Social Psychology Midterm Reviewer PDF

CHAPTER 1: - Another concept that can be included in the social influence domain is Persuasion. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - The im...

CHAPTER 1: - Another concept that can be included in the social influence domain is Persuasion. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - The impact of certain groups to a person (3) Social Relations (how we relate) - This includes prejudice (our tendency to WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY? judge SOMETIMES NEGATIVELY  Social psychology can be collectively defined as - Aggression a scientific study how people think, influence and - Attraction and intimacy relate to one another. - Helping  Social psychology lies at psychology’s boundary with sociology. (So, this means that social psychology and sociology are not synonymous.) Social Psychology’s Big Ideas  Sociology focused more on the study of people in (1) We Construct Our Social Reality groups and societies, while social psychology - We react differently because we think focused more on individuals and uses more differently experimentation. - This means that our perception about  Social psychology is still considered as a young ourselves, other people and social science. Since the first social psychology environment depends on how we react or experiments were reported barely more than a think towards it. century ago (1898), Though the field of social ˗ 1951 Princeton-Dartmouth football game psychology over a hundred years old, it is demonstration relatively young in comparison to the other - Two psychologists, one from each school, branch of sciences showed films of the game to students on each campus. The students played the role  The field of social psychology has been more of scientist-observer, noting each established around 1930’s infraction as they watched and who was  The emergence of World War 2 also helped responsible for it. But they could not set social psychology to be recognized since in war aside their loyalties. The Princeton every aspect should be explore including students, for example, saw twice as many understanding the behaviors and personality of Dartmouth violations as the Dartmouth the soldiers’ prisoners and other individuals. students saw. The conclusion: There is an (1) Social Thinking (how we think) objective reality out there, but we always ˗ how we perceive ourselves in relation with view it through the lens of our beliefs and our social environment values. ˗ Social thinking doesn’t only focus on how ˗ Objective reality - when we say objective we perceive ourselves but also on how we reality you perceive it as it actually is without perceive others. clouded perception ˗ Social thinking also includes our belief as - Beliefs about others - Beliefs about ourselves well as our judgement we are making (2) Our Social Intuitions Are Often Powerful but ˗ This also includes our attitudes Sometimes Perilous (2) Social Influence (how we influence) ˗ Perilous means dangerous. While when we - Focus more on the impact of culture talk about intuition this means our gut feel. We - The pressure of a person to conform (this don’t enough evidence to support our intuition means that sometimes we feel that we but still it feels right so we act based on our don’t have any choice but to act the same intuition towards something or someone. That around the people around us)  is why it is powerful, since it shapes our Research Methods: How We Do Social actions even if there is no solid evidence for Psychology our intuitions  Forming and Testing ˗ Our intuitive capacities are instantaneous, a) Theory automatic and spontaneous. - Integrated set of principles that explain ˗ Dual procession and predict observed events - Conscious and deliberate b) Hypotheses - Unconscious and automatic - Testable proposition that describes a (3) Social Influences Shape Our Behavior relationship that may exist between a) Locality events b) Educational Level  Location c) Subscribed Level a) Laboratory - Controlled situation d) Culture b) Field - Everyday situations Personal Attitudes and Dispositions (1) Correlation Research ˗ detecting natural associations  Internal forces ˗ checks for associations of variables ˗ Inner attitudes about specific situations  Correlation and Causation  Personality dispositions ˗ Allows us to predict but not tell whether ˗ Different people may react differently while changing one variable will cause changes in facing the same situation another (2) Experimental Research ˗ Seeks clues to cause-effect relationships by Social Behavior Is Biologically Rooted manipulating one or more variables while controlling others (the Independent &  Evolutionary Psychology Dependent Variable) ˗ behaviors that deemed useful for human’s (3) Survey Research survival will be passed on to ensure the survivability of the race. ˗ the collection of information from a sample ˗ Natural selection predisposes our actions and of individuals through their responses to reactions questions  Social Neuroscience ˗ Survey research sometimes utilized random ˗ Social neuroscience is a branch of science samples—which means that every person in that explore the activities in our brain in the population of choice has a chance of relation to social behaviors. being selected ˗ Unrepresentative samples - if the population is not represented well in the Social Psychology’s Principles That Are sample research will not yield a valid result Applicable in Everyday Life ˗ Order of questions - if we will utilize survey research, we have to be mindful on how we  How to know ourselves better  Implications for human health arrange the questions in the questionnaire as  Implications for judicial procedures sometimes it could impact the response of the  Influencing behaviors participants  ˗ Response options - the option on how the they may contact you. Also, when you use participant would respond to a survey deception, you must include full disclosure when question should be carefully constructed you debrief your respondents. This means that ˗ Wording of questions - the way you phrase you will tell them the nature of your research your questions might also impact the participants answer to the item. They might get confuse and not fully understand the Generalizing from Laboratory to Life question and then just guess the answer ˗ We can distinguish between the content of Ethics of Experimentation people’s thinking and acting and the process by which they think and act 1. Mundane realism - the results of the study can ˗ Not everything that we see in laboratory be applied to everyday living or situations studies can be observed in the real-life 2. Experimental realism - experiments should situations. have experimental realism meaning the respondents must be free from bias for us to see the true effect of the experiment however CHAPTER 2: sometimes this might include deception THE SELF IN A SOCIAL WORLD 3. Deception - using a cover story to achieve experimental realism, deception doesn’t mean that you will lie entirely to your participants. It is How Do You See Yourself in the Eyes of Other still your duty as a researcher to explain what are People? the things that they will do in the process. You (1) SPOTLIGHTS can deceive them by not telling your research  Spotlight Effect hypothesis for them to act naturally ˗ Belief that others are paying more attention 4. Demand characteristics - when there is no to one’s appearance and behavior than they deception and the participants knew entirely the really are process of the experiment there is a possibility ˗ may cause anxiety or overthinking sa mga that they will act in accordance with the bagay na hindi naman talaga dapat natin hypothesis that you tell them masyadong alalahanin. ˗ Self-Consciousness: for example, merong 5. Informed consent - the process of the maliit na stain yung white shirt natin. Iniisip experimentation saying that they can withdraw natin yung mga taong nakikita natin ay from the experimentation or the study. If you use pinapansin ng husto yung stain na yon kahit deception, you are still required to ask for a wala namang pake talaga yung iba. consent just don’t include the hypothesis in your ˗ Social Situations: When we are presenting consent. But they must be aware and the must in front of many people. We tend to think na give their full consent before the start of the baka jinajudge nila tayo by the way we experimentation. present it. Pero in reality naka focus sila sa 6. Debriefing - giving debriefing after the content but not on how you present it. experimentation like what will happened next (2) ILLUSIONS can they know the result of the research?  Illusions Of Transparency Acknowledge their help and thank them for the ˗ Illusion that our concealed emotions leak out participation and if they experience discomfort and can be easily read by others  ˗ Emotional States: If you're nervous during a SELF AND CULTURE presentation, you might think that everyone (a) Individualism can see how anxious you are, even though ˗ Concept of giving priority to one’s own goals your nervousness might not be obvious to over group goals and defining one’s identity your audience. in terms of personal attributes rather than ˗ Deception: For example, kapag group identifications nagsisinungaling tayo, we are afraid na baka ˗ Independent self malaman nila yung totoo. Na hindi totoo lahat ˗ Western cultures ng mga sinasabi natin, pero in reality hindi (b) Collectivism naman nahahalata ng mga tao yung ˗ Giving priority to the goals of one’s group pagsisinungaling na ginagawa natin. and defining one’s identity accordingly Research Close-Up: On Being Nervous About ˗ Interdependent self Looking Nervous ˗ Asian, African, and Central and South American cultures  Examples of interplay between our sense of self and our social world SELF AND CULTURE ˗ Social surroundings affect our self-  In collectivist cultures awareness ˗ Self-concept is context-specific rather than ˗ Self-interest colors our social judgment stable ˗ Self-concern motivates our social behavior ˗ Conflict takes place between groups ˗ Social relationships help define our self  In individualistic cultures ˗ Self-esteem is more personal and less relational AT THE CENTER OF OUR WORLDS: OUR ˗ Conflict takes place between individuals SENSE OF SELF (e.g., Crime; Divorce) (a) Schema SELF-KNOWLEDGE ˗ Mental templates by which we organize our  Self-knowledge refers to a deep understanding worlds of one’s own personality, values, motivations, ˗ In Piaget's theory, a schema is both the strengths, weaknesses, and behaviors. It category of knowledge as well as the process involves being aware of one’s thoughts, of acquiring that knowledge. He believed that feelings, and actions and how they influence people are constantly adapting to the and are influenced by the world around us. environment as they take in new information  Explaining Our Behavior and learn new things. (b) Self-Schema  Predicting Our Behavior ˗ Beliefs about self that organize and guide the ˗ Planning fallacy: tendency to processing of self-relevant information underestimate how long it will take to ˗ are focused on your knowledge about complete a task yourself. This can include both what you  Predicting Our Feelings know about your current self as well as ideas ˗ Studies of “affective forecasting” reveal about your idealized or future self. people have the greatest difficulty (c) Possible Selves predicting the intensity and the duration of ˗ Images of what we dream of or dread their future emotions becoming in the future ˗ Affective forecasting: refers to the process of predicting how we will feel in the future  as a result of certain events or decisions. ˗ In 1970, psychologists Richard Christie and This involves anticipating our emotional Florence Geiss identified Machiavellianism reactions to various scenarios, such as as a personality trait involving achieving a goal, facing a challenge, or manipulativeness, deceit, and a cold, experiencing a significant life change calculating, cynical view of others. ˗ Immune neglect: tendency to neglect the ˗ A Machiavellian individual will do speed and strength of the “psychological everything even if it means of manipulating, immune system” which enables emotional deceiving, and exploiting other people just to recovery and resilience after bad things achieve whatever they want to achieve. happen SELF-EFFICACY ˗ Psychological Immune System - This is our coping mechanisms and resiliency.  How competent we feel on a task After facing the negative outcome of our  Leads us to set challenging goals and to persist decisions. THE COSTS OF EXCESS CHOICE SELF-ESTEEM  Excess Freedom  Our overall self-evaluation or sense of self- ˗ Too many choices can lead to dissatisfaction worth with our final choice ˗ Specific self-perceptions have some ˗ People tend to be generally happier with influence decisions when they can’t undo them ˗ Feedback is best when it is true and specific SELF-SERVING BIAS SELF-ESTEEM MOTIVATION  Tendency to perceive oneself favorably  Self-esteem maintenance  Explaining positive and negative events  Self-esteem threats occur among friends whose  Self-serving attributions – tendency to successes can be more threatening than that of attribute positive outcomes to oneself and strangers negative outcomes to other factors. It  Terror Management Theory states humans contributes to marital discord, and worker must find ways to manage their fear of death. dissatisfaction.  Can We All Be Better than Average? THE “DARK SIDE” OF SELF-ESTEEM  Most people see themselves as better than the  Narcissism average person on the following dimensions ˗ Delroy and Williams (2002)  Subjective ˗ “The Dark Triad” of negative traits  Socially desirable (a) Narcissism  Common dimensions (b) Machiavellianism  Areas in which we believe we are above (c) Antisocial psychopathology average: ˗ In the 16th century, political adviser and ˗ Ethics philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli wrote “The ˗ Professional competence Prince,” a manifesto of sorts that emphasized ˗ Virtues deception, wickedness, and cunning as being ˗ Intelligence more important to politics than virtue and ˗ Parental support morality. ˗ Health ˗ “It is more important to be feared than loved,” ˗ Attractiveness he wrote.  Unrealistic Optimism  ˗ Being too positive despite the situation. Not lyrics. It can also shape your behavior and how looking on the potential risks you feel about yourself and others. ˗ Is on the rise  Perceiving and interpreting events ˗ Illusory optimism increases our  Kuleshov Effect vulnerability ˗ Control people’s perceptions of emotion by  Defensive Pessimism manipulating the setting in which they see ˗ Thinking all the negative things na pwedeng the face ˗ Filmmaker Lev Kuleshov discovered this mangyari towards sa isang situation. That's kind of psychological phenomenon in why yung mga taong ganito they like 1920s. preparing ahead of time ˗ He conducted an experiment at Moscow ˗ Adaptive value of anticipating problems Film School where he showed his audience and harnessing one’s anxiety to motivate 3 clips with unrelated scenes. effective action (a) Actor's neutral face + hot soup =  Self-serving bias is a by-product of how we HUNGER process and remember information about (b) Actor's neutral face + child in a coffin = ourselves SADNESS  Self-Serving Bias may be: (c) Actor's neutral face + seductive woman ˗ Adaptive = DESIRE ˗ Protects people from depression ˗ So, the audience came up to different ˗ Maladaptive perceptions with different scenes kahit na yung pina-partner don is yung neutral face lang. So, it simply implies that our brain needs to look for patterns or connections between the stimuli and the different scene CHAPTER 3: in order para makapag produce sila ng perception nila. SOCIAL BELIEFS AND JUDGEMENTS ˗  Spontaneous Trait Transference ˗ When we say something bad or good to PERCEIVING OUR SOCIAL WORLDS another, people spontaneously tend to associate that trait with us. (a) Priming  Belief Perseverance  Activating particular associations in memory ˗ Persistence of one’s initial conceptions, as  Priming occurred because of our memory. when the basis for one’s belief is discredited Often our thinking and acting are subtly primed but an explanation of why the belief might by unnoticed events be true survives  Example: Watching a scary movie at home may prime us to interpret furnace noises as a possible intruder PERCEIVING OUR SOCIAL WORLDS  Priming helps explain why some things spring to mind faster after you see or hear a closely  Constructing memories of ourselves and our related concept. This can help with recall at worlds times, but it can also sometimes impair your  Misinformation Effect ability to think of unrelated ideas. ˗ Incorporating “misinformation” into one’s  It can affect how you perceive things in the real- memory of the event after witnessing an world, like influencing how you hear song event and receiving misleading information about it  ˗ When we construct our memories, it is not (b) Stockbroker Overconfidence Stockbroker 100 percent accurate think they know about the market but really ˗ *Parang dagdag-bawas sa mga story na don’t sinasabi natin sa tao. (c) Political Overconfidence  Reconstructing our past attitudes (d) Confirmation Bias ˗ Sometimes we do not recall our past ˗ a psychological term for the human tendency attitudes correctly to only seek out information that supports one ˗ We tend to reconstruct it base on the position or idea. This causes you to have a situation bias towards your original position because if  Reconstructing our past behavior you only seek out information that supports ˗ Sometimes we tend not to recall our past one idea, you will only find information that attitude correctly supports that idea. ˗ We tend to reconstruct it base on our present ˗ Helps explain why our self-images are so views stable ˗ Self-verification  Remedies For Overconfidence JUDGING OUR SOCIAL WORLD ˗ Give prompt feedback to explain why statement is incorrect (1) Intuitive Judgments - powers of intuition ˗ For planning fallacy, ask one to “unpack a (a) Controlled processing task” – break it down into estimated time ˗ Reflective, deliberate, and conscious requirements for each part (b) Automatic processing ˗ Get people to think of one good reason why ˗ Impulsive, effortless, and without our their judgments might be wrong awareness  Heuristics: Mental Shortcuts ˗ Schemas – schemas are our mental concept ˗ Heuristic is a thinking strategy the enables that intuitively guides our perception and quick and efficient judgment interpretations ˗ Representativeness heuristic: Tendency to ˗ Emotional reactions – often instantaneous, presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, happening before there is a time for that someone or something belongs to a deliberate thinking particular group if resembling ˗ Expertise (representing) a typical member. An (2) The Limits of Intuition example of a representativeness heuristic is (a) Hindsight Bias thinking that because someone is wearing a ˗ Knew it all along phenomenon suit and tie and carrying a briefcase, that ˗ Common tendency of people to perceive they must be a lawyer, because they look events that have already occurred as having like the stereotype of a lawyer been more predictable than they actually are  Illusory Thinking (b) Perceptual Misinterpretations ˗ Our search for order in random events. ˗ Misinterpret what we perceive ˗ Types of illusory thinking (c) Illusory Intuition (a) Illusory correlation ˗ Illusion is a false interpretation ˗ occurs when two different variables occur at ˗ We create illusory intuition to seem rational the same time and an unproven connection (3) Overconfidence Phenomenon is made based on little evidence. An ˗ tendency to be more confident than correct – example of this would occur if an individual to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs has a bad experience with a lawyer and they ˗ Incompetence feeds overconfidence immediately assume all lawyers are bad (a) Planning fallacy: Tendency to underestimate people. how long it will take to complete a task  ˗ Perception of a relationship where none In a self-fulfilling prophecy an individual's exists, or perception of a stronger expectations about another person or entity relationship than actually exists (Ex. eventually result in the other person or Premonitions) entity acting in ways that confirm the (b) Illusion of control expectations. ˗ Perception of uncontrollable events as  Experimenter bias subject to one’s control or as more ˗ Teacher Expectations and Student controllable than they are Performance ˗ Tendency to overestimate how much control you have over the outcome of uncontrollable events. This type of thinking is thought to play a role in superstitions, gambling CHAPTER 4: behavior, and paranormal beliefs. GENES, CULTURE, AND GENDER  Moods and Judgments ˗ Good and bad moods trigger memories of experiences associated with those moods How Are We Influenced By Human Nature And ˗ Moods color our interpretations of current Cultural Diversity? experiences  Natural Selection ˗ Process by which heritable traits that best EXPLAINING OUR SOCIAL WORLD enable organisms to survive and reproduce  Inferring Traits in particular environments are passed to ˗ We often infer that other people’s actions are ensuing generations. indicative of their intentions and dispositions  Evolutionary Psychology  Commonsense Attributions ˗ Study of the evolution of cognition and ˗ In social psychology, attribution is the behavior using principles of natural process of inferring the causes of events or selection. behaviors ˗ Evolutionary perspective highlights our ˗ Common Sense Theory of attribution is the universal human nature. Whom should I oldest theory. Fritz Heider proposed it in his trust? Whom should I help? When and with earlier book. This theory states people are all whom should I mate? Whom may I social scientists and will come up with simple dominate? Whom may I control? 'common sense' theories why people act as ˗ Our emotional and behavioral answers to they do. those questions are the same answers that  Fundamental Attribution Error worked for our ancestors. ˗ Tendency for observers to underestimate ˗ Predispositions from our ancestors were situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others’ passed down on to the next generations behavior CULTURE & BEHAVIOR EXPECTATIONS OF OUR SOCIAL WORLD  Culture  Self-Fulfilling Prophecy ˗ Enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and ˗ Belief that leads to its own fulfillment traditions shared by a large group of people ˗ process through which an originally false and transmitted from one generation to the expectation leads to its own confirmation. next.  ˗Genes are not fixed blueprints—their ˗ gravitate towards jobs that enhance expression depends on the environment inequalities ˗ Genetic predisposition about certain kinds of  Social Dominance psychological problem needs external trigger ˗ Men are socially dominant (precipitating factors) ˗ Women’s wages in industrial countries ˗ Nature and Nurture always interact average 77% of men’s.  Cultural Diversity ˗ Men tend to be more autocratic (ruler- ˗ Our behavior is socially programmed centered leadership; leaders have absolute ˗ This refers to the differences among power); women are more democratic individuals based on their personal (people-centered leadership; majority have experiences and attributes freedom) ˗ If we lived as homogenous ethnic group in ˗ Men were said to take more risks separate regions of the world cultural  Aggression diversity will be less relevant. ˗ Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt ˗ In Japan, 98.5% of people are Japanese (CIA, someone 2011) ˗ In the U.S., the arrest ratio of male to female ˗ One in eight (1/8) of Americans are is 9 to 1 (e.g., when provocation occurs the immigrants gender gap shrinks)  Norms: Expected Behavior ˗ Women are slightly more likely to commit ˗ These are standards for accepted and indirect aggressive acts (e.g., spreading expected behaviors malicious gossip) (a) Expressiveness – not everyone is good of  Sexuality expressing themselves ˗ Men often think about and initiate sex (b) Punctuality – “Filipino Time” ˗ Women are more inspired by emotional (c) Rule Breaking – adherence of people to rules passion of authority (d) Personal Space – in our culture, it is not usual for us to give personal space to others Evolution And Gender: Doing What Comes especially to the ones we’re closed Naturally?  Gender and Mating Preferences ˗ Men seek out quantity (men perceive that How Are Males and Females Alike and Different? producing more children means  Women strengthening their manhood); Spreading ˗ describe themselves in more relational terms genes widely ˗ experience more relationship-linked ˗ Women seek out quality; protecting and emotions nurturing of offspring ˗ more empathetic ˗ gravitate toward jobs that reduce inequalities  Men Culture and Gender: Doing As The Culture Says? ˗ focus on tasks and on connections with large  Gender Role groups ˗ Set of behavior expectations (norms) for ˗ responds to stress with “fight-or-flight” males and females response ˗ Gender roles vary over culture ˗ Gender roles vary over time  Peer-Transmitted Culture ˗ 50% of individual variations in personality traits is by parental nurturing while the other 50% is peer influence CODES: (1) 20 (2) 17 (3) 17