STS Chapter 1 Summary PDF

**Summary/ Supplementary Notes (Online via Google Classroom)** **Science is....** - **the study of the world and the universe** - **Covers a vast field of study** - **an organized knowledge/systematized body of knowledge** - **is a continuous search for knowledge** - **is a way of so...

**Summary/ Supplementary Notes (Online via Google Classroom)** **Science is....** - **the study of the world and the universe** - **Covers a vast field of study** - **an organized knowledge/systematized body of knowledge** - **is a continuous search for knowledge** - **is a way of solving problems** - **opposes superstition** - A way of knowing about nature that values knowledge for its own sake and depends on observation, experiment, logical argument and skeptical review **Technology is....** - **Could be a product, a process or a gadget** - **Science put to practical use** - The designing and use of devices, processes and materials to solve practical problems and to satisfy human needs and wants - Technology is the application of science **Society is....** - people living together in organized communities with shared laws, traditions, and values - people of a particular country, area, time thought of as an organized community - **group, large or small, of peoples in a particular place and time who are linked by common goals and interest** **How are science and technology related?** **Ways by which science contributes to technology:** 1\. Science is a direct source of new knowledge which are basis for new technological ideas 2\. Science as a source of engineering design tools and techniques 3\. Instrumentation, laboratory techniques, and analytical methods used in research leads to an improved designs and industrial practices 4\. through research science leads to the development of human skills and building human technological capabilities 5\. Science provides a deeper and more fundamental scientific understanding or knowledge required in technology assessment 6\. Science as a source of development strategy, new knowledge to refine technologies and development of more efficient research strategies **Contribution of technology to science** 1\. Technology as a source of new scientific challenges and knowledge that address issues and concerns about research and development 2\. Instrumentation and measurement techniques that will advance scientific knowledge Reference: The relationship between science and technology Harvey Brooks John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, 79 J.F.K. Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA **What is the connection between science, technology and society?** A Trifecta ========== Reference: The Connection Between Science, Technology, and Society ================================================================== future/the-connection-between-science-technology-and-society-21dfaad5fc3 Relationship between science, technology and society ==================================================== Reference: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY =============================================================== Reference: Ryan Rickman between-science-technology-and-society-2 **Major roles of Science and Technology (S&T) in everyday life:** - - - - **Concerns of the people in the ancient times which were addressed by Science & Technology:** - Transportation and navigation - Communication and record keeping - Mass production of food - Security and protection - Health - Aesthetics and - Engineering and architecture **SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY THROUGH TIME** **Ancient Civilizations:** **Sumeria** - **Flourished between Tigris and Euphrates rivers** - **Named Mesopotamia (land between rivers) by the Greeks; Now called Iraq** - **Great civilization as evidenced by having a stable food supply, technology and government system** - **World's first civilization as evidenced by having invented new technologies; Pioneers in agriculture, craft (metal work and pottery) transforming how humans cultivated food, built dwellings, communicated and keep track of information and time** **Sumerian Technologies that changed the world** **Mass-Produced Pottery** ------------------------- - **Clay pot making or pottery** ------------------------------  - The first **Sumerian wheels** Cuneiform Writing ----------------- - first developed around 3500 BCE to ensure accurate communication during long-distance trade ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - very first texts are just numbers and commodities, done with a system of [***pictographs***](http://bit.ly/2M0iZdi) - Scribes used sharpened reeds to scratch the symbols into wet clay, which dried to form tablets. 3. **Development of Mathematics and Sexagesimal Number Systems** - the Sumerian number system developed as a trade necessity - the first time a civilization had used a decimal or place value-based number system - **sexagesimal,** or base 60 number system. In modern mathematics, 60 is a popular system of division. Think 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, 360 degrees in a circle (60 x 6) - Using the base 60 system, the Sumerians created addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division **World's First Medicines** --------------------------- - two types of Sumerian doctors: the ***asu* **were doctors who practiced therapeutic medicine and provided medical treatment to patients. The ***asipu* **practiced religious medicine and treated their patient's ills through religious prescriptions (confessions, wearing talismans to ward off evil spirits, or making offerings to the offended god or goddess) **Invention of Agriculture** ---------------------------- - **artificial irrigation** to provide water to farms- consisted **of canals that drew water from the river directly onto the fields** - **Hand-operated water lifts called *shadufs* *or shadoofs, e***ventually, developed **aqueducts** to carry water over long distances  **Hydraulic Engineering- artificial irrigation system** ------------------------------------------------------- - designed complex systems of canals, with dams constructed of reeds, palm trunks and mud whose gates could be opened or closed to regulate the flow of water **The Chariot ** ---------------- Sumerian Chariot SSPL/GETTY IMAGES SCALE MODEL OF A SIMPLE TWO-WHEELED CHARIOT WHICH WAS INVENTED BY THE SUMERIANS IN MESOPOTAMIA. **The Plow** ------------  DORLING KINDERSLEY/GETTY IMAGES IMITATION OF A SUMERIAN PLOW. 6. **Mass-Produced Bricks ** Sumerian structures - created molds for making bricks out of clay to make up the shortage of stones and timber for building houses and temples 7. **Metallurgy**  8. use copper to make useful items, ranging from spearheads to chisels and razors, made art including dramatic panels depicting fantastical animals such as an eagle with a lion's head, furnaces heated by reeds and controlled the temperature with bellows that could be worked with their hands or feet 9. **Mesopotamian Sail Boat** **BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION** - Ancient Babylon was an influential city - served as a center of Mesopotamian civilization for nearly two millennia - located near the Euphrates River, about 60 miles (100 kilometers) south of Baghdad in what is now Iraq - the Babylonian language was used across the Middle East as a way of communicating across borders - famous for the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon (if the ancient stories are true), a wonder of the ancient world that some people believe was built by the biblical king Nebuchadnezzar II - made important discoveries in [mathematics](https://www.livescience.com/38936-mathematics.html), physics and astronomy; developed trigonometry, used mathematical models to track [Jupiter](https://www.livescience.com/facts-about-jupiter) and developed methods of tracking time that are still used today. Ancient Babylonian records are still used by modern-day astronomers to study how [Earth\'](https://www.livescience.com/earth.html)s rotation has changed - The Code of Hammurabi (now in the [Louvre Museum](https://www.livescience.com/31935-louvre-museum.html) in Paris) is well known for its \"eye for an eye\" style of lawmaking, but it also set out the nature of the relationship among Hammurabi, the gods and the people he ruled ***AI-generated answer on similarities and differences of Sumerian and Babylonian Civilizations*** *The Sumerian and Babylonian civilizations made significant contributions to the development of science and technology.* *Similarities:* *1. Writing Systems: Both civilizations developed sophisticated writing systems. The Sumerians used **cuneiform**, which involved making marks on clay tablets, while the Babylonians refined this system by using a wedge-shaped stylus. These writing systems allowed for the recording and dissemination of scientific knowledge and discoveries.* *2. Astronomy: Both civilizations had a strong interest in astronomy. They observed and recorded the movements of celestial bodies - the stars and planets and developed complex calendars based on astronomical observations. This knowledge was crucial for agricultural planning and religious rituals.* 3. *They both made progress in mathematics. The Sumerians **developed **the concept of a number system based on 60, which we still use for measuring time (60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour). The Babylonians expanded upon this system and introduced new mathematical concepts.* 4. *They both built advanced irrigation systems to support agriculture, which required an understanding of engineering and hydrology.* *Differences:* *1. Mathematics: The Babylonians made important advancements in mathematics. They developed a positional number system based on 60 and created the concept of zero. They also made significant progress in algebra, geometry, and arithmetic. In contrast, while the Sumerians had a basic understanding of arithmetic, they did not make as many advancements in mathematics as the Babylonians.* *2. Engineering and Architecture: The Sumerians are credited with being the first civilization to build cities. They developed **sophisticated irrigation systems,** built **ziggurats (stepped pyramids),** and created impressive city walls. The Babylonians continued this architectural legacy and constructed large-scale structures like the **Hanging Gardens of Babylon,** which was considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.* *3. Medicine: The Babylonians made significant contributions to the field of medicine. They **documented various diseases and their symptoms, developed remedies, and practiced surgery**. The Sumerians, on the other hand, had a limited understanding of medicine and relied more on religious rituals for healing.* ANCIENT EGYPTIAN TECHNOLOGY AND INVENTIONS ========================================== - masters of invention - arose around the **Nile River in Egypt,** the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in Mesopotamia, the Indus River in India, and the Yellow River in China. - invented **mathematics, geometry, surveying, metallurgy, astronomy, accounting, writing, paper, medicine, the ramp, the lever, the plow, and mills for grinding grain** **Metal Making**  -----------------  Egyptian bronze statues Source: Andrew Bossi/Wikimedia Commons **Writing**  ------------ Egyptian hieroglyphics Source: Sherif217/Wikimedia Commons **Papyrus**  ------------ Papyrus (by Andy Polaine, CC BY-NC-SA) - The ancient Egyptians turned the pith of the *Cyperus papyrus* plant, which is found throughout the Mediterranean region, into sheets that could be rolled into scrolls - besides writing, papyrus was used as a **food source, to make rope, for sandals, as window shades, material for toys such as dolls, as amulets to ward off throat diseases, & even to make small fishing boats** **Ink**  --------  Egyptian ink Source: Captmondo/British Museum/Wikimedia Commons - made of mixed **vegetable gum, soot, and bee wax** to make black ink; soot was later replaced with other materials, such as red **ochre**, to create various ink colors **The Ox-drawn plow** and the **Sickle**  ----------------------------------------- - the first ox-drawn plows appeared in Egypt as early as 2500 B.C. - made of bronze for breaking up the clumps of soil and sowed the rows with seed; grew wheat and various vegetables along the fertile banks of the Nile River Ancient Egyptian Agriculture - World \... Egyptian sickle Source: The Met/Wikimedia Commons - sickle, with its curved blade, was used for cutting and harvesting grains, such as wheat and barley **Canals and Irrigation Channels**  ----------------------------------- - pioneered using **canals and irrigation channels** to direct water from the Nile River to farm fields that were distant from the river. They built gates into the canals to control the flow of water, and **reservoirs** to hold water supplies in case of drought. - The ancient Egyptians used **water wheels**, which worked as an invention called a ***shadoof*.** It comprised a long pole with a bucket on one end and a weight on the other, an oxen swung the pole so that the water could be emptied into canals used to irrigate the crops **The Calendar**  ----------------- - devised their highly accurate solar calendar by recording the yearly reappearance of Sirius (the Dog Star) star in the eastern sky (the rising of Sirius coincided with the yearly flooding of the Nile River - calendar contained 365 days, divided into 12 months. Each month had 30 days, and there were five festival days at the end of each year - However, earth's solar year is 365.25 days long, which today we account for with Leap Year. Gradually, the Egyptian calendar became incorrect, but this problem was solved by Ptolemy III, whose Ptolemaic Calendar added one day to the 365 days every four years **Clocks** - **Clypsedra** -------------------------- - The Egyptians used their famous obelisks (tall, slender, tapered monument with four sides and a pyramidal or pyramidion top) as **sundials** by observing how shadows cast by the obelisk moved around them during determined the day. From this, the ancient Egyptians were able to determine the longest and shortest days of the year. - **water clock**- made from a stone vessel that had a tiny hole in its bottom. Water dripped through this hole constantly, and the passage of hours could be determined from marks placed on a vessel collecting the water. Priests at the [*Temple of Karnak*](https://discoveringegypt.com/karnak-temple/) used a water clock at night to determine the time to perform various religious rites. (an inscription dating to the 16th century BC found in the tomb of a court official named Amenemhet shows a water clock)  **Glass Making**  -----------------  Egyptian glass Source: Wikimedia Commons **Furniture**  carved-egyptian-throne-chair-453x657 \| Egyptian art, Ancient \... **Surgical Instruments**  ------------------------- ANCIENT EGYPT MEDICINE ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Edwin Smith papyrus Source: Jeff Dahl/Wikimedia Commons - The *[Edwin Smith Papyrus](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Edwin-Smith-papyrus),* dating to 1600 BC, is the oldest surgical treatise. It describes 48 surgical cases of injuries, fractures, wounds, dislocations, and tumors and details the type of injury, examination of the patient, diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment. Injuries were to the head, neck, shoulders, breasts, and chest. - The papyrus includes a list of the instruments used during those surgeries, instructions for suturing wounds, and descriptions of using swabs, bandages, adhesive plasters, and cauterizing. - Written in black ink, with explanations written in red ink, the papyrus even contains a section on gynecology and one on cosmetics, along with five prescriptions. The Cairo Museum contains a collection of surgical instruments, including scalpels, scissors, copper needles, forceps, spoons, lancets, hooks, probes, and pincers. **Toothpaste**  --------------- - invented toothpaste, with one recipe containing **powdered ox hooves, ashes, burnt eggshells, and pumice.** Another, probably better-tasting recipe, contained **rock salt, mint, dried iris flower, and grains of pepper** - This latter recipe came with an "advertisement" that promised a "powder for white and perfect teeth." This could have come out of any 21st Century advertisement. GREEK CIVILIZATION ================== - The Ancient Greeks made many advancements in science and technology. Greek philosophers began to look at the world in different ways. **Mathematics** - they studied mathematics for its own sake and developed complex mathematical theories and proofs - One of the **first Greek mathematicians was Thales**- studied geometry and discovered theories (such as Thale\'s theorem) about circles, lines, angles, and triangles - **Pythagoras also studied geometry**, discovered the [*Pythagorean Theorem*](https://www.ducksters.com/kidsmath/pythagorean_theorem.php) which is still used today to find the sides of a right triangle - most important Greek mathematician was Euclid **- wrote several books on the subject of geometry called *Elements* (**became the standard textbook on the subject for 2000 years; called the most successful textbook in history) **Astronomy - The Antikythera Mechanism** - The device, discovered off the coast of the Greek island of Antikythera, was once composed of more than 30 interlocking bronze gears that predicted the phases of the moon, eclipses, the dates of the Olympics and the movement of planets and stars **Medicine** - study medicine as a scientific way to cure illnesses and [disease](https://www.ducksters.com/science/biology/infectious_disease.php), studied sick people, observed their symptoms, and then came up with some practical treatments - The most famous Greek doctor was **Hippocrates-** taught that diseases had natural causes and they could sometimes be cured by natural means; established the **Hippocratic Oath** to uphold medical ethics is still taken by many medical students today **Biology** - **Aristotle** studied animals in great detail and wrote down his observations in a book called the *History of Animals* - heavily influenced zoologists for years by [classifying animals](https://www.ducksters.com/science/scientific_classification.php) according to their different characteristics **Greek Inventions that Changed the world** - Watermill - for grinding grain that is powered by water; invented the waterwheel used to power the mill and the toothed gears used to transfer the power to the mill - Alarm Clock - Plato may have invented the first alarm clock in history; used a water clock to trigger a sound like an organ at a certain time - Central Heating - a type of central heating where they would transfer hot air from fires to empty spaces under the floors of temples - Crane - to help lift heavy items such as blocks for constructing buildings - Archimedes\' Screw - invented by Archimedes, the Archimedes\' screw was an efficient way to move water up a hill **Interesting Facts About the Science and Technology of Ancient Greece** - The word \"mathematics\" comes from the Greek word \"mathema\" which means \"subject of instruction.\" - Hypatia was head of the Greek mathematics school in Alexandria. She was one of the world\'s first famous female mathematicians. - Hippocrates is often called the \"Father of Western Medicine.\" - The word \"biology\" comes from the Greek words' \"bios\" (meaning \"life\") and \"logia\" (meaning \"study of\"). - The Greeks also made contributions to the study of map making or \"cartography.\" **ROMAN CIVILIZATION** Here are 5 ways that Roman technology was ahead of its time:  Authentic artifacts in POMPEII: THE EXHIBITION reveals the technology of the ancient Romans **1. Roman Road** "All roads lead to Rome" - Constructed 50,000 miles worth of roads stemming from the capital - utilized different engineering techniques to survey, clear and level land suitable for direct paths between cities - tunnels and bridges were built along their roads along with paths for pedestrians - Due to the extensive network of roads, military personnel were able to cover ground extremely fast - Citizens could easily travel due to directional signage, and goods were traded efficiently - The Roman Road network was used as a tool to help conquer and hold onto a vast amount of land, and the engineering techniques utilized by the Romans have been used as a basis for many modern roads throughout Europe **2. Revolutionizing running water - Aqueducts** Roman Aqueducts - channel water from a freshwater source (with gravity and the natural slope of the land), such as a lake or spring, to a city; - water flowing into the cities, was used for drinking, irrigation, and to supply hundreds of public fountains and baths - capital city of Rome had 11 aqueducts supplying water to its citizens; water supply not only assisted in sustaining an enormous population but also made public hygiene and sanitation possible - water supply reaching a city was transferred to various holding tanks that supplied citizens with drinking water, public bathing water, and the wealthy with private water supplies (the famous Trevi Fountain of Rome uses water from one of the restored aqueducts of the ancient city) **3. Battlefield medicine** - field doctors contributed to the **increased sanitation** of military camps and performed physicals on new soldiers - Field surgeons utilized **arterial surgical clamps** **and tourniquets** to slow blood loss in battle wounds  **4. Roman arches** - use stone wedges in making arches to build colosseums, aqueducts, bridges, monuments and other buildings a brick archway with a blue sky **5. Concrete** - **made of lime and volcanic rock**, the Romans were able to create a **magnificent mortar** that can still be seen thousands of years later (passed the test of time)  **CHINESE CIVILIZATION** - Among the earliest inventions were **the abacus, the sundial, and the Kongming lantern**. - The Four Great Inventions, the **compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and printing** -- were among the most important technological advances, only known to Europe by the end of the Middle Ages 1000 years later. - Western knowledge of **silk working, the magnetic compass, papermaking, and porcelain** were all derived from China. In the latter case, Europeans admired the fine porcelain imported from China for several centuries before they were able to produce anything of a similar quality. - **Kites** were first used as a way for the army to signal warnings. - **Umbrellas** were invented for protection from the sun as well as the rain. - Chinese doctors knew about certain **herbs** to help sick people. Early Chinese Compass -- 400 BC - Magnet Academy  The Story of the Chinese Abacus  Kongming (Sky) Lanterns: Ancient China\'s Hot Air Balloons  Traditional Chinese Paper Umbrellas: Origins and Making  **Science and Technology in the Middle Ages** **Middle Ages** - **used as a label for the medieval period in Western and Central Europe which refers to the time period between the fall of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance** - **is seen as a transitional period between the ancient and modern eras** - **it took place between the fall of Rome and the rise of early modern Europe** - **characterized by migration of people, invasions, population distribution, and deurbanization, period of decline in culture and science** - **there was Black Death Plague, which killed millions of people** **6 Important Things That Were Invented During the Middle Ages** **By: [Shea Gunther](https://www.treehugger.com/shea-gunther-4844868) Updated May 15, 2020** 1. **The Heavy Plough** - **allowed people to grow crops in soils too hard for hand** **digging and to greatly expand their fields.** - **uses wheels to support a heavier plough blade** - **Farmers were able to open up extensive new fields** **boosting crop yields and population numbers** 2. **Water Mills** **(Photo: Wikimedia Commons)** - **use a turning wheel spoked with water-catching paddles to** **generate power to operate machines like grinders and saws** - **By around 1000 A.D. there were tens of thousands of mills** **harnessing river and tidal power throughout England, Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and Asia and was used to power tanneries, blast furnaces, forge mills, and paper mills which evolved into the machinery used in today\'s factories and facilities.** 3. **The Hour Glass** **(Photo: Wikimedia Commons)** - **was a popular choice for sailors who used it to mark the passage of time, which allowed them to determine their longitude (location east to west)** - **was preferred over earlier water clocks because their sands were unaffected by the rocking motion of an ocean-bound ship** - **were used on shore to measure time for church services, cooking and work tasks.** 4. **Distillation to produce liquor** **(Photo: Caspar Diederik/Flickr)** - **Distillation describes the separation of different liquids within a mixture, usually through the application of heat** - **an important technique used in science and industry (oil refineries distill crude oil into a large number of components like gasoline, kerosene, paraffin wax, and plastic-base)** - **Whiskey, brandy, gin, rum, and vodka are all produced by distilling mashed grains, potatoes, molasses, wine or fruits** 5. **Eyeglasses/ Spectacles**  **(Photo: Ana Ulin/Flickr) [Medieval Chronicles](https://www.medievalchronicles.com/)** - **For someone born with poor eye sight** - **13th-century Italians** - **early models made to be held up by hand or pinched on the nose.** 6. **The Printing Press** **(Photo: Wikimedia Commons)** - **the origins of the modern printing press can easily be tracked to one man and one place --- Johannes Gutenberg from Mainz, Germany around 1440** - **allowed, for the first time, industrial-scale printing** - **The press meant ideas could be spread through books and pamphlets, newspapers and journals** - **Science, technology and history all saw great leaps as institutional knowledge began to accrue around the world *(Without Gutenberg, there would be no Internet. And without the Internet, you wouldn\'t be reading this article right now. Also, no pictures of funny cats and bacon. The horror.)*** - **the basic tool that Galileo used was a crude refracting telescope. His initial version only magnified 8x but was soon refined to the 20x magnification he used for his observations for Sidereus nuncius (a short astronomical pamphlet on his discoveries of the moon, the first to note four "planets" (moons) that orbited Jupiter, which he called Medicean stars** - **it had a convex objective lens and a concave eyepiece in a long tube** **Reference: Galileo: Sidereus Nuncius** **Microscope**  - **1590: Two Dutch spectacle-makers and father-and-son team, Hans and Zacharias Janssen, create the first microscope.** - **1667: Robert Hooke\'s famous \"Micrographia\" is published, which outlines Hooke\'s various studies using the microscope.** **War Weapons** - **The Spear: The Most Common Weapon in Medieval Warfare** - **The Knightly Sword: An Icon of Chivalry** - **The Longbow: A Weapon of Myth & Legend** - **The Crossbow: Deadly, Even in the Hands of the Untrained** - **The War Hammer: Crush & Bludgeon!** - **The Lance: A Medieval Superweapon of Shock and Awe** - **Axes: A Simple Weapon Designed to Hack** **Science and Technology in the Modern Times** - **Pasteurization** - **Petroleum refinery** - **Telephone** - **Calculator** - **reproductive technology** - **television** - **man-made satellites** - **personal computers ** - **penicillin by Alexander Fleming** - **Streptomycin was used to treat tuberculosis** **Philippine Inventions** - **Erythromycin -- an antibiotic developed by Dr. Abelardo Aguilar in 1949** - **Karaoke - Roberto del Rosario invented a clever system that displayed lyrics while the instrumentals of a song were playing in 1974** - The Single Chip Graphical User Interface Accelerator - 16-bit microchip designed by Diosdado Banatao (16-bit microprocessor-based calculator) - helped move PC operating systems from the era of the text-based command systems, such as MS-DOS to the kind of operating systems we experience today. - is still used to this date in personal computers and heavier devices, where it still functions to make our technology more efficient - Bamboo Incubator -- by Dr. Fe Del Mundo - the first woman recognized as a "National Scientist" in the Philippines, she also established a famous pediatric hospital - To address the issue on lack of electricity the bamboo incubator was developed; which was heated by a cushion of hot water bottles lining a bamboo basket, covered by a hood which fed a supply of oxygen into the incubator - **Quink Ink -- by a Filipino inventor Francisco Quisumbing came along and invented the perfect alternative to traditional ink (used by Parker pen)** - **The Lunar Rover- the Moon Buggy, a lunar rover partially invented by Eduardo San Juan, a mechanical engineer who studied at Mapua Institute of Technology** - **Rescue 72 -- invented by Danvic Briones, a kit of life-saving tools for natural emergencies** - **a kit containing water, first aid material, snacks and other essential items that was meant to keep a person alive for 72 hours** - **Videophone - was invented as early as 1955 by Gregorio Zara from Lipa City, referred to it as the "Photophone"** - **worked a lot like a telephone, but included a camera which allowed the person you were talking to could see your face, operating in the same vein as the modern-day web camera** - **Jeepney - immediate post-war, and the most common form of transportation in the country today, a Filipino invention born from necessity and ingenuity** - **Pili Seal - invented by Engr. Mark Kennedy E. Bantugon, a groundbreaking Pili Tree Resin utilized as sealants and flame retardants** - **This product ingeniously repurposes discarded materials to formulate sustainable sealants and adhesives, ensuring affordability, safety, and minimal environmental impact on the user\'s health and surroundings** - **The Salamander (amphibious tricycle)- is the brainchild of Victor Llave and his team at H2O Technologies, an innovation and technology company, can travel along flooded areas** **Mesoamerican Civilization** - **7000 BCE - 2000 BCE The Archaic Period in Mesoamerica (Middle America) during which hunter-gatherer culture moved toward agriculture** - **Olmec, Maya, Aztec, Inca** - **At its height, the Inca Empire included modern-day Peru, what are today western and south-central Bolivia, southwest Ecuador and Colombia and a large portion of modern-day Chile, at the north of the Maule River.**