Summary - Kraiger 2014 Training and Personal Development PDF

Summary – Kraiger, 2014: Training and Perosnal Development Introduction • • Definition = Training and development refer to systematic processes, managed by organizations, that results in a relatively permanent change in the knowledge, skills, or attitudes oof its members Well-designed training work...

Summary – Kraiger, 2014: Training and Perosnal Development Introduction • • Definition = Training and development refer to systematic processes, managed by organizations, that results in a relatively permanent change in the knowledge, skills, or attitudes oof its members Well-designed training works Training as in Investment • • • • • • • • • • • • Training and development allow organizations: o to be more competitive o to be more efficient and productive o to adapt o be more innovative US spent $171 billion on training & development (2010) Expenditures stayed relatively stable but worker participation and total hours spent in training increased over time (2005-2010) Skilled workforce = competitive advantage Boudreau and Ramstad (2005) o Success in three domains lead to competitive advantage: 1. Finance 2. Products or markets 3. Human capital Studies show direct relationship between investments in human resources and organizational effectiveness Study shows that high performance work practices were related to both employee retention and individual performance d = .62 for organizational results criteria o meaning a strong positive effect for training on organizational outcomes d = .44 for error management training d = 1.09 for procedural knowledge and skills during behavioral modelling training d = .39 for team training o overall performance ð even though effect sizes differ, we can conclude that well-designed training works both on-the-job training and in-house training predicted most organizational effectiveness criteria (Arágon-Sánchez et al., 2003) sound training practices results in o higher employee satisfaction o higher employee engagement o organization-level indicators of effectiveness The Instructional Systems Design Model and Alternatives • Goldstein’s Instructional System Design (ISD) model 1. managing the instructional system (as a process) 2. conducting a training needs assessment to define training content 3. training design 4. delivering training 5. managing transfer of training back to the job 6. evaluating the impact of training and revising the instructional system based on that data ð the role of a psychologist in training and development • • ð useful heuristic for planning and managing training projects choice of methods in modern training is often not as “informed” by needs assessment as model implies Modern training was mainly influenced by three main papers: 1. Howell and Cooke (1989) o Introducing models of learning from cognitive psychology 2. Howell et al. (1993) o From Thinking about training as something that organizations do, to learning as a cognitive activity by individuals 3. Baldwin and Ford (1988) o Disconnect between what is lea ring in training and what is applied back on the job Noe’s model (1986) • Proposing both within-person variables & organizational-level variables influencing learning o Within-person variables: trainee motivation to learn o Organizational-level variables: was training voluntary or mandatory? Training needs assessment • Needs assessment = ongoing process of gathering data to determine what training needs exists so that training can be developed to help the organization accomplish its objectives • Without need assessment often over-train, under-train or mis-train employers • reframing needs assessment: 1. Surface(2012) o Process that addresses and evolves based on organizational realities o 1st step: needs identification o Is full needs assessment necessary? o 2nd step: needs specification o Identifying specific performance gaps o Can earning-based solutions address these gaps? o 3rd step: training needs assessment o Organizational, task and person analyses o “classic” needs assessment th o 4 step: evolution phase o Determination of impact of training 2. Kraiger (2008) o “third generation model” o 1st generation models representing instructional design model o Knowledge = objective o Training goal/ ideal job performance defined by organization, employee is trained to those standards o 2nd generation models representing emerging instructional design models o Knowledge = individually constructed o Training provides different tools/ different means to learn knowledge and skills o Employees find way which fits them best o 3rd generation model built on recent view on knowledge o Knowledge = form of social construction o Learning to socially negotiate the meaning of those concepts and skills o Documenting social skills used to communicate and share emerging knowledge in workplace during needs assessment Outcomes of needs assessment • Most important outcome: decision whether training should be conducted, and. For whom ant on what • Understanding trainee’s pertaining motivation can be helpful to o know whether trainees are ready for training o identify the need for organizational interventions to increase motivation • training motivation si significantly predicted by individual characteristics as well as by situational characteristics • training outcome can be influenced by o previous experience (negative experience in specific are that is trained) o perception that work climate is supportive (attending & being motivated more) o having input into design (more favorable attitudes) o perception that selection was fairly • Aptitude by treatment interactions (ATI) = ATI effect refers to the concept that some instructional strategies will differ in effectiveness for particular individuals depending upon levels or specific abilities or individual characteristics o Meta-Analysis of 51 ATI-effects o Suggests that g-structure ATI approach may not be beneficial to organizations § Gains observed in literature outweigh costs of developing & implementing different training programs for subsets of employees o Promising area of ATIs: training of older workers § Age pos. correlated with training time § Age neg. correlated with training performance § Either providing more time or allow self-pacing § Studies support age-specific training materials (online tutorial was most effective type of automated teller machines trainings for older adults) ð Older adults may be able to achieve learning outcomes similar to younger adults, but only if higher in cognitive ability o Focusing on role of individual differences in trainees that can be identified during needs assessment § Motivation to learn & attitudes towards training have support Effective Training Design – Emerging Training Models • Research tried to identify optimal ways of designing and delivering training • Specific training design features: Active Learning = encouraging trainees to ask questions, explore, seek feedback, and reflect on potential results • More effective for adaptive transfer o motivation & ability are no moderators in this case! • Meaning is very broad o Exploratory & discovery learning o Guided exploration o Error training o Mastery training o Collaborative & cooperative learning o Problem-based learning ð All include components of instruction, motivational induction & emotion control Error Management Training = encouraging trainees to make errors • Is an active learning technique • Most promising active learning technique • Trainees engage in reflection to understand causes of errors • Developing strategies to avoid similar errors in future o Very useful for job performance • Increases post—training performance o Especially when applied to novel tasks/situations • Minimizing negative effects of errors on motivation & self-efficacy o Even improving self-efficacy (in comparison to control group – error-avoiding and noinstruction) • Supported by research • Some evidence that individual differences play a role o Best for people high in openness to experience & cognitive ability Self-regulation = trainees monitor and control their own learning processes, including attention to and active engagement with the training content • becoming aware of whether I understand training well or poorly à ability to take meaningful action when needed • useful for potentiating adaptive transfer • particularly effective for activities related to goal level, persistence, effort, and self-efficacy • requires only few changes in already existing training design o support for simply inserting short prompts into training materials Technology-delivered instruction (TDI) = any form of training that is delivered principally via technology • Clark (1994) statement: medium doesn’t matter ( if instruction is good à its good, if it is bad, technology won’t make it better) o in a meta-analysis only small benefit was found for web-based instruction • Bron & Ford (2002) suggest TDI should be designed so that: 1. Information is structured and presented in meaningful & easy way 2. Need for learner control is balanced with guidance (giving hints what to choose) 3. Opportunities for practice and feedback are provided 4. Learners are encouraged to be mindful of cognitive processing & taking control of own learning (=self-regulation) • • • Factors of TDI which increase trainee participation & learning o Absence of face-to-face contact o Reduced role of instructor o Opportunities to reflect and study before having to give answers Benefit of TDI: flexibility Benefit is at same time risk: learner control received mixed support ð Solution: combine learner control with adaptive guidance à improves trainees’ study and practice effort, knowledge acquired and performance Measuring Training Outcomes: Baseline and Alternatives Training evaluation = systematic collection of data in order to answer questions of whether learning objectives were achieved and/or whether accomplishment of objectives resulted in enhanced performance in job • Framework for assessing training outcomes: Kirkpatrick’s hierarchy (1994) Lowest level: trainee reactions (=liking) Learning (declarative knowledge and skills) Behavior (job performance) Results (more profit, fewer errors – tangible) Higher-level outcomes are not expected to change unless lower-level outcomes are met Kraiger, Ford & Salas (1993) o Multidimensional learning model o Cognitive outcomes: quantity and type of knowledge o Skill-based outcomes: development of technical and motor skills o Affective outcomes: motivation, attitudes, and goals relevant to objectives of training Kraiger (2002) o Decision-based evaluation model o Evaluation should be done to: 1. Make decision about training (continue or cut) 2. Provide feedback to trainers, trainees & training designers 3. Market training program to future adopters o o o o o Planning for and Managing Transfer of Training • • Last step id ISM model: ensuring that learning during training is transferred or applied back on the job Evaluating training consists of two activities 1. Determining whether content learned in training is used in job 2. Evaluating whether performance improved (on the long run) Baldwin & Ford (1988) Transfer of training = extent to which trainees effectively apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes gained from training to the job • Importance of demonstrating that new knowledge or behavior must be used to generalize and be maintained over some period of time • Transfer can be facilitated by design of training & through supportive transfer environment (in job) Research • Research on within training à treat it carefully because transfer is usually measured in training context, meaning directly after the training • Meta-Analysis by Blume et al. (2010) o Estimated effect sizes for variety of individual, training-level & organizational-level variables on transfer o Support for transfer climate (supervisory, peer support) & general work environment factors (job design factors) being predictors for both transfer motivation & actual transfer • Transfer climate = broad set of organizational variables that affect the extent to which training is applied to the job and leads to better performance o Empirical results are mixed • Social support for transfer à also mixed results • Efficacy of in-training strategies for improving transfer à mixed results ð Many situational & individual moderators of relationship ð Greatest support for role of interpersonal factors as moderators Summarizing: o To maximize transfer, training should be designed as similar as possible to actual job o Similar in both physical and psychological meaning o o • Training programs should show variability Behavioral modeling & error management training as two specific trainings which foster transfer Kraiger & Cullbertson (2012) suggest three post-training factors which influence transfer 1. Situational constraints = opportunities to use newly acquired knowledge and skills on the job 2. Organizational support = providing appropriate prompts for application of trained material, and by reinforcing “right behavior”, meaning behavior that shows successful transfer (rewards for learning, removing negative consequences for short-term declines in performance) 3. Transfer climate = extent that trainees perceive supervisors & peers as supportive of transfer, extent that they have opportunity to practice and use new knowledge & skills & that they are held accountable for transfer Future Research • • • • • Interest in how learners gain & combine packets of knowledge to develop knowledge & skills Social media has changed how information is presented Continuous presentation of information à change how we process information Better skills in scanning & skimming, losing ability to concentrate and reflect Need of better understanding of social, political, technical environment in which training is held & transferred back to job