S.K. Salman - Introduction to the Smart Grid_ Concepts, Technologies and Evolution.pdf

IET ENERGY ENGINEERING SERIES 94 Introduction to the Smart Grid Other volumes in this series: Volume 1 Power Circuit Breaker Theory and Design C.H. Flurscheim (Editor) Volume 4 Industrial Microwave Heating A.C. Metaxas and R.J. Meredith Volume 7 Insulators for High Voltages J.S.T. Looms Volume 8 Variable Frequency AC Motor Drive Systems D. Finney Volume 10 SF6 Switchgear H.M. Ryan and G.R. Jones Volume 11 Conduction and Induction Heating E.J. Davies Volume 13 Statistical Techniques for High Voltage Engineering W. Hauschild and W. Mosch Volume 14 Uninterruptible Power Supplies J. Platts and J.D. St Aubyn (Editors) Volume 15 Digital Protection for Power Systems A.T. Johns and S.K. Salman Volume 16 Electricity Economics and Planning T.W. Berrie Volume 18 Vacuum Switchgear A. Greenwood Volume 19 Electrical Safety: A guide to causes and prevention of hazards J. Maxwell Adams Volume 21 Electricity Distribution Network Design, 2nd Edition E. Lakervi and E.J. Holmes Volume 22 Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Power Systems K. Warwick, A.O. Ekwue and R. Aggarwal (Editors) Volume 24 Power System Commissioning and Maintenance Practice K. Harker Volume 25 Engineers’ Handbook of Industrial Microwave Heating R.J. Meredith Volume 26 Small Electric Motors H. Moczala et al. Volume 27 AC–DC Power System Analysis J. Arrillaga and B.C. Smith Volume 29 High Voltage Direct Current Transmission, 2nd Edition J. Arrillaga Volume 30 Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) Y.-H. Song (Editor) Volume 31 Embedded generation N. Jenkins et al. Volume 32 High Voltage Engineering and Testing, 2nd Edition H.M. Ryan (Editor) Volume 33 Overvoltage Protection of Low-Voltage Systems, Revised Edition P. Hasse Volume 36 Voltage Quality in Electrical Power Systems J. Schlabbach et al. Volume 37 Electrical Steels for Rotating Machines P. Beckley Volume 38 The Electric Car: Development and future of battery, hybrid and fuel-cell cars M. Westbrook Volume 39 Power Systems Electromagnetic Transients Simulation J. Arrillaga and N. Watson Volume 40 Advances in High Voltage Engineering M. Haddad and D. Warne Volume 41 Electrical Operation of Electrostatic Precipitators K. Parker Volume 43 Thermal Power Plant Simulation and Control D. Flynn Volume 44 Economic Evaluation of Projects in the Electricity Supply Industry H. Khatib Volume 45 Propulsion Systems for Hybrid Vehicles J. Miller Volume 46 Distribution Switchgear S. Stewart Volume 47 Protection of Electricity Distribution Networks, 2nd Edition J. Gers and E. Holmes Volume 48 Wood Pole Overhead Lines B. Wareing Volume 49 Electric Fuses, 3rd Edition A. Wright and G. Newbery Volume 50 Wind Power Integration: Connection and system operational aspects B. Fox et al. Volume 51 Short Circuit Currents J. Schlabbach Volume 52 Nuclear Power J. Wood Volume 53 Condition Assessment of High Voltage Insulation in Power System Equipment R.E. James and Q. Su Volume 55 Local Energy: Distributed generation of heat and power J. Wood Volume 56 Condition Monitoring of Rotating Electrical Machines P. Tavner, L. Ran, J. Penman and H. Sedding Volume 57 The Control Techniques Drives and Controls Handbook, 2nd Edition B. Drury Volume 58 Lightning Protection V. Cooray (Editor) Volume 59 Ultracapacitor Applications J.M. Miller Volume 62 Lightning Electromagnetics V. Cooray Volume 63 Energy Storage for Power Systems, 2nd Edition A. Ter-Gazarian Volume 65 Protection of Electricity Distribution Networks, 3rd Edition J. Gers Volume 66 High Voltage Engineering Testing, 3rd Edition H. Ryan (Editor) Volume 67 Multicore Simulation of Power System Transients F.M. Uriate Volume 68 Distribution System Analysis and Automation J. Gers Volume 69 The Lightening Flash, 2nd Edition V. Cooray (Editor) Volume 70 Economic Evaluation of Projects in the Electricity Supply Industry, 3rd Edition H. Khatib Volume 72 Control Circuits in Power Electronics: Practical issues in design and implementation M. Castilla (Editor) Volume 73 Wide Area Monitoring, Protection and Control Systems: The enabler for Smarter Grids A. Vaccaro and A. Zobaa (Editors) Volume 74 Power Electronic Converters and Systems: Frontiers and applications A.M. Trzynadlowski (Editor) Volume 75 Power Distribution Automation B. Das (Editor) Volume 76 Power System Stability: Modelling, analysis and control B. Om P. Malik Volume 78 Numerical Analysis of Power System Transients and Dynamics A. Ametani (Editor) Volume 79 Vehicle-to-Grid: Linking electric vehicles to the smart grid J. Lu and J. Hossain (Editors) Volume 81 Cyber-Physical-Social Systems and Constructs in Electric Power Engineering Siddharth Suryanarayanan, Robin Roche and Timothy M. Hansen (Editors) Volume 82 Periodic Control of Power Electronic Converters F. Blaabjerg, K. Zhou, D. Wang and Y. Yang Volume 86 Advances in Power System Modelling, Control and Stability Analysis F. Milano (Editor) Volume 88 Smarter Energy: From Smart Metering to the Smart Grid H. Sun, N. Hatziargyriou, H.V. Poor, L. Carpanini and M.A. Sánchez Fornié (Editors) Volume 89 Hydrogen Production, Separation and Purification for Energy A. Basile, F. Dalena, J. Tong, T.N. Veziroğlu (Editors) Volume 93 Cogeneration and District Energy Systems: Modelling, Analysis and Optimization M.A. Rosen and S. Koohi-Fayegh Volume 95 Communication, Control and Security Challenges for the Smart Grid S.M. Muyeen and S. Rahman (Editors) Volume 97 Synchronized Phasor Measurements for Smart Grids M.J.B. Reddy and D.K. Mohanta (Editors) Volume 100 Modeling and Dynamic Behaviour of Hydropower Plants N. Kishor and J. Fraile-Ardanuy (Editors) Volume 101 Methane and Hydrogen for Energy Storage R. Carriveau and David S.-K. Ting Volume 905 Power system protection, 4 volumes Introduction to the Smart Grid Concepts, Technologies and Evolution Salman K. Salman The Institution of Engineering and Technology Published by The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, United Kingdom The Institution of Engineering and Technology is registered as a Charity in England & Wales (no. 211014) and Scotland (no. SC038698). † The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2017 First published 2017 This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publisher at the undermentioned address: The Institution of Engineering and Technology Michael Faraday House Six Hills Way, Stevenage Herts, SG1 2AY, United Kingdom www.theiet.org While the author and publisher believe that the information and guidance given in this work are correct, all parties must rely upon their own skill and judgement when making use of them. Neither the author nor publisher assumes any liability to anyone for any loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether such an error or omission is the result of negligence or any other cause. Any and all such liability is disclaimed. The moral rights of the author to be identified as author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this product is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-78561-119-3 (hardback) ISBN 978-1-78561-120-9 (PDF) Typeset in India by MPS Limited Printed in the UK by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon Contents About the Author xiii Preface xv Acknowledgments xxi Terminologies and abbreviations xxiii 1 Introduction to the Smart Grid concept 1 1.1 Background and history of Smart Grid evolution 1 1.2 Definition of the Smart Grid 3 1.3 Characteristics of the Smart Grid 5 1.4 Smart Grid benefits 9 1.5 Smart Grid vision and its realization 10 1.5.1 Definition of Smart Grid vision 10 1.5.2 The IEEE Computer Society Smart Grid Vision 11 1.6 Examples of Smart Grid projects/initiatives 13 1.6.1 US Smart Grid efforts 13 1.6.2 European Smart Grid efforts 15 1.6.3 China’s Smart Grid efforts 18 1.7 Summary 20 References 20 2 Smart Grid versus conventional electrical networks 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Conventional electrical networks 25 2.2.1 Infrastructure of conventional electrical networks 25 2.2.2 Main characteristics of conventional electrical networks 26 2.3 Motives behind developing the Smart Grid concept 26 2.3.1 Aging of conventional electrical networks coupled with the emergence of new applications 27 2.3.2 Political and environmental factors 27 2.3.3 Liberalization of electricity market (economic factors) 28 2.3.4 Motivation and inclusion of customers 28 2.4 Comparison between Smart Grid and conventional electrical networks 28 2.5 Evolution of Smart Grid concept 28 2.5.1 Characteristics of Smart Grid as defined by EU and US Smart Grid visions 29 2.5.2 Advanced metering infrastructure 32 vi Smart Grid: concepts, technologies and evolution 2.6 An overview of the Smart Grid infrastructure 40 2.7 Summary 40 References 41 3 Smart Grid infrastructure 45 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Composition of the Smart Grid 46 3.2.1 Composition of Smart Grid based on standards adaptation 46 3.2.2 Composition of Smart Grid based on technical components’ perspective 47 3.2.3 Composition of Smart Grid based on technical perspective 51 3.2.4 Composition of Smart Grid based on conceptual reference model perspective 52 3.3 Basic components of Smart Grid and its technical infrastructure 56 3.3.1 Basic components of Smart Grid 56 3.3.2 Smart Grid infrastructure 58 3.4 Summary 60 References 60 4 Smart Grid interoperability standards 63 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 Analogy between the interoperability of a digitally based device and human interoperability 63 4.2.1 Definition 63 4.3 Cyber interoperability standards 64 4.3.1 Aim of interoperability standards 64 4.3.2 Type and characteristics of interoperability standards for Smart Grid 65 4.4 Interoperability standards development organizations 65 4.5 Electrical power industry standards development organizations (SDOs) and key interoperability standards 66 4.5.1 The International Electrotechnical Commission 66 4.5.2 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) 66 4.5.3 Internet Engineering Task Force 67 4.5.4 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 68 4.5.5 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) 69 4.5.6 North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) 70 4.5.7 World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) 70 4.5.8 German Standards Institute DIN (Deutsches Institut für Normung) 71 4.6 Users groups and collaborative efforts within the power industry 71 4.6.1 UCA International Users Group 71 Contents vii 4.6.2 National Rural Electric Cooperative Association (NRECA)’s MultiSpeak 72 4.6.3 Cigré 72 4.6.4 GridWiseTM Alliance 72 4.6.5 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)’s IntelliGrid program 73 4.6.6 Vendor collaborations 74 4.6.7 Utility Standards Board 76 4.7 Summary 77 References 77 5 Smart Grid communication system and its cyber security 81 5.1 Introduction 81 5.2 Classification of power system communication according to their functional requirements 81 5.2.1 Real-time operational communication systems 81 5.2.2 Administrative operational communication systems 82 5.2.3 Administrative communication systems 83 5.3 Existing electric power system communication infrastructure and its limitation 83 5.4 Smart Grid communication system infrastructure 86 5.4.1 Fundamental functions of the Smart Grid communication infrastructure 87 5.4.2 Architecture of Smart Grid communication infrastructure 87 5.4.3 Smart Grid communication infrastructure challenges 87 5.4.4 Standardization efforts by industry 88 5.5 Cyber security of power systems 89 5.5.1 Basic definitions 89 5.5.2 Security of power systems and cyber attacks 90 5.5.3 Smart Grid cyber security 91 5.6 Summary 99 References 99 6 International standard IEC 61850 and its application to Smart Grid 103 6.1 Introduction and historical background 103 6.2 Aim and objectives of IEC 61850 105 6.3 The structure of IEC 61850 105 6.4 The process bus 107 6.4.1 Practical implementation of the process bus 108 6.5 Merging unit 109 6.6 Comprehensive modeling approach of IEC 61850 110 6.7 Mapping process approach of IEC 61850 to protocols 114 6.8 IEC 61850 substation configuration language 115 6.9 IEC 61850 substation architecture 116 viii Smart Grid: concepts, technologies and evolution 6.10 Smart Grids and IEC 61850 117 6.10.1 Example of Smart Grid demonstration projects using IEC 61850 118 6.11 Summary 119 References 119 7 Power system protection under Smart Grid environment 121 7.1 Introduction 121 7.2 Protection prior to the Smart Grid era 122 7.3 Protection systems under Smart Grid environment 122 7.3.1 Operating concepts of Smart Grid protection relays 122 7.3.2 Fault circuit indicator 123 7.4 Smart Grid communication infrastructure that suits protection requirements 125 7.5 Smart Grid requires smarter protection 126 7.6 Architecture of Smart Grid protection system 128 7.7 Examples on development of smart adaptive protection systems 131 7.7.1 Smart adaptive protection for microgrids 132 7.7.2 Adaptive protection for smart distribution networks 135 7.8 Protection system architecture based on IEC 61850 137 7.8.1 Traditional practices 138 7.8.2 New opportunities offered by the introduction of IEC 61850 standard 138 7.9 Summary 140 References 140 8 Application of Smart Grid concept to distribution networks 143 8.1 Introduction 143 8.2 Smart distribution networks versus conventional distribution networks 143 8.3 Why distribution networks need to be smart? 144 8.4 Basic building blocks of a smart distribution network 144 8.4.1 Agents 145 8.4.2 Characteristics of agents 145 8.4.3 PowerMatch 146 8.4.4 E-terra trade 146 8.4.5 E-terra control 146 8.5 Evolvement of distribution networks into Smart Grids 147 8.5.1 Flexible Electricity Networks to Integrate the eXpected Energy Evolution (FENIX) 147 8.5.2 Active Distribution network with full integration of Demand and distributed energy RESourceS (ADDRESS) 152 8.6 Summary 159 References 160 Contents ix 9 Smart Grid enables the integration of electric vehicles 163 9.1 Introduction 163 9.2 Types of electric drive vehicle 164 9.3 Benefits of transportation electrifications 165 9.4 The driving factors toward transportation electrification 165 9.5 Challenges to EV adoption 166 9.5.1 Challenges faced by customers 166 9.5.2 Challenges faced by utilities 167 9.6 Types of EV charging systems 169 9.6.1 L1 AC charging systems 169 9.6.2 L2 AC charging systems 169 9.6.3 L3 DC Charging stations 169 9.7 Smart Grid enables smart charging 170 9.7.1 Robust, reliable, and secure connectivity 170 9.7.2 Integration of EV charging infrastructure into demand side management (DSM) system 170 9.7.3 Provision of distributed intelligence 171 9.7.4 Provision of a separate meter at the EVSE integrated into AMI 171 9.7.5 Integration of EV charging infrastructure into DR system 171 9.7.6 Integration of EV charging infrastructure into distributed automation (DA) system 172 9.7.7 Coordination with renewable energy-based generation 172 9.8 Load management of EVs using Smart-Grid technologies 172 9.8.1 The difference EVs make to electricity load 172 9.8.2 Optimizing scheduling of EV charging using Smart-Grid technologies 172 9.8.3 EVs can help in meeting peak load 173 9.8.4 Management of intermittent renewable energy-based generation using EVs 173 9.8.5 Effect of regulation, electricity pricing business models for EVs charging stations on load management of EVs 174 9.9 Flexibility of electric vehicles and their integration into Smart Grid 175 9.9.1 Definition of flexibility in relation to EV 176 9.9.2 Components related to EV-Smart-Grid integration 177 9.9.3 Management of the flexibility provided by EVs stored energy 180 9.10 Coordination of multiple plug-in electric vehicle charging in Smart Grids using real-time smart load management (RT-SLM) algorithm 181 9.10.1 Background and assumptions 182 9.10.2 RL-SLM coordination algorithm 184 x Smart Grid: concepts, technologies and evolution 9.10.3 Automation of scheduling PEVs charging using RT-SLM algorithm 187 9.11 Summary 188 References 188 10 Smart Grid and energy storage systems 193 10.1 Introduction 193 10.2 Characteristics of energy storage devices/systems 193 10.3 Types and characteristics of EES systems 194 10.3.1 Mechanical storage systems 195 10.3.2 Electrochemical storage systems (batteries) 196 10.3.3 Chemical ESS 201 10.3.4 Electrical storage systems 204 10.3.5 Thermal energy storage systems 205 10.4 Benefits of ESSs 208 10.5 Applications of ESSs 209 10.5.1 Electrical network energy storage applications 210 10.5.2 Transport and mobility energy storage applications 210 10.6 Energy storage systems and integration of wind power-based plants 211 10.6.1 Mitigation of power fluctuation 211 10.6.2 Improvement in LVRT capability 216 10.7 Summary 218 References 218 11 Smart transmission grid 223 11.1 Introduction 223 11.2 Why transmission grids need to be smart? 223 11.3 Challenges and requirements of future STG 224 11.3.1 Environmental challenges 224 11.3.2 Market/customer requirements 224 11.3.3 Infrastructure challenges 224 11.3.4 Adaptation of innovative technologies 225 11.4 The essential aspects of the STG 225 11.4.1 Integration of synchrophasor measurements technology into transmission system operation and control 225 11.4.2 Compatibility of ICT infrastructure 227 11.4.3 Operational and coordination issues 227 11.5 Vision of future STG 228 11.5.1 Characteristics of future STG 228 11.5.2 Basic components of STG 230 11.5.3 Smart transmission network 231 11.5.4 Smart transmission substations 232 11.5.5 Smart control centers 237 Contents xi 11.6 Current research activities on STG 243 11.6.1 Smart transmission grid research in Europe 243 11.6.2 Smart transmission grid research in USA 248 11.6.3 Smart transmission grid research in China 253 11.7 Summary 256 References 256 Index 259 About the author Salman K. Salman is Professor Emeritus at Robert Gordon University (RGU) – Aberdeen. He was the Head of Renewable Energy and Power Systems Group at RGU. His research interest includes integration of renewable energy sources into electrical distribution networks, modeling of wind turbines, protection of distribution networks with integrated distributed generation, and substation automation. He worked closely with industry including ALSTOM, ScottishPower, Cruickshank and Partners, National Grid, and SiGen. His work has resulted in developing a prototype energy system consisting of two-wind turbine 15 kW each, fuel cell, hydrogen storage system, and small electric vehicle. It was installed at Unst isle, Shetland, north of Scotland, UK. Another example of his work is the development of a very sophisticated voltage control system in collaboration with Cruickshank and Partners and national grid, which was adopted by national grid for controlling their 400 kV substations. He is the co-author of the book titled ‘‘Digital protection for power systems,’’ published by the IEE. He is the author of more than 120 papers. Preface In recent years, it has been recognized that conventional electrical networks cannot meet the requirements of the twenty-first century in terms of reliability, efficiency, meeting the requirements of liberalization of electricity market, effective and seamless integration of various types of renewable energy sources, integration of electric vehicles (EVs), and inclusion of customers as players to support the grid to which they are connected. This has led to seriously consider the necessity to modernize electrical supply networks and hence the Smart Grid concept has emerged. Additionally, the emergence of new technologies such as distributed control, monitoring devices, computing and tremendous advances in information and communication technologies has paved the way to the realization of Smart Grid concept. Hence, the idea of writing a book on Smart Grid has come about. The aim is to explain the evolution of Smart Grid. The book is intended for professionals, academia and research communities. The book therefore focuses on discussing the tools, derivers, technologies that are necessary to realize Smart Grid concept. The subject of the book is covered under 11 chapters as outlined below. Chapter 1. In this chapter, the concept of Smart Grids and background are introduced. This is followed by an extensive literature survey related to the defi- nition of the ‘‘Smart Grid.’’ A comprehensive definition of the Smart Grid may read: ‘‘A smart grid is an electricity network that uses digital and other advanced technologies, such as cyber-secure communication technologies, automated and computer control systems, in an integrated fashion to be able to monitor and intelligently and securely manage the transport of electricity from all generation sources both traditional and renewable to economically meet the varying electricity demands of end-users.’’ Chapter 2. In this chapter, the motives behind the development of the Smart Grid concept have been identified. Such motives include aging of conventional electrical networks, political and environmental factors, economical factors, and motivation and inclusion of customers connected to Smart Grid. The evolution of the Smart Grid concept is then discussed. The advanced metering infrastructure (AMI), which is also known in Europe as smart metering system (SMS), was then introduced. AMI is considered a fundamental and first step to the overall moder- nization of conventional electrical networks which eventually has led to the development of the Smart Grid vision. AMI is viewed as an important tool for providing the essential link required between the grid, consumers and their loads, and generation and storage resources. Definition of AMI is given followed by xvi Smart Grid: concepts, technologies and evolution discussing its main components, AMI communication infrastructure, and the adopted communication technologies for AMI. This is followed by giving a brief overview of the Smart Grid infrastructure and its characteristics. Chapter 3. In this chapter, the compositions of Smart Grid and the basis on which such compositions are defined have been discussed. This includes compo- sition of Smart Grid based on standards adaptation, composition of Smart Grid based on technical components’ perspective, composition of Smart Grid based on technical perspective, and composition of Smart Grid based on conceptual perspective. Identification of the basic components of Smart Grid that are currently in use is then covered. It has been recognized that new components are continued to be developed as the Smart Grid evolves. Chapter 4. In this chapter, the tool required to ensure the interoperability among the various digitally based components of the Smart Grid, which is con- sidered a key requirement of the Smart Grid realization, is identified and discussed. Such tool is represented by the internationally recognized communication and interface standards. An analogy between the interoperability of a digitally based device and human interoperability is introduced. Cyber-interoperability standards are discussed highlighting their aim, type, and characteristics. Standards develop- ment organizations of power industry and the key interoperability standards that they are involved with are discussed. Additionally, the input of users groups and collaborative efforts within the power industry toward developments of interoper- ability standards is also discussed. Chapter 5. This chapter is devoted to Smart Grid communication system and its cyber-security. A classification of power system communication (PSC) systems according to their requirements is given. They are classified into real-time opera- tional communication systems, administrative operational communication systems, and administrative communication systems. This is followed by discussing the existing electric PSC infrastructure and highlighting its limitation. In particular, the following topics have been covered: overview of current PSC systems and their characteristics, shortcomings of current PSC systems, and characteristics of future PSC systems that suit Smart Grid requirements Smart Grid communication system infrastructure was then discussed. This includes fundamental functions of the Smart Grid communication infrastructure, architecture of Smart Grid communications infrastructure, Smart Grid commu- nications infrastructure challenges and standardization efforts by industry Finally, cyber-security of power systems/Smart Grid was then discussed. It begins with giving definition of cyber-infrastructure and cyber-security. This is then followed by discussing security of power systems and cyber-attacks. The Smart Grid cyber-security was then discussed, which covered Smart Grid cyber- security challenges, emerging Smart Grid cyber-security technologies, compliance versus security, and Smart Grid cyber-security standards. Chapter 6. This chapter is devoted to the application the international standards IEC 61850 to Smart Grid. An overview of the standards IEC 61850 is given highlighting its relevance to the development of the Smart Grid concept. Preface xvii The discussion is started by giving an introduction and background of IEC 61850, its aim and objectives and its structure. The concept of ‘‘Process Bus’’ is then introduced followed by discussing its practical implementation. This is followed by discussing the comprehensive modeling approach of IEC 61850 and mapping process approach of IEC 61850 to protocols. Substation configuration language (SCL) as specified in IEC 61850 is then discussed followed by developing an IEC 61850 substation architecture model. Finally, an explanation as how IEC 61850 can be used to transform conventional electrical power network into Smart Grid is given. This is followed by covering an EU-funded project known as ‘‘Web2Energy’’ that uses IEC 61850-based communication system. In this project, the use of IEC 61850 by self-healing grid and distributed generation plants to communicate with the control center over various communication channels was highlighted. Chapter 7. Development of Smart Grid concept could profoundly affect the way the relaying and protection of power systems are implemented. This chapter is therefore devoted to discuss power system protection under Smart Grid envir- onment. Initially an overview of the protection prior to the Smart Grid era is given. This is followed by discussing relaying protection under Smart Grid environment highlighting the expected benefits. The operating concepts of Smart Grid protection relays and intelligent fault circuit indicator for Smart Grid appli- cations are then covered. This is followed by discussing the communication infrastructure that suits protection requirements. How Smart Grid requires smarter protection is then explained. This is followed by discussing the architecture of Smart Grid protection system highlighting the application of multiagent techno- logy and the relationship between multiagent systems and IEC 61850. Examples on development of smart adaptive protection systems are then given. These include smart adaptive protection for microgrids and adaptive protection for smart distribution networks. The chapter is concluded by presenting protection system architecture based on IEC 61850 under which two topics were covered: smart adaptive protection for microgrids and new opportunities offered by the intro- duction of IEC 61850. Chapter 8. An overview of the application of Smart Grid concept to distribu- tion networks is covered in this chapter. It begins by outlining the main differences between conventional distribution networks and their counterpart smart distribution networks. This is followed by explaining as why distribution networks are needed to be smart. The basic building blocks from which a smart distribution network consists of are then covered. Finally, the evolvement of conventional distribution networks into smart distribution networks is discussed. In this context and in order to achieve this objective, two EU projects, namely FENIX and ADDRESS, have been initiated which are briefly covered respectively. In FENIX project, the concept of a virtual power plant (VPP) has been intro- duced as way forward to ensure the flexibility of distribution networks with regard to the integration of distributed energy resource/renewable energy source (DER/ RES) units. The aim of ADDRESS project is to develop a comprehensive com- mercial and technical framework suitable for the development of ‘‘Active Demand’’ and to exploit its market-based benefits. xviii Smart Grid: concepts, technologies and evolution Chapter 9. This chapter is devoted to discussing how the integration of EVs is enabled the by Smart Grid. It begins by highlighting the benefits gained from the electrification of transportation and the factors that drive toward transportation electrification. The challenges to EV adoption faced by both customers and utilities are then discussed. This is followed by discussing the types of EV charging stations, which is also known as EV supply equipment (EVSE). Smart charging enabled by Smart Grid is then covered. The load management of EVs using Smart Grid technologies was then discussed. Under this title, several topics were covered including the difference EVs can make to electricity load, optimizing EV charging scheduling using Smart Grid technologies, explaining the use of EVs to help meet peak load, use of EVs combined with application of relevant regulations to manage the intermittency of renewable energy-based generation, and electricity pricing business models for EVs charging stations on load management of EVs. This is followed by discussing the flexibility of EVs and their integration into Smart Grid, whereby the definition of flexibility in relation to EV was introduced followed by discussing the components related to EV-Smart Grid integration and then the management of the flexibility provided by EV stored energy was covered. Finally, automatic charging scheduling of multiple plug-in EV to be connected to a Smart Grid using real-time smart load management (RL-SLM) algorithm was discussed. Among other things covered under this title include the basic components of RL- SLM algorithm, outlining the formulation of the optimization algorithm used to minimize generation and losses during PEVs charging and automation of sche- duling PEVs charging using RT-SLM algorithm, whereby the operating principles of RT-SLM algorithm and its implementation were explained. Chapter 10. This chapter is devoted to energy storage systems (ESS). The characteristics of energy storage devices/systems are discussed. This is then fol- lowed by discussing types and characteristics of electrical ESS. The types covered include mechanical storage systems, electrochemical storage systems (batteries), chemical ESS, electrical storage systems and thermal ESS. The potential benefits of ESS to Smart Grids in terms of enhancing their performance, operability, and security as well as reducing the cost of energy production and delivery are high- lighted. Applications of ESS are then introduced. Such applications may be broadly divided into electrical network energy storage and transport and mobility energy storage. The application of ESS to facilitate effective and efficient integration of wind power-based generation (WPBG) into Smart Grid distribution networks is discussed. The discussion has focused on mitigation of power fluctuation caused by WPBG and on the improvement in low-voltage-ride-through (LVRT) capability. Chapter 11. This chapter concerns with the development of smart transmission grid (STG). The reasons for the need of STG are discussed. This is then followed by discussing the challenges and requirements of future STG, which include envir- onmental challenges, market/customer requirements, infrastructure challenges, and adaptation of innovative technologies. The essential aspects of the STG are then highlighted. These include integration of synchrophasor measurements technology into transmission system operation and control, the necessity of having compatible ICT infrastructure, and resolving the operational and coordination issues. Preface xix The vision of future STG is then discussed in which various topics have been covered including the characteristics of future STG, the basic components of STG that consist of smart transmission network, smart transmission substations, and smart control centers. An example of a 500 kV practical smart transmission sub- station is given. The discussion covered includes the applied architecture of IEC 61850 SAS using station and process buses, IEEE 1588 standard for precise time synchronization, and the communication network used inside the substation. The smart control centers are discussed covering a review of the development of the control centers over the period expanding from the 1950s till the 1990s. Then the vision of functions that future smart control centers should have was high- lighted. Such functions include monitoring/visualization, analytical capability, controllability, and electricity market interface. Finally this chapter is concluded by discussing research activities at the time of writing this book that are conducted in Europe, the USA, and China aiming specifically at the development of STG. Salman K. Salman December 2016 Acknowledgments The author thanks Robert Gordon University (RGU)-Aberdeen for providing access to RGU’s library facilities. He also thanks Paul Deards (Publisher – Academic Books, The IET) for his help in clarifying the matter related to securing permission to reuse materials. The author thanks NIST, OECD, Xanthus Consulting International, the European Parliament, and Springer for permission to reproduce information from their publications. Finally, the author thanks the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) for permission to reproduce information from its international publications. All such extracts are copyright of IEC Geneva, Switzerland. All rights reserved. Further information on the IEC is available from www.iec.ch. IEC has no respon- sibility for the placement and context in which the extracts and contents are reproduced by the author, nor is IEC in any way responsible for the other content or accuracy therein. Terminologies and abbreviations 4G Fourth generation. It is the fourth generation of mobile tele- communication technology, succeeding 3G and preceding 5G technologies. AAM Advanced asset management ACL Agent communication language AD Active demand, which means the active participation of domestic and small commercial consumers (and prosumers) in the electricity markets and in the provision of services to the other electricity sys- tem participants ADO Advanced distribution operations AGC Automatic generation control AMI Advanced metering infrastructure AMM Automated meter management AMM Advanced meter management AMR Automated meter reading ASAP-SG Advanced security acceleration project for the Smart Grid ATO Advanced transmission operations BMS Battery management system BMS Business management system CAPS Centralized adaptive protection system CB Circuit breaker CIM Common information model CIS Customer information system CCVT Capacitance coupled voltage transformer CSP Concentrated solar power DAR Delayed auto reclosing CCP Common coupling point CPC Constant power control DAS Data acquisition system DER Distributed energy resources xxiv Smart Grid: concepts, technologies and evolution DFIG Doubly fed induction generator DHS Department of Homeland Security DSO Distributed system operator TSO Transmission system operator DMS Distribution management systems DNP Distributed Network Protocol DR Demand response DSM Demand side management ED Economic dispatch EISA Energy Independence and Security Act EMS Energy management systems ESS Energy storage system EV Electric vehicle EVSE EV supply equipment EU European Union ECT Electronic current transformer EVT Electronic voltage transformer FAN Field area networks FAT Factory acceptance test FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission FM agents Function management agents Gencos Generation companies GIS Geographic information system GOMSFE General object models for substation and field equipment GOOSE Generic object-oriented substation events GPS Global positioning system GSC Grid-side converter GSE Generic substation event GSSE Generic substation state events HAN Home area network HEV Hybrid electric vehicle ICT Information and communication technology IEDs Intelligent electronic devices IoT Internet of things IP Internet Protocol ISO/RTO Independent System Operator/Regional Transmission Organization Terminologies and abbreviations xxv ISO International Standards Organization LAN Local area networks LFC load frequency control LMP Location marginal prices LN Logical node LSE Load serving entity LOM Loss-of-mains LTE Long-term evolution LVRT Low-voltage ride through MAC Media access control MDMS Meter data management systems MGCC Microgrid central controller MMS Manufacturing message specification MU Merging unit MUC Multiutility communication NAN Neighbourhood Area Network NETL National Energy Technology Laboratory (USA) NERC North American Electric Reliability Corporation NERC CIP North American Electric Reliability Corporation Critical Infra- structure Protection NCIT Nonconventional instrument transformer NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology of North America NTP Network Time Protocol OC Over current OMS Outage management systems OPF Optimal power flow OSI Open system interconnect PDC Phasor data concentrator PCM Phase change material PHEV Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle PHY Physical layer PLC Power line carrier PMU Phasor measurement unit PPS Pulse per second PTP Precise Time Protocol PV Photovoltaic xxvi Smart Grid: concepts, technologies and evolution QOS Quality of service RAS Remedial action scheme RF Radio frequency RES Renewable energy sources ROI Return on investment RSC Rotor-side converter RTO Regional Transmission Organization RTU Remote terminal unit SAN Substation area networks SAT Site acceptance test SBO Select before operate SCADA Supervisory control and data acquisition SCD file System configuration description file SCE Southern California Edison SCED Security-constrained ED SCL Substation configuration language SCSM Specific communication service mapping SCUC Security-constrained unit commitment SDM Supply and demand matching SDOs Standards development organizations SGCB Setting group control block SGIP Smart grid interoperability panel SMES Superconducting magnetic energy storage SMV Sampled measured value SNTP Simple Network Time Protocol SOA Service-oriented architecture SOC State of charge SPS Special protection schemes Transcos Transmission companies SSO Standards (or specifications)-setting organization SVC Sampled value control SVCB Sampled value control block TCP Transmission Control Protocol TSO Transmission system operator UC Unit commitment UCA Utility communication architecture Terminologies and abbreviations xxvii UCAIug Utilities Communication Architecture (UCA) International Users Group (UCAIug) UDP User Datagram Protocol UML Unified Modelling Language WAMS Wide Area Measurement System WAN Wide area networks WFSC Wind farm supervisory controller WSDL Web Service Description Language WTG Wind turbine generator WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access XML Extensible Markup Language XSD XML Schema Definition Chapter 1 Introduction to the Smart Grid concept 1.1 Background and history of Smart Grid evolution In an article published in Wired Magazine in July 2001 a precise description of the future network, which later on was known as a Smart Grid, states ‘‘The best minds in electricity R&D have a plan: Every node in the power network of the future will be awake, responsive, adaptive, price-smart, eco-sensitive, real-time, flexible, humming, and interconnected with everything else.’’ The Smart Grid concept has recently been promoted in Europe [2–4], North America [5,6], and worldwide in countries such as India, China [7–10], and South Africa. In Europe, the European Technology Platform for the Electricity Networks of the Future has been created following a proposal by industrial stakeholders and the research community during the first International Conference on the Integration of Renewable Energy Sources and Distributed Energy Resources held in December 2004. The work on Smart Grids was then started in 2005 by the SmartGrids Eur- opean Technology Platform for Electricity Networks of the Future. The aim was to formulate and promote a vision for the development of European electricity net- works in 2020 and beyond. In the USA, Smart Grid concept has been promoted officially by the publica- tion of the US Energy Independence and Security Act of December 2007 whereby it is stated : To move the United States toward greater energy independence and security, to increase the production of clean renewable fuels, to protect consumers, to increase the efficiency of products, buildings, and vehicles, to promote research on and deploy greenhouse gas capture and storage options, and to improve the energy performance of the Federal Govern- ment, and for other purposes. Under Title XIII-Smart Grid, Sec. 1301 of this Act, the following statement of policy defined the Smart Grid: It is the policy of the United States to support the modernization of the Nation’s electricity transmission and distribution system to maintain a reliable and secure electricity infrastructure that can meet future demand 2 Smart Grid: concepts, technologies and evolution growth and to achieve each of the following, which together characterize a Smart Grid: 1. Increased use of digital information and controls technology to improve reliability, security, and efficiency of the electric grid. 2. Dynamic optimization of grid operations and resources, with full cyber-security. 3. Deployment and integration of distributed resources and generation, including renewable resources. 4. Development and incorporation of demand response, demand-side resources, and energy-efficiency resources. 5. Deployment of ‘‘smart’’ technologies (real-time, automated, inter- active technologies that optimize the physical operation of appliances and consumer devices) for metering, communications concerning grid operations and status, and distribution automation. 6. Integration of ‘‘smart’’ appliances and consumer devices. 7. Deployment and integration of advanced electricity storage and peak- shaving technologies, including plug-in electric and hybrid electric vehicles, and thermal-storage air conditioning. 8. Provision to consumers of timely information and control options. 9. Development of standards for communication and interoperability of appliances and equipment connected to the electric grid, including the infrastructure serving the grid. 10. Identification and lowering of unreasonable or unnecessary barriers to adoption of smart grid technologies, practices, and services. The Smart Grid definition given above is very broad. It covers many aspects of electric grid operation and management. The Smart Grid vision embedded in this definition aims at improving reliability, efficiency, and security of all aspects of the power system, including generation, transmission, distribution, and customer sites. Many entities, however, focus their vision of the Smart Grid almost exclu- sively on the potential customer services enabled by advanced metering infra- structures (AMI). The latter will be discussed in detail in Chapter 2. Advancements made over many decades in automation, protection, control, power dispatch, and communication used particularly in transmission networks have paved the way to the development of the Smart Grid concept. Some of these tech- nologies have been in use since the early stage of electrical power industry while others have gradually been incorporated into electrical grids over several generations. For example, the earliest or first generation control equipment used in substations that was best described as automatic control. Their basic function is to de-energize the protected circuit when it is subjected to a fault condition, reclosing it once to test whether the fault to which the circuit is subjected to is momentary. This function was initially performed by electromechanical relays but later on was taken over by digital/numerical relays. The second generation is based on the automatic tele- phone switchboard equipment of the 1950s. It may be considered as one of the first uses of communication equipment in a grid substation. Using this equipment, the Introduction to the Smart Grid concept 3 operator at a remote location could read and have control of the local substation. This equipment was called supervisory control equipment. In the late 1960s the super- visory control and data acquisition system (SCADA) was introduced to replace supervisory control equipment. The SCADA system slowly expanded in the 1970s and 1980s whereby a minimum monitoring of the majority of the transmission sys- tems operating at voltages of 220 kV or higher and some distribution substations were included. This system was also used to centrally support control rooms and remote terminal units (RTUs) for data collection and control in the substations. Latter on RTUs are connected through hardwires to programmable logic controllers (PLCs). The latter are originated from manufacturing industries. As technology progressed, communication links took the place of the hardwired inputs. The RTU/PLC config- uration was then replaced with different network architecture in the mid-1990s. This network architecture consists of protection relays/intelligent electronic devices (IEDs), PLCs, and other devices talking to each other over a network and coordi- nating operations. Number of utilities has already moved to the second generation of this system and they are currently contemplating to transform the backbone com- munication protocol to International Electro-technical Commission (IEC) 61850. The IEC 61850 will be introduced in Chapter 6. In the context of Smart Grid, historically distribution networks are usually con- trolled manually. However, manually operated switches and fuses do not lend themselves easily to the Smart Grid concept. For this reason, many utilities embarked on developing programs aiming at deployment of intelligence, primarily to enhance the voltage profiles of distribution networks and to speed up isolation of faults. 1.2 Definition of the Smart Grid Smart Grid concept has been vision/initiated by different organizations and authors. Likewise, development of an acceptable definition of the Smart Grid has been attempted by different organizations and authors. In general, two different approaches have been adopted to define the Smart Grid. It is defined based on either (i) identifying the advantages offered by the grid (solution prospective) or (ii) what components the grid is consisted of (components’ prospective). However, Asea Brown Boveri Ltd (ABB), in an internal white paper, based the definition of the Smart Grid on its cap- abilities and operational characteristics rather than the use of any particular tech- nology. They took the view that deployment of Smart Grid technologies will occur over a long period of time, adding successive layers of functionality and capability onto existing equipment and systems. ABB argued that although technology is the key, it is only a means to an end; therefore, the Smart Grid can and should be defined by broader characteristics. A selection of definitions for the Smart Grid reported in literature is given below: In 2003, the Department of Energy in USA has developed a vision of the grid in 2030 which states : Grid 2030 is a fully automated power delivery network that monitors and controls every customer and node, ensuring a two-way flow of electricity and information between the power plant and the appliance, and all points 4 Smart Grid: concepts, technologies and evolution in between. Its distributed intelligence, coupled with broadband commu- nications and automated control systems, enables real-time market trans- actions and seamless interfaces among people, buildings, industrial plants, generation facilities, and the electric networks. In 2005, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has developed an initiative for the Smart Grid called IntelliGrid which states : EPRI’s IntelliGridSM initiative is creating the technical foundation for a smart power grid that links electricity with communications and computer control to achieve tremendous gains in reliability, capacity, and customer services. A definition of the Smart Grid proposed by Cisco states : A Smart grid is the term generally used to describe the integration of all elements connected to the electrical grid with an information infra- structure, offering numerous benefits for both the providers and con- sumers of electricity. An alternative definition of the Smart Grid proposed by European Technology Platform states : A SmartGrid is an electricity network that can intelligently integrate the actions of all users connected to it—generators, consumers and those that do both—in order to efficiently deliver sustainable, economic and secure electricity supplies. The IEC development organization defines the Smart Grid as : The Smart Grid is integrating the electrical and information technologies in between any point of generation and any point of consumption. In a recent publication, Gharavi and Ghafurian define the Smart Grid as follows : The Smart Grid can be defined as an electric system that uses information, two-way, cyber-secure communication technologies, and computational intelligence in an integrated fashion across electricity generation, trans- mission, substations, distribution and consumption to achieve a system that is clean, safe, secure, reliable, resilient, efficient, and sustainable. In an article published in IET Engineering and Technology (E&T) magazine, Davies defined the Smart Grid as : A smart grid is an electricity network that uses digital and other advanced technologies to monitor and manage the transport of electricity from all generation sources to meet the varying electricity demands of end-users. Smart grids co-ordinate the needs and capabilities of all generators, grid operators, end-users and electricity market stakeholders to operate all Introduction to the Smart Grid concept 5 parts of the system as efficiently as possible, minimizing costs and environmental impacts while maximizing system reliability, resilience and stability. A possible concise definition of the Smart Grid may be given as follows: A smart grid is an electricity network that uses digital and other advanced technologies, such as cyber-secure communication technologies, auto- mated and computer control systems, in an integrated fashion to be able to monitor and intelligently and securely manage the transport of electricity from all generation sources to economically meet the varying electricity demands of end-users. Therefore, the Smart Grid ensures the coordination of the needs and cap- abilities of all generating facilities, grid operators, end-users, and electricity market stakeholders so that all parts of the system operate as efficiently as possible, minimizing costs and environmental impacts while maximizing system safety, reliability, resilience, and stability. 1.3 Characteristics of the Smart Grid Similar to the definition of the Smart Grid, its characteristics have been identified by different organizations/authors using different approaches. Table 1.1 gives a selection of Smart Grid characteristics reported in literature by various sources. The widely adopted approaches for identifying Smart Grid characteristics are based on (i) functionality approach [24,25] and (ii) broad approach [22,26]. Smart Grid characteristics based on functionality approach [24,26] include seven principal characteristics as listed below: 1. Optimize asset utilization and operating efficiency. 2. Accommodate all generation and storage options. 3. Provide power quality for the range of needs in a digital economy. 4. Anticipate and respond to system disturbances in a self-healing manner. 5. Operate resiliently against physical and cyber-attacks and natural disasters. 6. Enable active participation by consumers. 7. Enable new products, services, and markets. While those based on the broad approach [22,26] are as follows: Adaptive and self-healing: Smart Grid being adaptive means it has less reli- ance on operators, particularly in responding rapidly to changing conditions. However, the Smart Grid being self-healing means it has the capability of automatically repair or remove potentially faulty equipment from service before it fails, and has the ability of reconfiguring the system in such a way to ensure continuity of the energy to all customers. Flexible: The Smart Grid has the ability to rapid and safe interconnection of distributed generation and energy storage at any point on the system at any time. Table 1.1 A selection of the Smart Grid characteristics as reported in literature Reference Reference Reference Reference Reference The characteristics of the According to this reference, a This reference suggests that According to this reference, The principal characteristics Smart Grid according to fully realized Smart Grid from a solution perspec- ABB focuses on broad of the Smart Grid accord- this reference include: will have the following tive, the Smart Grid is characteristics rather than ing to this reference characteristics: characterized by: specific functions. Based include: 1. Extensively use digital on this concept, the Smart information and 1. Self-healing: This means 1. Self-healing: As in , Grid is characterized as 1. Enable active participa- controls technology in (a) automatically repair- this means, the ability of being: tion by consumers. order to improve ing or removing of the grid to: (a) auto- 2. Accommodate all reliability, security, potentially faulty equip- matically repair or dis- 1. Adaptive: This means generation and storage and efficiency of the ment from service before connect potentially faulty that the Smart Grid is facilities. electric grid. it fails and (b) reconfi- equipment from service less dependence on 3. Enable new products, 2. Dynamically optimize guration of the system to before it fails and (b) operators, particularly in services, and markets. grid operations and reroute supplies of reconfigure the system to responding rapidly to 4. Provide power quality resources with full energy to ensure sustain- reroute supplies of changing conditions. for the digital economy. cyber-security. ability of power to all energy to ensure sustain- 2. Predictive: The Smart 5. Optimize asset utiliza- 3. Ensures the deployment customers. ability of power to all Grid is predictive in tion and operate and integration of 2. Flexible: This implies customers. terms of applying opera- efficiently. distributed energy the rapid and safe inter- 2. More efficient energy tional data to equipment 6. Anticipate and respond resources and genera- connection of distributed routing: Thus, the Smart maintenance practices as to system disturbances tion, including renew- generation and energy Grid optimizes the well as identifying (self-heal). able energy resources. storage at any point on energy usage, reduces the potential outages before 7. Operate resiliently 4. Ensures the develop- the system at any time. need for excess capacity they occur. against attack and ment and incorporation 3. Predictive: This means and increases power 3. Integrated: This means, natural disaster (Secure). of demand response, predictions of the next quality and security. in Smart Grid real-time Similarly, in a meeting demand-side resources, most likely events so that 3. Enhance monitoring communications and organized by the U.S. and energy-efficiency appropriate actions are and control of energy control functions are Department of Energy in resources. taken to reconfigure the and grid components. integrated. June 2008, industry leaders system before next worst identified the following 5. Ensures the deployment events can happen. 4. Improved data capture: 4. Interactive: This refers seven characteristics of of ‘‘smart’’ technolo- This can be achieved by This would improve to the interaction Smart Grid : gies for metering, com- using machine learning, outage management. between customers munications concerning weather impact projec- 5. Two-way flow of elec- and markets. 1. Optimize asset utiliza- grid operations and sta- tions, and stochastic tricity and real-time 5. Optimized: This is to tion and operating tus, and distribution analysis. information: This would maximize reliability, efficiency. automation. These 4. Interactive: This means help in incorporating availability, efficiency, 2. Accommodate all include real-time, auto- allowing all key partici- green energy sources, and economic generation and storage mated, interactive tech- pants in the energy sys- demand-side manage- performance. facilities. nologies that optimize tem to play an active role ment and real-time 6. Secure: Smart Grid is 3. Provide power quality the physical operation in optimal management market transactions. expected to be secure for the range of needs in of appliances and con- of contingencies. This is 6. Highly automated, from attack and natu- a digital economy. sumer devices. achieved by providing responsive, and self- rally occurring 4. Anticipate and respond 6. Ensures the integration appropriate information healing: This ensures disruptions. to system disturbances of ‘smart’ appliances regarding the status of seamless interfaces in a self-healing manner. and consumer devices. the system not only to the between all parts of the 5. Operate resiliently 7. Ensures the deployment operators but also to the energy network. against physical and and integration of customers. cyber-attacks and nat- advanced electricity 5. Optimized: This is ural disasters (Secure). storage and peak- achieved by knowing the 6. Enable active participa- shaving technologies, status of every major tion by consumers. including plug-in component in real or near 7. Enable new products, electric and hybrid real time and having services, and markets. electric vehicles, and control equipment that thermal-storage air provides optional routing conditioning. paths, which provides the 8. Enables consumers to capability for autono- gain access to timely mous optimization of the information and control flow of electricity options. throughout the system. (Continues) Table 1.1 (Continued) Reference Reference Reference Reference Reference 9. Ensures the develop- 6. Secure: Due to the ment of standards for two-way communication communication and capability of the Smart interoperability of Grid that covers the appliances and equip- end-to-end system, it is ment connected to the extremely important to electric grid, including ensure the physical as the infrastructure ser- well as cyber-security ving the grid. of all critical assets. 10. Identifies and reduces unreasonable or unne- cessary barriers to adoption of Smart Grid technologies, practices, and services. Introduction to the Smart Grid concept 9 Predictive: The Smart Grid has the ability to apply operational data to equipment maintenance practices and even identify potential outages before they occur. This may be achieved with the help of using machine learning, weather impact projections, and stochastic analysis to provide predictions of the next most likely events, so that appropriate actions can be taken to reconfigure the system before the next worst events can happen. Integrated: This is particularly important in terms of real-time communica- tions and control functions. Interactive: The Smart Grid should have the capability of providing appro- priate information regarding the status of the system not only to the operators, but also to the customers, that is, both consumers and prosumers, to allow all key participants in the energy system to play an active role in optimal man- agement of contingencies and also to facilitate the interaction between custo- mers and markets. Optimized: This is achieved by knowing the status of every major component in real or near real time and having control equipment to provide optional routing paths that provide the capability for autonomous optimization of the flow of electricity throughout the system with the aim of maximizing relia- bility, availability, efficiency, and economic performance. Secure: Since the two-way communication capability covering the end-to-end system is considered as a fundamental and basic requirement of the Smart Grid, the need for physical as well as cyber-security of all critical assets is essential. This is extremely important to ensure that the Smart Grid is secured from attack and naturally occurring disruptions. 1.4 Smart Grid benefits The benefits obtained from the full implementation of the Smart Grid are enormous [27–29]. This includes technical, environmental, and electricity marketing benefits: (a) Technical benefits Full deployment of Smart Grid would result in several technical benefits that include: (i) Energy efficiency improvement: This is achieved through loss reduction, peak shaving, that is, peak demand control, implementation of AMI and automated energy system operation. (ii) Grid reliability improvement: This is achieved by reducing the fre- quency and duration of power interruptions. (iii) Operational efficiency improvement: Achieved through active con- trol, automation, and management services in distribution grids and by empowering customers through home automation and use of smart appliances. (iv) Security and safety improvement: Security improvement can be achieved by using sensors and automated operations that will reduce the threats of blackouts and by properly coordinating the operation of transmission and distribution with intelligent preventive and emergency 10 Smart Grid: concepts, technologies and evolution control and coordinated restoration. Safety improvement, however, can be achieved by reducing the vulnerability of the grid to unexpected hazards and promoting a safer system for personals whether workers or general public. (v) Quality of supply: Quality of supply in terms of maintaining voltage magnitude within their statutory limits can be achieved by Smart Grid technologies such as censors, two-way information, and communica- tion technologies. (vi) Improved connection and access of the grid: Improved connection and access of the grid is particularly important to distributed energy sources (DERs), including renewable energy sources (RESs) and plug- in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). (b) Environment benefits Environment benefits gained from deployment of Smart Grid include: (i) Reduction in carbon emissions: This is achieved due to reduction in grid losses, integration of renewable and distributed generation, and by supporting efficient end-use by plug-in electricity vehicles. (ii) Climate change benefits: Reduction in grid losses resulted from deployment of Smart Grid, as stated above, together with facilitating generation of electricity from renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, and hydro has major implications on reduction in CO2 emission which in turn improve the prospect of climate change. (c) Electricity marketing benefits Under the Smart Grid environment, the electricity price can be reduced com- pared with that of conventional grid, due to the dynamic interaction of the demand side of the market (consumers) with electricity supply side (suppliers/ providers). The information made available under such an environment about electricity price from different suppliers would naturally let consumers choose the least electricity price supplier. Consequently this creates healthy electricity market competition, which benefits consumers and also plays part in optimizing the operation of the power system network. 1.5 Smart Grid vision and its realization Two types of Smart Grid visions can be identified in literature; an overall vision and a relatively detailed vision as detailed below. 1.5.1 Definition of Smart Grid vision Based on the discussion covered in previous sections, particularly with reference to the vision of the grid in 2030 that has been developed by the Department of Energy in the USA , the overall Smart Grid vision may be defined as: Smart Grid is an electrical power network, which is fully automated as a result of equipping it with communication and information system Introduction to the Smart Grid concept 11 and other technological devices and systems such as distributed control systems, distributed intelligent systems that enable it to monitor and control every electrical load and node, ensuring a two-way flow of elec- tricity and information between generating plants and the appliances, and all points in between. Its distributed intelligence, coupled with broadband communications and automated control systems, enables real-time market transactions and seamless interfaces among people, buildings, industrial plants, generation facilities, and the electric networks. 1.5.2 The IEEE Computer Society Smart Grid Vision In 2013, the IEEE Computer Society Smart Grid Vision Project (CS-SGVP) has developed a relatively detailed Smart Grid vision that focuses on smart devices and various computational intelligence techniques for the next 30 years. According to the outcome of this project, a Smart Grid is expected to be complex and will have huge number of intelligent connected devices and systems and computational intel- ligence techniques. According to this vision, the complexity of such a Smart Grid can be tackled by adopting top-down to the lowest levels of architectures approach and ensuring an interactive cooperation between smart components, each with a level of autonomy. The proposed Smart Grid vision is based on a three-layered approach: architectural, functional, and technological concepts layers as shown in Figure 1.1. The architectural concepts level details Smart Grid goals and characteristics, general grid types, and computing concepts that are considered common across the Smart Grid, while functional concepts level explains how the Smart Grid will Visions Architectural Functional Technological concepts concepts concepts AC-1 FC-1 TC-1 Keywords AC-2 FC-2 TC-2 Keywords AC-3 FC-3 TC-3 Keywords AC-n FC-n TC-n Figure 1.1 Smart Grid vision based on a three-layer approach [after 30] 12 Smart Grid: concepts, technologies and evolution operate, and the technological concepts level explains the roles of certain tech- nologies within the Smart Grid. The following subsections will be devoted to discuss these three levels. 1.5.2.1 Architectural concepts layer 1 The architectural concepts layer 1 sits at the top level. It consists of architectural concepts (AC-i) related to electrical grid configurations and operations, where i ¼ 1, 2, 3,... n. Architectural concepts explain Smart Grid goals and charac- teristics, general grid types, as well as computing concepts that are considered common across grid types. They also explain Smart Grid business case goals and objectives, various supply side and demand side Smart Grid concepts, and system concepts that apply to this vision approach. The proposed visionary architectural concepts have introduced important concepts in the following areas: Evolution of energy supply mix Enhancement of transmission networks Coexistence of electrical network configurations End-use as an active component Advancement of enabling technologies Control methodologies 1.5.2.2 Functional concepts layer 2 Functional concepts layer 2 is placed underneath the architecture concept layer 1. It consists of large number of FC-i, where i ¼ 1, 2, 3,... n that are required to support any Smart Grid vision. According to , many functional concepts are currently in operation, while many others are at the stage of research and devel- opment. Additionally, some functional concepts represent an imagined capability but without clear idea as how such a capability will be achieved. Functional concepts under layer 2 cover high-level electrical power system infrastructure functions as well as functions at end-user sections of the system, including end-use devices and systems. It has been acknowledged by that despite the huge importance of the Smart Grid and its expected support of sustainable energy systems to the global economy and energy security, development of the basic functions needed for understanding and operating the power system, which includes optimizing and securing its performance, represents an overwhelming functional challenge. It has also been pointed out that at the time at which the Smart Grid vision under con- sideration was proposed, there were serious computational intelligence challenges in safety and security, communications, autonomy, and enterprise business solu- tions. This is especially true if it is recognized that required solutions must cover previously unconsidered interactions with other devices and systems, which include uncertainties related to cyber-security as well as social, economic, and environ- mental codependencies. The functional areas considered for the development of this proposed Smart Grid vision may be broadly defined as follows: Communications networks Cyber-security Introduction to the Smart Grid concept 13 Markets and economics Operations, monitoring, and control Planning, analysis, and simulation Systems engineering Visualization and data management 1.5.2.3 Technological concepts layer 3 Technological concepts layer 3 consists of technological concepts (TC-i), where i ¼ 1, 2, 3,... n. These technological concepts take the advantage of advancements in computational hardware and software technologies, including information sys- tems, interaction protocols, networks, frameworks, middleware, resource manage- ment, and operating systems. Technological concepts enable the functional concepts described in the previous section. Since computing technologies continue to contribute to the advancement of all sectors of society’s activities, including industry, commerce, finance, health, agriculture, and infrastructure, they will evolve along abstract ideas of methodology and tools that will be applied to realize new capabilities in all these sectors. As it has been discussed previously, computer and information technologies constitute an important component of the Smart Grid. Therefore, advances in these technologies would result in reducing the cost of their application to deliver a more efficient and secure electric system. For this reason the technological concepts in the CS-SGVP explore computer science disciplines and capabilities, including computational intelligence that technology developers must keep in mind when developing specific Smart Grid functional requirements. Under this vision, the intention is that each technological concept must be independent from other technological concepts and must support multiple func- tional concepts. In addition, each functional concept that is derived by assembling the capabilities expressed in multiple technological concepts must also be inde- pendent. According to this vision, the technological concept areas include: Computer applications Cyber-security Distributed systems architectures Information science 1.6 Examples of Smart Grid projects/initiatives As mentioned earlier, the Smart Grid concept has recently been promoted in many countries which led to the initiation of several research projects/initiatives aiming at practically realizing this concept. Examples of such projects/initiatives planned/ executed in the USA, Europe, and China will be briefly discussed below. 1.6.1 US Smart Grid efforts In the USA, several organizations have been engaged in Smart Grid initiatives/ projects. EPRI’s IntelliGridSM initiative and DOE’s GridWise vision outlined below are two important examples of works on Smart Grid issues. 14 Smart Grid: concepts, technologies and evolution 1.6.1.1 IntelliGridSM The EPRI in the USA has initiated [31–33] a research program called ‘‘Intelli- GridSM’’ involving several electrical utility members, aiming at establishing the best way that ensures the creation of a Smart Grid and incorporating it into the operations of individual electrical utilities. This is based on creating technical foundation for a smart power grid that links electricity with communications and computer control to enhance reliability, capacity, and customer services. An important early achievement of this initiative is the IntelliGrid Archi- tecture. The aim of the IntelliGrid Architecture was to integrate two systems in the power industry, that is, the electrical power and energy delivery system and the information system that support it. The information system consists of commu- nication, networks, and intelligence equipment. This is achieved by developing of open standards, advanced communications, and networking technologies capable of ensuring interoperability between various system components from different vendors so that it can work with intelligent equipment and algorithms to execute increasingly sophisticated electric utility system functions. In 2007, the IEC has recognized the EPRI’s IntelliGrid methodology as a standard. Utilities members of the IntelliGrid program are provided with the methodolo- gies, tools, proposed standards, and unbiased assessments of technologies when implementing new system-wide technology solutions for advanced metering, distributed automation, demand response, and wide-area monitoring and control. The program also provides utilities with independent and unbiased testing of technologies and equipment from different vendors. The IntelliGrid program addresses several key industry issues that include: 1. Understanding what does a Smart Grid mean for a particular utility. 2. Developing an industry architecture that enables interoperable systems and components. 3. Conducting technology assessments for the potential components that can make up a Smart Grid. 1.6.1.2 GridWise The GridWise vision is based on the assumption that information technology has the ability to revolutionize planning and operation of conventional power systems just as it has changed business, education, and entertainment. It is, therefore, perceived that information technology acts as the ‘‘nervous system’’ that integrates new distributed technologies (demand response, distributed generation, and storage) with conventional power system’s generation, transmission, and distribution net- works. According to the GridWise vision the responsibility for managing the resulting new grid is shared by a ‘‘society’’ of devices and system entities. According to the same vision the new grid is expected to be highly intelligent and interactive electric system; one with decision-making information exchange capability and market-based opportunities. Such high-level perspective can be Introduction to the Smart Grid concept 15 achieved by providing guidelines for interaction between participants and inter- operability between technologies and automation systems. Therefore, the vision grid is expected to: 1. Allow electric devices, enterprise systems, and their owners to interact and adapt as full participants in the grid operations. 2. Have the connectivity for intelligent interactions and interoperability across all automation components of the electric system from end-users, such as buildings or high voltage alternating current (HVAC) systems, to distribu- tion, transmission, and bulk power generation. 3. Address issues of open information exchange, universal grid access, decen- tralized grid communications and control, and the use of modular and exten- sible technologies that are compatible with the existing infrastructure. 1.6.2 European Smart Grid efforts European Smart Grid project is explained in detail in three-series documents. The first document , ‘‘Vision and Strategy for Europe’s Electricity Networks of the Future,’’ established the need to have a vision for the future European elec- tricity networks. The second , ‘‘Strategic Research Agenda,’’ consolidated the views of stakeholders on the research priorities necessary to deliver these net- works. The third , ‘‘The SmartGrids Strategic Deployment Document for Europe’s Electricity Networks of the Future,’’ concluded the series and focused on the deployment of new network technologies and the delivery of the Smart- Grids vision. According to the first document, Europe’s electricity networks have success- fully provided the vital links between electricity producers and consumers for many decades. The fundamental architecture of these networks has been developed to meet the needs of large and predominantly carbon-based generation technologies, located remotely from demand centers. The change of the electricity generation landscape in recent years, due to market liberalization which led to the introduction of low-carbon generation technologies in a form of distributed generation (DG), including RES and storage generation, has created new energy challenges that Europe need to resolve. The drive for low-carbon generation technologies, coupled with greatly improved efficiency on the demand side, enables customers to become much more interactive with the networks. This in turn has led to foresee customer-centric networks that are way forward. These fundamental changes, however, will sig- nificantly influence the way networks are designed and controlled. In this context, the European Technology Platform (ETP) SmartGrids was established in 2005 aiming at creating a SmartGrids vision for the European net- works for 2020 and beyond. The platform includes representatives from industry, transmission and distribution system operators, research bodies, and regulators. It has identified clear objectives and proposes an ambitious strategy to realize this vision for the benefits of Europe and its electricity customers. 16 Smart Grid: concepts, technologies and evolution This vision was based on a solid program of research, development, and demonstration that was expected to lead to an electricity of supply network that would meet the needs of Europe’s future. Such envisioned network should be: Flexible: It must fulfill customers’ needs and at the same time responding to the changes and challenges ahead; Accessible: It should be able to grant connection access to all network users, particularly for renewable energy sources and high efficiency local generation with zero or low carbon emissions; Reliable: It should have the ability of assuring and improving security and quality of supply, consistent with the demands of the digital age with resilience to hazards and uncertainties; Economic: It should have the capability of providing best value through innovation, efficient energy management, and ‘‘level playing field’’ competi- tion and regulation. The second document explains that the ETP has set the milestone for the establishment of a common strategy for the development of future Europe’s elec- tricity networks that can meet the challenges of the twenty-first century in its paper titled ‘‘Vision and Strategy for Europe’s Electricity Networks of the Future’’ pub- lished in April 2006. This vision has highlighted that Europe’s future electricity markets and networks must provide all consumers with a highly reliable, flexible, accessible, and cost-effective power supply, fully exploiting the use of both large centralized generators and smaller distributed power sources across Europe. It has also emphasized that end-users should become significantly more interactive with both markets and grids; electricity would be generated by centralized and dispersed sources; and grid systems would become more interoperable at a European level to enhance security and cost-effectiveness. This new concept of electricity networks is described as the ‘‘SmartGrids’’ vision. Such a vision is expected to enable a highly effective response to the rising challenges and opportunities, bringing benefits to all network users and wider stakeholders. In order to realize this objective, the European Technology Platform Smart- Grids has focused its efforts on the development of a Strategic Research Agenda (SRA). Four working groups that represent a wide range of European industrial and academic expertise have contributed to this effort. Member State governments have also provided valuable advice and comment through the Mirror group. The SRA is a reference document that consolidates the views of the stakeholders on research priorities that address the key elements of the vision document. The aim of the SRA is to provide a resource for European and national pro- grams. It is meant to be non-prescriptive and strategic in nature; it is designed to encourage competitive activity; and it is intended to be an inspiration for new thinking in important policy areas. The goals of the framework for a future research program proposed by the SRA can be summarized as follows: To ensure that Europe’s electricity networks develop in such a way that enhances Europe’s competitive position provided that environmental objec- tives or the commitment to sustainability are not compromised. Introduction to the Smart Grid concept 17 To capture the benefits of collaboration and cooperation to address challenges that are common across all member states. To encourage imaginative solutions that may require community-wide adop- tion to be successful, including new approaches to energy efficiency and demand side participation. To build on previous R&D to maximize the benefit and eliminate duplication. To fully utilize the current infrastructure to ensure that the most efficient use is made of existing assets that are not age expired, thereby delivering innovative and competitive solutions for European customers. To provide a clear framework, goals and objectives on which the research com- munity can focus, encouraging innovative solutions where this will add value. To generate the momentum and support necessary to convert good ideas to adopt products and solutions through catalyst projects, demonstration projects, and knowledge transfer. A key principle in the development of the proposed SRA is that network users should be at the focus of developments. To achieve this, an integrated approach to technical, commercial, and regulatory aspects has been undertaken, aiming at delivery of added-value solutions and services to all stakeholders and end-users. It recognizes t

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