class, called the **bourgeoisie** in French, were the businesspeople like shopkeepers and professional people like doctors or lawyers, who lived in the towns. Generally, they were well-educated, and some were wealthy. Although many of them were the best qualified to play leading roles in the state, positions of power nearly always went to the nobles. - The middle class were frustrated by their lack of opportunity and lack of political power. They wanted the system to be based on merit. They also criticised the **lack of freedom of speech and the laws which restricted trade**. Criticism of the king or the church was not allowed. There were many customs duties (taxes on goods coming into or going out of the country). - The middle classes disliked the fact that the law did not treat everyone as equal. - Members of the Third Estate could be sentenced to more cruel forms of punishment than the other two estates, even if they had committed the same crime. - France at that stage did not have many industries or factories, so there were only a small number of workers in the towns. The largest group was in Paris, the main city. - They were not well paid, and their living conditions were poor. The cost of living was rising, but their wages were not. - There was growing anger among them about their living and working conditions. - Peasant farmers made up the largest section of the population. Some of them owned small farms, but most worked on land owned by the Church and the nobles. - Most peasants were extremely poor, especially in years of bad harvests. - In spite of their poverty, they paid most of the taxes in France. Historians have estimated that some of them paid up to 80% of their earnings in taxes. They paid taxes to the government, to the Church and to their landlords. - By 1789, many peasants were desperate. They were ready to take action to bring about change. **The spread of new ideas** --------------------------- - For centuries people in Europe had accepted the authority of their rulers and of the Church. - The Church was powerful, and religion was important in people\'s lives. - People accepted the idea of the \"Divine Right of Kings\", which meant that they believed that the king had been chosen by God. - Then during the 18th century, philosophers began to question these ideas. - They urged people to use reason and science to think critically about things instead of simply accepting the word of those in authority. - This was called the Age of Enlightenment. **The philosophers** - Many of these philosophers were French, and they wrote critically about the system of government and the social structure in France. - Educated people read their books and articles and began to see the possibility of change. - One of these philosophers was Voltaire. He criticised the Church for being corrupt and worldly. He also spoke out against injustice and believed that everyone should be able to express their opinions freely. He spoke out so strongly that he was imprisoned many times in the Bastille jail. He later spent 20 years in exile from France. - Diderot was the leader of a group of philosophers called the \"Encyclopedists\". They had set out to write an encyclopedia of all existing knowledge. As they wrote it, they became more and more critical of the situation in France. Their books were widely read. They gave people access to many ideas and more people started to form their own opinions. They no longer depended on the authority of the Church to tell then. what to think. - Another philosopher, Montesquieu, stressed the need for a parliament elected by the people, independent judges (who were not controlled by the king), and a king whose powers were controlled and limited by the law and by parliament. - The philosopher who had the most influence was Rousseau. He believed in the equality of all people and wrote that rulers were not chosen by God but should represent the people. This idea is the basis of democracy. His ideas were very popular and played an important role in bringing about change. The call for liberty, equality, and fraternity, which became the slogan of the French revolution, was inspired by Rousseau\'s writings. - The influence of the **American War of Independence:** New ideas about government also came from America. In 1776, British colonists in North America declared their independence from British rule. They wanted to be a separate country, free of British control. When Britain would not accept this, the Americans fought a war and won their independence by beating Britain. France sent soldiers to help in the fight against its old enemy, Britain. - After the War of Independence, the American colonies formed the United States of America. Some of the ideas of the French philosophers were included in the constitution of the USA. This showed educated people in France how these ideas could be used in a practical way to change the system of government. Some of the French soldiers returned to France inspired by the ideas of democracy for which they had been fighting in America. **The economic crisis in 1789** ------------------------------- - The cost of sending an army to fight in the American War of Independence caused an economic crisis in France. - By 1789 the country was bankrupt. - The situation was made worse by poor harvests, food shortages and rising bread prices. - The king\'s advisors decided that the only possible solution was to call the Estates General to a meeting and to try to raise more taxes with their support. - The Estates General had not met for 175 years, so, when Louis XVI announced that it would meet in May 1789, people were very excited. - All over France the people of each district began to write lists of their demands, for their representatives to take to the Estates General. - There were great hopes that changes were about to happen. **[The course of the revolution]** ============================================== **What were the new ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity?** ----------------------------------------------------------------- - Three key words became popular in this period. They come from the famous slogan used during the French Revolution: \"Liberty, Equality, Fraternity\". What did people mean when they used these terms in the late 18th century? - **\"Liberty\"** was a call for individual human rights, such as freedom of speech and freedom of religion. Ordinary people wanted the freedom to make their own choices and not have their lives controlled by the decisions of a king. They had to pay heavy taxes but had no say in how the money was spent. They wanted a new kind of government, in which the people themselves had a say in making the laws. - **\"Equality\"** was the desire for identical rights for all instead of special privileges for a few. People wanted equality of opportunity, where positions were based on ability and not birth or status. They wanted to be able to own land and be considered for better paying jobs. - **\"Fraternity\"** means \"brotherhood\". The revolutionaries believed in a sense of belonging and of working together for the same purpose - for the good of the community. They did not want society to be split into three classes with different aims. **The significant events of the Revolution** ============================================ **[The start of the Revolution]** ============================================= - The influence of the American War of Independence: New ideas about government also came from America. In 1776, British colonists in North America declared their independence from British rule. They wanted to be a separate country, free of British control. When Britain would not accept this, the Americans fought a war and won their independence by beating Britain. France sent soldiers to help in the fight against its old enemy, Britain. - After the War of Independence, the American colonies formed the United States of America. Some of the ideas of the French philosophers were included in the constitution of the USA. This showed educated people in France how these ideas could be used in a practical way to change the system of government. Some of the French soldiers returned to France inspired by the ideas of democracy for which they had been fighting in America.  **[The main events of the Revolution]** =================================================== The French Revolution was not a single event, but a series of events spread over 10 years. There were three main stages. (Reform, Violent Change, End) **1789-91: The period of reform** --------------------------------- - The representatives in the National Assembly introduced many constructive and lasting reforms. - They agreed to end the special privileges of the nobles which had been part of the feudal system. - They drew up a **constitution** which established a constitutional monarchy. - The king would remain as head of state, but laws would be made by an elected parliament. All men over the age of 25 who paid a certain amount in taxes, were allowed to vote. This was about two-thirds of the adult male population. - They nationalised the property of the Church and ended the privileges of the church and clergy. - They reformed the system of justice. In future, judges would be elected by the people and there would trial by jury. Torture and cruel forms of punishment were outlawed. - They drew up a document called the **Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen**. This was a list of basic human rights. It was a description of the kind of society that the National Assembly hoped to create in France. - While this was happening, conditions for ordinary people in Paris were getting worse. - These people were angry because they thought that the king was trying to resist the changes. - A large crowd of working-class women marched from Paris to Versailles. They were especially angry with the king\'s unpopular Austrian wife, Marie Antoinette, because of her lavish lifestyle and her insensitivity to the suffering of poor people. - They forced the king and his family to return to Paris with them, and the National Assembly moved to Paris as well. - Although he was still king, Louis XVI no longer had any real power. He decided to leave France in secret with his family and try to get help from other European rulers to stop the Revolution and restore his power. However, the royal family was discovered near the French border and forced to return to Paris. - From then on, the king was a prisoner. He was forced to accept the new constitution which reduced his powers a great deal. - However, many people regarded him as a traitor who had plotted against his country. They began to call for the end of the monarchy and for France to become a republic. **1792-94: The period of violent change** ----------------------------------------- - The whole future of the Revolution seemed to be under threat when foreign countries invaded France. - By 1793 France was fighting against Austria, Prussia, England, Spain, and Sardinia. These countries wanted to restore the powers of the king and crush the Revolution. To prevent this from happening, the government deposed the king and made France a republic. They also raised an army to defend France. - There was unrest in some of the provinces when people were conscripted to serve in this army. In the Vendée region in the west, resistance to the Revolution was particularly strong. The people there were devout Catholics and did not like the Revolution\'s criticism of the Church. The revolutionary government had full control only in the northern and central areas. - With France under threat, a new **radical** government replaced the National Assembly. - Under this government, the **National Convention,** the Revolution went through a very violent stage. - Extremist political clubs, such as the Jacobin Club, dominated the National Convention. To defend France and save the Revolution, many people were prepared to accept strict new laws. - The National Convention formed a **Committee of Public Safety** in Paris to run France. It was a group of **12 men** and the leaders were **Danton and Robespierre**. It used a combination of planning and terror to try to unite the nation. - During what is called the **Reign of Terror**, many of the liberal reforms were swept aside. People suspected of disloyalty had to appear before a special court called the Revolutionary Tribunal, where they did not receive a fair trial. Rights such as freedom of speech fell away. Historians estimate that as many as **300 000** people were imprisoned during the Terror. About **40 000** of them were executed, many of them by a new method of execution, the guillotine. - Others were drowned or shot. Among the victims of the guillotine were the king and queen. During the Terror, the Committee of Public Safety had authoritarian powers that threatened the progress towards democracy that had been made. - The Terror finally ended after two years, when Robespierre himself was executed. **1795-99: Reaction and the end of the Revolution** --------------------------------------------------- - A conservative government, the **Directory**, came to power and put an end to the extremes of the Terror. - It was supported by the **moderate middle class**, the provincial towns, and the peasants. - France was governed by a committee of **five men (the Directory).** - It closed down the radical political clubs, and changed the voting system so that **fewer and only wealthier men** had the right to vote for an assembly which made the laws. - These changes caused angry protests in Paris. - However, this time ordinary people were not able to influence events. - The government ordered the army to use force to crush the protests. - The officer in charge of the troops was **Napoleon Bonaparte**, who went on to play a major part in events after the Revolution. **[The role of ordinary people in the revolution]** =============================================================== - The storming of the Bastille was carried out by ordinary people who took action to bring about change. Bastille Day is still celebrated each year on 14 July as the National Day of France. - When news of the fall of the Bastille spread, ordinary people throughout France became involved. The peasants were very active and seized land and destroyed tax records. Middle class people took over the running of many towns from royal officials. - The March of the Women or the **Bread March** to Versailles was the first sign of the powerful role that women were to play in the Revolution. It started as a demonstration about high bread prices but ended up having a big impact on the course of the revolution. By forcing the king and his family to move to Paris, they put pressure on him to accept reform. - When the National Assembly moved to Paris as well, the working people of Paris could then attend their meetings and they began to have more influence on the proceedings. They strongly supported political and social change. - Many people supported the actions of the government during the Reign of Terror, and willingly joined the revolutionary armies, ready to defend the Revolution. - As a result of their role in bringing about change, ordinary people came to be regarded as citizens with rights and duties rather than as subjects of the king. - However, not all ordinary people supported the revolution. Historical records show that a majority of the people who were executed during the Terror were workers and peasants. The ordinary people in the province of the Vendée were strongly against many of the changes. - The three Estates came to an end, but people\'s lives did not immediately change very much. Workers, professional people, and the remaining wealthy landowners became the working class, the middle class and the upper class. **[The role of women in the revolution ]** ====================================================== - Women played a leading role in the French Revolution. - The Bread March to Versailles by the working-class women of Paris took the Revolution to a new stage of popular involvement. - Women were hit hard by rising food prices since they were usually responsible for getting food for their families. Therefore, they particularly resented the behaviour of the royal family and aristocracy. - Middle-class women also argued for equal political rights to men. - The revolutionary woman leader Olympe de Gouges produced the **Declaration of the Rights of Women** and the **Female Citizen in 1791** to match the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789. She argued that \"this revolution will only take effect when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights they have lost in society.\" - - Although these rights were not granted and De Gouges was later executed (see Source F), many historians believe that the French Revolution was the start of a long struggle in Europe for women\'s equality with men, and a long struggle in Europe for women\'s equality with men. - Manon Roland was married to one of the early revolutionary leaders and supported greater equality for women. She did not support the Terror and was herself imprisoned and executed. Her writings about these years became well known in the 19th century. **[The impact of revolutionary ideas on France and elsewhere]** =========================================================================== **How did the French Revolution affect the world?** --------------------------------------------------- - The ideas of the Revolution had a big impact on France. - There were important political changes: France became a republic instead of a monarchy. - People had the right to choose their own government, and this was an important step towards democracy. - There were social changes too: The middle class had greater opportunities and they dominated the government. The peasants also benefited. They gained more land when church property was nationalised, and they no longer had to pay feudal taxes. - The nobles who remained lost their power and their special privileges. - The Roman Catholic Church in France lost its land and power, but it remained the main religion. - The Revolution also led to the growth of a new force - nationalism. - The French formed a national army to defend France against its enemies. - The Revolution created a national flag (the tricolour), a national anthem (the Marseillaise) and a national day (Bastille Day). All of these are still national symbols in France today. **[Changes in other countries after the French revolution ]** ========================================================================= **The new ideas about liberty and equality spread to other European countries.** -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - People there also began to demand change. - They too wanted an end to the rule of kings with absolute power and wanted greater democracy. - For example, in the early 1790s there were Jacobin movements throughout central Europe (e.g. Hungary, Poland and Austria) calling for elected parliaments and the overthrow of feudalism. - Popular uprisings occurred in Belgium (part of the Netherlands), Switzerland, and the German Rhineland (part of the German Confederation). - In Britain, radical societies such as the London Corresponding Society were formed, calling for social and political change. - However, these movements were all suppressed by the governments in each country. **Reasons for opposition to the revolutionaries** ------------------------------------------------- - Rulers in other European countries were worried that the revolutionary ideas from France would spread and threaten their own positions. So, they went to war against France. - They wanted to restore the powers of the king and put an end to what they regarded as dangerous revolutionary ideas about liberty and democracy. So, from 1792, France was at war. - Other European countries, including Austria, Prussia, Spain, Holland, Sardinia, and later Britain as well, formed a coalition against France. At first the French armies did badly. But they managed to improve, by using better leadership, a steady supply of weapons, and compulsory military service. - They prevented other countries from invading France, and even started to invade and take over other areas. This helped the ideas of the Revolution to spread to other parts of Europe. - There was also some opposition to the revolutionaries in France itself. There was unrest in some of the provinces when people were conscripted to serve in this army. - Some of the provinces, such as the Vendée region in western France, turned against the government and rose in revolt. - Some of the peasants too were opposed to many of the more extreme actions happening in Paris and other cities. **[France under Napoleon Bonaparte]** ================================================= - Napoleon Bonaparte was a successful army general who became leader of France after the Revolution. - He ruled France in various positions from 1799 until 1815. - For much of this time, France was at war against other European countries which were opposed to the Revolution and did not want revolutionary ideas to spread to their own countries. - The French armies led by Napoleon conquered much of Europe. - He was finally defeated by a coalition of countries at the Battle of Waterloo and exiled to the island of St Helena. - Under Napoleon, some of the changes made in France during the Revolution were kept, some were adapted, and some were reversed. **The reaction against democracy** ---------------------------------- - When the Directory took over as the government of France in **1795**, the country had been at war for over three years. France was fighting a coalition of European powers which was trying to stop the spread of revolutionary ideas. - In 1795 the Directory appointed Napoleon Bonaparte as the general in charge of the army, fighting against the Austrian army in Italy. His success there made him very popular in France. - Meanwhile the Directory was losing support. The French economy was failing and there was rising unemployment and inflation. There was huge inequality between the rich and the poor. People were tired of the ongoing war. The government was not sorting out the problems. - A group of politicians planned to replace it with a stronger government. They invited Napoleon to join them. **They used the army to overthrow the Directory and close down the Assembly.** They drew up another new constitution for France, which made Napoleon the head of the government with the title of \"**First Consul**\". The voters showed their support for these moves in a referendum. In theory France was still a democracy, but in the next few years Napoleon\'s power increased until he had the powers of a dictator. - Napoleon Bonaparte was appointed as First Consul for 10 years, and in **1802 he became First Consul for life**. In 1804 he extended his power even further by **declaring himself Emperor.** Once again, voters supported these moves in a referendum. France was once again under the control of a single ruler with great powers. The democratic gains of the Revolution seemed to be over. Above all, many of the rights which had been at the heart of the revolutionary struggle, such as freedom of speech were lost. **The modernisation of France** ------------------------------- - However, many French people were prepared to accept the loss of democracy in return for order and stability. - Napoleon introduced many **reforms** which brought economic benefits to France, especially to the middle class. It was their support which had put him in power, as at this stage the vote was only allowed to wealthy men. - Napoleon\'s changes: law, taxes, services, art, and education - Napoleon reformed the French **legal system** in the **Civil Code, or Code Napoleon**, much was based on the principle of equality before the law. Instead of old conflicting systems, France now had one uniform system of law. This Civil Code was later adopted by other European and South American countries. However, it **did not recognise many rights for women**, and favored the authority of the state, the employer, the father and the husband. - Napoleon also reorganised the **administration** by creating new departments (provinces) which were a more manageable size than the old ones. These provided an efficient system of government, which was centralised under the control of the government in Paris. This modernized the administration of France. His reforms are still the basis of French law and government today. - Napoleon also made **economic** reforms. He established the **Bank of France** to regulate the economy and restore confidence in it. The tax system was reformed, and people were taxed according to their incomes. New roads, bridges and canals improved communications and helped business, trade and agriculture. He also introduced features to modernise Paris, such as pavements, gas lighting, a fire brigade, an improved water supply and the Louvre Museum to display art. - Napoleon was one of the first leaders to recognise the role that **education** could play to produce law-abiding and hard-working citizens. So, he paid special attention to educational reform. He established the University of France to control the whole education system and supervise teacher training. Schools were now open to a wider range of French society, and the system of examinations and state schools set up still exist today. In Napoleon\'s time, however, schooling for girls was not considered important. **Changes to the Church and land ownership** -------------------------------------------- - Napoleon gained wide support by **reaching an agreement with the Church.** - The Roman Catholic Church was recognised as the official state church, but its land and power was not restored. Also, the state would have control over the clergy by paying their salaries. Equal opportunities were given to people of other religions. - Napoleon\'s reforms were welcomed by most sections of French society. **The middle class welcomed the reform of the law in the Civil Code. It was based on the principle of equality, and recognised property rights.** - People could now get positions because of their ability rather than because of the status of their family. **The middle class also supported his economic reforms**, which introduced a [stable currency, encouraged industry, and made trade unions illegal.] He gained the support of the peasants by recognising their ownership of land which had been taken from the Church and the nobles during the revolution. Nobles who had fled from France were allowed to return, although their special privileges were not restored. - Napoleon was also responsible for bringing **liberal reforms** to parts of Europe. - Under his command, French armies occupied much of Europe. Under French rule, the [feudal system was outlawed], and so were harsh forms of punishment such as branding. Some of the restrictions on the Jews were lifted. Many of the countries taken over by France adopted new constitutions, which recognised democratic principles such as equality before the law and freedom of religion. In these ways, Napoleon was responsible for spreading the principles of liberty and equality which were features of the French Revolution. **[The spread of revolutionary aspirations: Haiti ]** ================================================================= - The influence of the French Revolution reached the French colonies The influence of the French Revolution reached the French colonies overseas. People there were inspired by the idea of liberty which gave them hope for their own futures. This happened on the island of Saint Dominque (later called Haiti). It was France\'s richest colony in the Caribbean. The wealth of the island colony came from sugar plantations which used slave labour. African slaves made up - 87% of the population. The rest of the population consisted of white settlers from France and \"free blacks\" who were former slaves. - The French Revolution created great tensions in Saint Dominque: - Wealthy white planters were worried that the new ideas of liberty and equality would mean the end of slavery. They hoped instead to use the opportunity to become independent from France and to keep power in the hands of the slave-owners. - Other French settlers, who worked as clerks, merchants, skilled workers or small farmers, hoped that the Revolution would give them the same power. - The slaves saw these divisions and the general unrest as a chance to gain their freedom. **The slave uprising** ---------------------- - In 1791 when news reached the island of the changes that were taking place in France during the French Revolution, the slaves rose in revolt. Within a month, 200 sugar estates had been burned and 1 000 whites killed. The British and Spanish quickly sent soldiers to help crush the rebellion. They were afraid that news of a successful slave uprising might spread to their own colonies nearby. Soon there was fighting throughout Saint Dominque, as different groups fought each other. - In 1794 the new revolutionary government in France decided to free all slaves in the French colonies. This news united the slaves in Saint Dominque. Under the leadership of Toussaint L\'Ouverture, they defeated the Spanish and British forces. - By 1801 Toussaint was in control. He drew up a constitution, which outlawed slavery and discrimination based on race, as seen in Source A. - For a while the French government recognised Tousssaint as the leader of Saint Dominque. But later they decided to send troops to take control of the island and restore slavery. They captured Toussaint and took him to France where he died in prison. But the legacy of Toussaint lives on. Many people see him as a hero who died for a worthwhile cause, as seen in Sources B, C and D. **The founding of Haiti** ------------------------- - Two of Toussaint\'s generals took over the leadership and managed to defeat the French. In 1804 they announced the independence of Haiti, the original Amerindian name of Saint Dominque. Haiti was the first and only independent black state to be established after a successful slave rebellion. - Although the French Revolutionary government abolished slavery in 1794, this later changed. In 1815, after the Napoleonic Wars, the new French government re-imposed slavery in all the colonies still under French control. This led to a greater demand for slaves and an increase in the slave trade. It was only in 1848 that slavery finally ended in the French Empire. **[The legacy of the French Revolution in the 19th century and today]** =================================================================================== - Under Napoleon there was a move away from democracy and many of the democratic: gains of the French Revolution were lost. However, the Revolution had a long-term impact on France, the rest of Europe and many other parts of the world. - The legacy of the Revolution in the 19th century In France there were further revolutions in 1830, 1848 and 1870-1. All of then centred on Paris. In all of them, people wanted to remove authoritarian kings and emperors and to re-stablish more democratic forms of government. By the end of the 19th century France was firmly established as a democratic republic and remains so to this day. The legacy of the he - In France there were further revolutions in 1830, 1848 and 1870-1. All of them centred on Paris. In all of them, people wanted to remove authoritarian kings and emperors and to re-establish more democratic forms of government. By the end of the 19th century France was firmly established as a democratic republic and remains so to this day. - Other parts of Europe followed France\'s example. In 1848 there were revolutions in many European countries calling for the end of monarchies and for elections to be held. They were defeated, but by late 20th century, democracies were the main form of government in central and western Europe and there were very few monarchies left. Those that remained were constitutional monarchies. - The ideals The ideals of the French Revolution were also used elsewhere in the world. For example, in the early 19th century, the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Latin America fought for independence. The 1789 Declaration of Man and Citizen was secretly distributed amongst the rebels, and they used some of the symbols of the French Revolution. - For example, they planted \"liberty trees\" to copy the actions of the French revolutionaries of the 1790s. These trees on village squares that were decorated with red, white, and blue ribbons as symbols of the Revolution. People also erected poles to represent freedom and decorated them in the same way. They also wore \"liberty caps\" like those worn by the Jacobins. This cap is today part of the coat of arms of Argentina, a country which had been a Spanish colony and fought for its independence from Spain in the 19th century. **[The legacy of the Revolution today]** ==================================================== - In 1948 the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. - The idea of such a declaration and the ideals it expressed was based on the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man. - In 1989 the French government celebrated the 200th anniversary of the outbreak of the French Revolution. The celebrations focussed on the overthrow of autocracy and the goals of democracy. The period of the Terror was forgotten. - There is no doubt that the French Revolution was a key event in world history. People still discuss its legacy because it raises so many complex questions about the role of governments and their relationship with citizens. It is interesting to see which aspects of it people choose to remember. Do they focus on the people rising up against oppression, the principles of democracy set down by the first revolutionary government, the limitations of the Revolution in terms of the outcome for women or the violence used by the state to keep control? The debate remains alive because all these issues are relevant to us today. The French Revolution led to a spirit of nationalism and republicanism that spread all over the world as people demanded a say in how their countries are governed. - The ideas expressed during the Revolution were not all put into practice immediately, but they have been very influential over time. The principles of democracy have grown in popularity particularly since the late 20th century. Modern struggles for freedom and democracy have been inspired by the concepts started at that time. - People continue to strive for freedom of speech, equality before the law, gender equity, the right to vote, economic empowerment and an end to oppressive government.