Scientific Revolution PDF

GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES Scientific Life and works Revolution of: Overview...

GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES Scientific Life and works Revolution of: Overview Aristotle The Scientific Revolution was a series of events that marked the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy) and chemistry transformed Ptolemy the views of society about nature. It is a drastic change in scientific thought that took place during the 16th and 17th centuries. A new view of nature emerged Copernicus during the Scientific Revolution, replacing the Greek view that had dominated science for almost 2,000 years. Science became an autonomous discipline, distinct from both philosophy and technology, and it came to be regarded as having utilitarian Brahe goals. By the end of this period, it may not be too much to say that science had replaced Christianity as the focal point of European civilization. Out of the ferment of the Renaissance and Kepler Reformation there arose a new view of science, bringing about the following transformations: the reeducation of common sense in favour of abstract reasoning; the substitution of a quantitative Galileo for a qualitative view of nature; the view of nature as a machine rather than as an organism; the development of an experimental, scientific method that sought definite answers to certain limited questions couched in the framework of specific Newton theories; and the acceptance of new criteria for explanation, stressing the “how” rather than the “why” that had characterized the Aristotelian search for final causes. By tradition, the "Scientific Revolution" refers to historical changes in thought & belief, to changes in social & institutional Self organization, that unfolded in Europe between roughly 1550- Assessment 1700; beginning with Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), who asserted a heliocentric (sun-centered) cosmos, it ended with Isaac Newton (1642-1727), who proposed universal laws and a Mechanical Universe. Learning Objectives: Upon completion of this lesson, students will be able to: outline key events in the scientific revolution identify important figures of the scientific revolution and their contributions such as Aristotle, Ptolemy, Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Galileo and Newton For SLSU use only 1 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES philosophy. Even after the intellectual revolutions of the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Enlightenment, Aristotelian concepts remained embedded in Western thinking. Aristotle was born on the Chalcidic peninsula of Macedonia, in northern Greece. Aristotle’s father, Nicomachus, was court physician to the Macedonian king Amyntas II. Although Nicomachus died when Aristotle was just a young boy, Aristotle remained closely affiliated with and influenced by the Macedonian court for the rest of his life. Little The change to the medieval idea of science is known about his mother, Phaestis; she is occurred for four reasons: also believed to have died when Aristotle was young. 1. Seventeenth century scientists and After Aristotle’s father died, Proxenus of philosophers were able to collaborate with Atarneus, who was married to Aristotle’s members of the mathematical and older sister, Arimneste, became Aristotle’s astronomical communities to effect advances guardian until he came of age. When Aristotle in all fields. turned 17, Proxenus sent him to Athens to pursue a higher education. At the time, 2. Scientists realized the inadequacy of Athens was considered the academic center medieval experimental methods for their of the universe. In Athens, Aristotle enrolled work and so felt the need to devise new in Plato’s Academy, Greek’s premier learning methods (some of which we use today). institution, and proved an exemplary scholar. Aristotle maintained a relationship with 3. Academics had access to a legacy of Greek philosopher Plato, himself a student of European, Greek, and Middle Eastern Socrates, and his academy for two decades. scientific philosophy that they could use as a Plato died in 347 B.C. Because Aristotle had starting point (either by disproving or disagreed with some of Plato’s philosophical building on the theorems). treatises, Aristotle did not inherit the position of director of the academy, as many imagined he would. Aristotle Pythias, also known as Pythias the Elder, was (born 384 BCE, Stagira, Chalcidice, Greece— a Greek biologist and embryologist. She was died 322, Chalcis, Euboea), ancient Greek the adoptive daughter of Hermias of philosopher and scientist, one of the greatest Atarneus, as well as Aristotle's first wife. intellectual figures of Western history. He Aristotle met and married his first wife, was the author of a Pythias, Pythias, named after her mother. In philosophical and 335 B.C., the same year that Aristotle opened scientific system that the Lyceum, his wife Pythias died.While in became the Athens, Aristotle became involved with framework and Herpyllis of Stagira,... as Aristotle's concubine vehicle for both after his wife, Pythias, died. Christian Scholasticism and Together Aristotle and Herpyllis had a son, medieval Islamic named Nicomachus after Aristotle's father. For SLSU use only 2 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES He may have been a member of the royal He believed in a geocentric Universe and that lineage of Egypt. He was not an Egyptian the planets and stars were perfect spheres though. Records seem to infer he was a Greek. though Earth itself was not. He further thought that the movements of the planets Ptolemy was also a mathematician, and stars must be circular since they were geographer, and astrologer. perfect and if the motions were circular, then The Earth was the center of the Universe they could go on forever. Today, we know according to Claudius Ptolemy, whose view of that none of this is the case, but Aristotle was the cosmos persisted for 1400 years until it so respected that these wrong answers were was overturned — with controversy — by taught for a very long time. findings from Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton. Geocentric Ptolemy accepted Aristotle’s idea that the Sun model, any and the planets revolve around a spherical theory of the Earth, a geocentric view. Ptolemy developed structure of the this idea through observation and in solar system (or mathematical detail. In doing so, he rejected the universe) in the hypothesis of Aristarchus of Samos, who which Earth is came to Alexandria about 350 years before assumed to be at Ptolemy was born. Aristarchus had made the the centre of it claim that the Earth revolves around the Sun, all. The most highly developed geocentric but he couldn’t produce any evidence to back model was that of Ptolemy of Alexandria (2nd it up. century CE). It was generally accepted until the 16th century, after which it was The Almagest superseded by heliocentric models such as that of Nicolaus Copernicus. Ptolemy’s most famous work is the Almagest, an astronomy textbook and star catalogue. An Earth-Centered View of the Universe The Almagest was a substantial, ambitious work. It taught its students how to predict the 85–165 CE lived location of any heavenly body at any time in Alexandria, from anywhere on Earth using Ptolemy’s Egypt, a city mathematical model of planet movements. established by Ptolemy presented his model’s output in the Alexander the form of data tables. Using his tables, one Great some 400 could also predict eclipses. years before Ptolemy’s birth. As for the details of the life of Claudius Ptolemy, little is known and most is lost to After the Romans history. Much of what is believed to be true conquered Egypt about Ptolemy comes from texts that were in 30 BCE, Alexandria became the second- written about him centuries after his death, largest city in the Roman Empire and a major and thus may not be accurate. Scholars are source of Rome’s grain, but less funding was certain that Ptolemy was ethnically Greek and provided for scientific study of the stars. nationally a Roman – but also influenced by Ptolemy was the only great astronomer of the ancient cultures of Egypt and even Roman Alexandria. Babylon. For SLSU use only 3 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES Not much is known about the final years of Claudius Ptolemy. His death was just as Copernicus later studied at the University mysterious as his birth and origins. It is of Padua and in 1503 received a doctorate strongly believed that when he passed away, in canon law from the University of he died in the city he spent the bulk of his life, Ferrara. He returned to Poland, where he Alexandria, Egypt. But he left behind a legacy became a church administrator and of work that continues to influence well into doctor. In his free time, he dedicated the modern era. himself to scholarly pursuits, which sometimes included astronomical work. 1473-1543 Nicholaus Copernicus was Nicolaus Copernicus: Against The a Polish astronomer known as the father of Ptolemaic System modern astronomy. He was the first The cosmology of early 16th-century modern European Europe held that Earth sat stationary and scientist motionless at the center of several to propose that rotating, concentric spheres that bore the Earth and other celestial bodies: the sun, the moon, the planets revolve known planets, and the stars. From around the sun, or ancient times, philosophers adhered to the Heliocentric the belief that the heavens were arranged Theory of the in circles (which by definition are universe. He perfectly round), causing confusion argued that Earth lay at the center of the among astronomers who recorded the universe, the view also held by most often eccentric motion of the planets, ancient philosophers and biblical writers. which sometimes appeared to halt in their In addition to correctly postulating the orbit of Earth and move retrograde across order of the known planets, including the sky. Earth, from the sun, and estimating their But the Ptolemaic system remained orbital periods relatively accurately, Europe’s accepted cosmology for more Copernicus argued that Earth turned daily than 1,000 years, on its axis and that gradual shifts of this axis accounted for the changing seasons. Copernicus's revolutionary ideas reorganized the heavens He was born on February 19, 1473 in Torun, a city in north-central Poland. This secretive astronomer devoted his Copernicus was born into a family of well- entire life to sun-centered cosmic theories to-do merchants, and after his father’s as larger questions of faith were dividing death, his uncle–soon to be a bishop–took Europe nearly 500 years ago. the boy under his wing. He was given the best education of the day and bred for a Nicolaus Copernicus and the career in canon (church) law. At the Heliocentric Theory University of Krakow, he studied liberal arts, including astronomy and Sometime astrology, and between 1508 then, he was sent and 1514, to Italy to study Nicolaus medicine and law. Copernicus wrote For SLSU use only 4 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES a short astronomical treatise commonly and the planets still revolved around the called the Commentariolus, or “Little sun on giant transparent spheres. Commentary,” which laid the basis for his The Julian calendar, then in use, had become heliocentric (sun-centered) system. The so inexact that it fell out of time with the work was not published in his lifetime. In seasons. Copernicus submitted a statement the treatise, he correctly postulated the to a 1512-16 council convened to address the order of the known planets, including problem, in which he called for more Earth, from the sun, and estimated their accurate observations. A new “Gregorian” orbital periods relatively accurately. calendar with leap years was introduced For Copernicus, his heliocentric theory under Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 and is still was by no means a watershed, for it in use today. created as many problems as it solved. For instance, heavy objects were always In 1514 Copernicus was invited to contribute assumed to fall to the ground because to a council to reform the calendar, so as to Earth was the center of the universe. Why enable the church to fix feast days with more would they do so in a sun-centered accuracy. This heliocentric theory was system? He retained the ancient belief considered as the greatest controversy that circles governed the heavens, but his in science during that time. Most of the evidence showed that even in a sun- people accused Copernicus as a fool and his centered universe the planets and stars theory is anti biblical. did not revolve around the sun in circular orbits. Because of these problems and others, Copernicus delayed publication of Facts About Nicolaus Copernicus his major astronomical work, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri vi, 1. He came from a family of merchants and or “Six Books Concerning the Revolutions clergy. Some historians believe that of the Heavenly Orbs,” nearly all his life. Copernicus's name derives from Koperniki, a Completed around 1530, it was not village in Poland named after tradesmen who published until 1543–the year of his mined and sold copper. The astronomer's death. father, also named Nicolaus Copernicus, was a successful copper merchant in Krakow. What Did Nicolaus Copernicus Discover? 2. He was a polyglot. Growing up, Copernicus likely knew both According to Copernicus Earth and the Polish and German. When Copernicus's father planets revolve around the sun led him to died when he was around 10, Lucas make a number of other major Watzenrode funded his nephew's education astronomical discoveries. While revolving and he started learning Latin. around the sun, Earth, he argued, spins on its axis daily. Earth takes one year to orbit 3. He wasn't the first person to suggest the sun and during this time wobbles heliocentrism it was Aristarchus of Samos. a gradually on its axis, which accounts for Greek astronomer who lived in the 200s BCE, the precession of the equinoxes. Major flaws in the work include his concept of 4. He was probably a lifelong bachelor As an the sun as the center of the whole official in the Catholic Church, Copernicus universe, not just the solar system, and took a vow of celibacy. He never married and his failure to grasp the reality of elliptical was most likely a virgin, but he may have had orbits, which forced him to incorporate an affair with his housekeeper in the late numerous epicycles into his system, as did 1530s, the astronomer was in his sixties Ptolemy. With no concept of gravity, Earth For SLSU use only 5 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES when Anna Schilling, began living with him. 4. What are the reasons why geocentric 5. He attended four universities before theory of Aristotle and Ptolemy last that long. earning a degree Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) He died the year his major work was published, saving him from the outrage of some religious leaders who later condemned his heliocentric view of the universe as heresy. By the late 18th century, the Copernican view of the solar system was almost universally accepted. Toward the close of 1542, Copernicus was seized with apoplexy and paralysis, and he died at age 70 on 24 May 1543. Legend has it that he was presented with the final printed Tycho Ottesen Brahe was born into a highly pages of his Dē revolutionibus orbium aristocratic, very wealthy family on December coelestium on the very day that he died, 14, 1546. He was born in his parents’ large allowing him to take farewell of his life's manor house at Knutstorp, in the Danish work.[w] He is reputed to have awoken from region of Scarnia, which is now in Sweden. a stroke-induced coma, looked at his book, and then died peacefully. Tycho’s father was Otte Brahe, a member of the Royal Court. His mother was Beate Bille, #FOCUS QUESTION also an important aristocrat. Tycho was the 1. Copernicus wrote a book that summarizes second of the couple’s 12 children. his lifetime of observation on planets and Although we usually refer to scientists by stars, published just before his death. it was their surnames, in some cases we use their first names – Galileo, for example. This is also called the case with Tycho Brahe, who is usually a: the sun goes around the earth referred to simply as Tycho, pronounced b: on the revolutions of celestial spheres ‘Teeko.’ c: heliocentric universe d: why the sun is the center Kidnapped 2. The theory Copernicus developed of the Something rather remarkable happened to cosmos, that the planets revolve around the Tycho in his second year of life – he was sun is called the _____________ theory. kidnapped by his uncle and aunt, Jørgen a. geocentric c. heliocentric Brahe and Inger Oxe, when his parents were away from home. Tycho’s uncle and aunt b. cosmocentric d. homocentric were childless, and they believed that Jørgen was entitled to a lawful son and heir to his estates. Tycho’s natural parents eventually 3. Copernicus' book De Revolutionibus agreed to this, so Tycho was raised by his orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the uncle and aunt as if he were their own son. Celestial Spheres) is viewed as the starting point of which modern branch of study? Important natural events turned Tycho from A: medicine C: physics law to astronomy. Tycho’s interest in B: mathematics D: astronomy astronomy began with the solar eclipse of August 21, 1560. In Copenhagen this eclipse For SLSU use only 6 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES was barely noticeable – less than half of the later, he returned to Denmark, where he sun was covered. The eclipse inspired Tycho began experimenting with metal fittings to not because it was spectacular, but because disguise his nose’s disfigurement. He wore a astronomers had predicted exactly when it skin-colored metal prosthetic for the rest of would happen. Tycho was fascinated, and his life. wanted to learn how he too could make When news reached him that his natural predictions like this. father, Otte Brahe, was ailing, Tycho returned to Denmark. His father died in May 1571, A Scholar, Not a Warrior leaving 23-year-old Tycho a substantial The Brahe family was powerful and legacy. militaristic. By tradition their male children Astronomy without a Telescope became warriors serving the interests of the Galileo Galilei studied the heavens with a family, the King, and the Danish nobility telescope for the first time in 1609. Sadly, However, Tycho’s foster mother, Inger, had Tycho did not live long enough to see this. All come from an academic family and she his observations were made with the naked persuaded her husband that Tycho should eye, using the finest astronomical receive an academic education. instruments in Europe. In the summer of 1565, Tycho’s step-father He built his own observatory on an island Jørgen had been in the process of making (the King of Denmark gave him the island and Tycho his legal heir. Unfortunately for Jørgen some additional money just for that purpose). and Tycho, a war with Sweden intervened. Tycho named his island observatory Uraniburg-Urania after the muse of Jørgen was appointed Vice Admiral of the astronomy Danish Fleet and died of pneumonia in the summer of 1565 after falling into the water. Tycho’s System Tycho inherited nothing, because the paperwork making him Jørgen’s legal heir Tycho tried to produce a model consistent was incomplete. with the best of both Ptolemy and Copernicus. He said that Copernicus was right – the five A Nose for Trouble planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and In April 1566, aged Saturn – do orbit the sun. However, the moon, 19, Tycho arrived the sun and the stars orbit the earth, as back in Germany. On Ptolemy had said. a December evening The Tychonic he got into argument System. Earth is at with another Danish the center of the student who, like universe. The him, was studying at moon, the sun, and the University of the stars orbit the Rostock. earth. The five The cause of the argument is not known. planets orbit the Sometimes it’s claimed they were arguing sun. about which of them was the better A Wife and Children mathematician, but this is probably a myth. At the age of 25, Tycho committed a serious No doubt alcohol played a part in the dispute social offense; he took a woman who was not – Tycho enjoyed dining and drinking heartily. born an aristocrat as his partner. It was illegal After further disagreements, the two students for the young couple to marry in the usual fought a duel with swords, which resulted in way. However, provided they lived together Tycho losing the front of his nose and picking for three years, their partnership would be up a permanent scar on his forehead. A year recognized as a legal marriage. They did this For SLSU use only 7 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES and became husband and wife. Tycho’s wife intoxicated to the point of falling down a was Kirsten Hansen, daughter of a Lutheran flight of stairs! minister. Tycho and Kirsten had eight children, six of 3. Brahe hoarded his research whom survived to adulthood. The form of Tycho had hoarded his data since he did not marriage between the couple meant their want to share credit with anybody else, children were commoners, not entitled to should they have benefited from his enjoy any of the privileges of the nobility. groundwork. Also, they could not inherit Tycho’s estates or Keppler was Tycho’s assistant, who with the his coat of arms. data access went on to bring astronomy fully into the realm of science- he formulated his Following his exile from Denmark, Tycho and three basic laws of planetary motion and his family ended up in the court of Holy supported his heliocentric model of the solar Roman Emperor Rudolph II. There Tycho’s system. wife and children were treated as nobles. A Bizarre Death It was rumored that Keppler poisoned Brahe On October 13, 1601, Tycho attended a for his research- perfect modern-day motive! banquet in Prague. As usual, he had plenty to Keppler did admit crossing some ethical lines drink, but the meal carried on for a long time. publishing his work using some of Brahe’s Although desperate to urinate, he did not data. leave the table – it would have been very impolite to leave the table before the meal 4. A bladder infection was the cause of was formally over. Brahe’s death Brahe was long thought to have died from a bladder infection after politeness kept him Contrary to the rumors at the time, Tycho from excusing himself to use the bathroom was not poisoned as chastisement for having during a royal banquet in October 1601, an affair with the queen of Denmark. His causing his bladder to rupture. However, body was exhumed in 2010 and tests carried scientists who opened Brahe's grave in 1901 revealed he died of bladder infection from to mark the 300th anniversary of his death holding in urine too long. claimed to find mercury in his remains, fueling rumors that the astronomer was In case you are wondering why he’d do that, poisoned. Some even accused a jealous Kepler tradition required that when in the King’s of the crime. presence, guests sit at the table until the King Separately, tests revealed that Brahe's arose. This is what befell Tycho who was famously "silver" prosthetic nose was actually dining with the king. After drinking too much, made out of brass. Tycho sat with crossed legs so long that his bladder burst leading to a bladder infection. Facts About Tycho Brahe 5. Brahe’s wealth totaled 1% of Denmark’s 1. Brahe had a fake nose. Quite literally! wealth 2. Brahe kept an Elk for a pet. Brahe had a biological father as well as a wealthy adoptive father (his uncle) who A mature male Elk is typically 2.4 meters raised him. When he died, Brahe inherited his long, weighing 320 to 330 Kilograms. wealth. Similarly, he inherited his biological Notwithstanding, Brahe took his Elk to father’s wealth when he died. This was quite a parties where both he and the Elk would get tidy amount. Research estimates that drunk! His beloved pet died when it got combined, this wealth would to 1% of all of For SLSU use only 8 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES Denmark’s entire wealth- not shabby at all for one person! As a university student, he studied the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus’ theories of # Focus Question planetary ordering. Copernicus (1473-1543) 1. Where did Tycho Brahe carry out his believed that the sun, not the earth, was the astronomical observation? center of the solar system, a theory that a. On a mountain c. In a cave contradicted the prevailing view of the era b. On an island d. In a desert that the sun revolved around the earth. 2. Tycho Brahe believed that: In 1600, Kepler went to Prague to work for Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe, the imperial 1. The Earth revolved around the moon but mathematician to Rudolf II, emperor of the all the other planets around the sun. Holy Roman Empire. Kepler’s main project b. The sun revolved around the Earth but all was to investigate the orbit of Mars. the other planets around the moon. c. The moon revolved around the Earth but In the early 1600s, Johannes Kepler proposed all the other planets around the moon. three laws of planetary motion. Kepler was d. The sun revolved around the Earth but all able to summarize the carefully collected data the other planets around the sun. of his mentor - Tycho Brahe - with three statements that described the motion of 3. Why Kepler becomes the prime suspect of planets in a sun-centered solar system. Brahe’s death. Kepler's efforts to explain the underlying reasons for such motions are no longer Tycho Brahe died aged 54 on October 24, accepted; nonetheless, the actual laws themselves are still considered an accurate 1601 in Prague. His premature death was description of the motion of any planet and probably caused by either a burst bladder or any satellite. kidney failure resulting from an excessive Kepler's three laws of planetary motion can be described as follows: Johannes Kepler 1571 – 1630 in Weil der Stadt, 1. The Law of Ellipses Württemberg, in Kepler's first law - sometimes referred to as the Holy Roman the law of ellipses - explains that planets are Empire of German orbiting the sun in a path described as an Nationality. He was ellipse. An ellipse can easily be constructed a sickly child and using a pencil, two tacks, a string, a sheet of his parents were paper and a piece of cardboard. Tack the poor. But his sheet of paper to the cardboard using the two evident intelligence tacks. Then tie the string into a loop and wrap earned him a the loop around the two tacks. Take your scholarship to the pencil and pull the University of string until the Tübingen to study pencil and two for the Lutheran ministry. There he was tacks make a introduced to the ideas of Copernicus and triangle (see delighted in them. In 1596, while a diagram at the mathematics teacher in Graz, he wrote the right). Then begin first outspoken defense of the Copernican to trace out a path system, the Mysterium Cosmographicum. with the pencil, For SLSU use only 9 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES keeping the string wrapped tightly around earth would have to be moving more slowly the tacks. in order for this imaginary area to be the The resulting shape will be an ellipse. An same size as when the earth is closest to the ellipse is a special curve in which the sum of sun. the distances from every point on the curve to But Kepler failed to explain why planets two other points is a constant. The two other maintain their position in their respective points (represented here by the tack orbit. That issue was address by Newton. locations) are known as the foci of the ellipse. The closer together that these points are, the more closely that the ellipse resembles the shape of a circle. In fact, a circle is the special case of an ellipse in which the two foci are at the same location. Kepler's first law is rather simple - all planets orbit the Rotation of the Earth sun in a path that resembles an ellipse, with The spinning of the Earth around its axis is the sun being located at one of the foci of that called ‘rotation’. The axis has an angle of 23.5 ellipse. degrees and is perpendicular to the plane of Earth’s orbit. Which means, Earth is tilted on 2. The Law of Equal Areas its axis, and because of this tilt, the northern Kepler's second law - sometimes referred to and southern hemispheres lean in a direction as the law of equal areas - describes the speed away from the Sun. The rotation of the Earth at which any given planet will move while divides it into a lit-up half and a dark half, orbiting the sun. The speed at which any which gives rise to day and night. planet moves through space is constantly changing. A planet moves fastest when it is Revolution of the Earth closest to the sun and slowest when it is furthest from the sun. Yet, if an imaginary The movement of the Earth around the Sun in line were drawn from the center of the planet a fixed path is called a revolution. The Earth to the center of the sun, that line would revolves from west to east. The Earth sweep out the same area in equal periods of completes one revolution around the Sun in time. For instance, if an imaginary line were one year or precisely in 365.242 days. The drawn from the earth to the sun, then the revolution speed of the earth is 30 km/s-1. area swept out by the line in every 31-day month would be the same. This is depicted in the diagram below. As can be observed in the diagram, the areas formed when the earth is closest to the sun can be approximated as a wide but short triangle; whereas the areas formed when the earth is farthest from the sun can be approximated as a narrow but long triangle. These areas are the same size. The Earth is closest to the Sun – at its Since the base of these triangles are shortest Perihelion – and farthest from the Sun – at when the earth is farthest from the sun, the its Aphelion For SLSU use only 10 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES When the earth is in Perihelion closest to the Uranus 84.0 19.18 1.00 sun its orbital velocity increases and when it Neptune 165 30.06 1.00 is at Aphelion farthest distance away from the sun it’s orbital velocity decreases. To determine the time given the distance: Perigee and Apogee Like the Earth's orbit around the Sun, the Moon's path around the Mercury is 0.39 au away from the sun. How Earth is elliptical. The point in the Moon's long will it take (in yrs) to complete 1 orbit that is closest to the Earth is called the revolution around the sun. Perigee and the point farthest from the Earth Determine the value of 3rd law T2/R3 is known as the Apogee. The terms are also sometimes used interchangeably with the Earth's Perihelion and Aphelion. 3. The Law of Harmonies Kepler's third law - sometimes referred to as the law of harmonies - compares the orbital period and radius of orbit of a planet to those of other planets. Unlike Kepler's first and second laws that describe the motion characteristics of a single planet, the third law makes a comparison between the motion characteristics of different planets. The comparison being made is that the ratio of the squares of the periods to the cubes of their average distances from the sun is the same for every one of the planets. As an illustration, consider the orbital period and average distance from sun (orbital radius) for Earth and mars as given in the table below. Observe that the T2/R3 ratio is the same for Earth as it is for mars. In fact, if the same T2/R3 ratio is computed for the other planets, it can be found that this ratio is nearly the same value for all the planets (see table below). Amazingly, every planet has the same T2/R3 ratio. Average Period T2/R3 Planet Distance (yr) (yr2/au3) (au) Mercury 0.241 0.39 0.98 Venus.615 0.72 1.01 Earth 1.00 1.00 1.00 Mars 1.88 1.52 1.01 Jupiter 11.8 5.20 0.99 Saturn 29.5 9.54 1.00 For SLSU use only 11 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES Mars Jupiter has an average distance away from the sun of 5.20 au. Determine the time it takes for one complete revolution. Determine the value of 3rd law T2/R3 To determine the distance given the time. It takes 0,615 years for planet Venus to revolve around the sun. Determine the average distance of Venus away from the sun Determine the value of 3rd law T2/R3 Venus Sample problem 1. An unknown planet has an average distance away from the sun of 3.2 au. Determine the time needed (in years) to complete one revolution around the sun Determine the T2/R3 Answer. 5,72 yrs, Answer. 0,998 yr2/au3 2. Planet X took 7.5 years to revolve around the sun. Mars took 1.88years to complete 1 revolution Determine the time needed (in around the sun. years) to complete one revolution around the sun Determine the average distance of Determine the T2/R3 Mars away from the sun Answer. 3.83 au Answer. 1.00yr2/au3 Determine the value of 3rd law T2/R3 For SLSU use only 12 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES accomplishments has been studied and Did Johannes Kepler Murder Tycho Brahe? written about in detail for centuries. From his discovery of the moons of Jupiter to his fight with Pope Urban VIII, noted authors and Answer playwrights have been fascinated with both While Kepler certainly could have killed Galileo’s life and contributions. Galileo Tycho Brahe, it’s also possible that Brahe’s claimed to have discovered sunspots and that own cousin did the terrible deed. And, of the sun rotates. His abrasive and outspoken course, it really could have been an accident, criticism of Aristotelian philosophy and his prompted by Brahe’s own overly acute sense obvious acceptance of the Copernican of decorum. In the absence of more worldview, particularly in his Dialogue convincing and definitive evidence, it may concerning the Two Chief World Systems, led never be known if Kepler had a role in his him into serious trouble with the Roman superior's downfall, or indeed if there was a Catholic Church, which placed him under role to be had at all.. house arrest for the last eight years of his life. Galileo Facts # Galileo enrolled to do a medical degree at Kepler died in Regensburg, after a short the University of Pisa but never finished, illness. He was staying in the city on his way instead choosing to study mathematics. to collect some money owing to him in connection with the Rudolphine Tables. He # Galileo did not invent the telescope, The was buried in the local church, but this was first person to apply for a patent for a destroyed in the course of the Thirty Years' telescope was a Dutch eyeglass maker named War and nothing remains of the tomb. Hans Lippershey (or Lipperhey). In 1608 1564-1642 born in Pisa, Italy, on the 15th of Hans Lippershey (or Lipperhey) February 1564, he died on the 8th of January the inventor of telescope 1642. Galileo Galilei was an Italian scientist who helped open the eyes of the world to a new way of thinking about the workings of our solar system and One of Galileo's first telescopes. He did not astronomy in general. invent the telescope, but he did make several One of the improvements and was the first to aim one at most prolific the stars. scientists of all time, # With these telescopes, Galileo was able to Galileo’s life observe the skies in ways previously not and achieved. In 1610 he made observations of 4 objects surrounding Jupiter that behaved unlike stars, these turned out to be Jupiter’s For SLSU use only 13 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES four largest satellite moons: Io, Callisto, astronomical knowledge, because such data Europa and Ganymede. They were later was vital for working out the dates of Easter renamed the Galilean satellites in honor of and other holidays. In 1611, when Galileo Galileo himself. visited Rome to show off his telescope to the Jesuit astronomers there, he was welcomed # Galileo refused to believe Kepler’s theory with open arms. The future Pope Urban VIII that the moon caused the tides, instead had one of Galileo’s essays read to him over believing it was due to the nature of the dinner and even wrote a poem in praise of the Earth’s rotation (helping prove that even the scientist. It was only later, when a few smartest people can make mistakes). disgruntled conservative professors began to speak out against Galileo, that things started # The middle finger of Galileo’s right hand to go downhill. It got even worse in 1616, has been exhibited at the Museo Galileo in when the Vatican officially denounced the Florence, Italy. heliocentric (sun-centered) system described The finger points toward Rome. by Copernicus, which all of Galileo’s observations seemed to support. And yet, the problem wasn’t Copernicanism. More vexing was the notion of a moving Earth, which seemed to contradict certain verses in the Bible. Galileo, buried between Michelangelo and Machiavelli, is said to have had his gravestone GALILEO NEVER MARRIED, BUT THAT inscribed with the words “But the Earth does DOESN'T MEAN HE WAS ALONE. move.” It’s not true. Galileo was very close with a beautiful # FOCUS QUESTION woman from Venice named Marina Gamba; 1. What are the four moons that Galileo together, they had two daughters and a son. discovered near Jupiter? And yet, they never married, nor even shared a. Kanye West, Eminem, Fetty Wap, and a home. Why not? As Dava Sobel notes, it was Lil Wayne traditional for scholars in those days to b. Callisto, Ganymede, Europa, and Io remain single; perceived class difference may c. Kallisto, Canymede, Auropa, and Lo also have played a role. d. Metis, Thebe, Carpo, And Elara GALILEO MIGHT NOT HAVE BEEN THRILLED 2. Which object is the center of the solar WITH THE VATICAN'S 1992 "APOLOGY." system according to Galileo? In 1992, under Pope John Paul II, the Vatican a. Earth c. Moon issued an official statement admitting that it b. Sun d. Neptune was wrong to have persecuted Galileo. But the statement seemed to place most of the 3. What was Galileo accused of? blame on the clerks and theological advisers a. Robbery c. Treason who worked on Galileo’s case—and not on b. Heresy d. dont know Pope Urban VIII, who presided over the trial. Nor was the charge of heresy overturned. 4. Galileo is credited with discovering four large moons around what planet? GALILEO DIDN'T HAVE TROUBLE WITH THE a. Neptune c. Venus CHURCH FOR THE FIRST TWO-THIRDS OF b. Jupiter d. Mars HIS LIFE. In fact, the Vatican was keen on acquiring For SLSU use only 14 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES 5. What are the possible reasons why # Isaac Newton’s mother wanted him to be a Newton might be the reincarnation of farmer. Galileo? Isaac Newton 1642- However, Newton literally hated that profession. Overall, his rural lifestyle ended up unsuccessful. His mother knew that he was not Isaac Newton made for a rural work, so she allowed him to get was a physicist his formal education. and mathematician # When Newton arrived at Cambridge, the who developed Scientific Revolution of the 17th century was the principles already in full force. The heliocentric view of the of modern universe—theorized by astronomers Nicolaus physics, Copernicus and Johannes Kepler, and later including the refined by Galileo—was well known in most laws of motion and is credited as one of the European academic circles. great minds of the 17th-century Scientific # The bubonic plague of 1665 interrupted his Revolution. education. Isaac Newton was born prematurely and barely survived on Christmas day 1642, the same year Galileo died. Newton’s birthplace was his mother’s farm house in Woolsthorpe England. His father died several months before his birth and grew up under the care of his mother and grand mother. The Cambridge University was closed for two # He wasn't years, during which Isaac Newton returned to Woolsthorpe manor to work on his scientific expected to survive pursuit. as a child. He was born quite Actually, it was an extremely productive premature: an estimated 11 to 15 weeks early. period for him. His mother said he could fit in a quart-sized cup It was during this time that he saw a upon birth. falling apple in the Woolsthorpe manor Newton was the only son of a prosperous local gardens. farmer, also named Isaac, who died three months before he was born. But some historian said that the apple story never happened. When he was 3 years old, his mother, Hannah Ayscough Newton, remarried a well-to-do minister, Barnabas Smith, and went to live with # He became a mathematics professor at him, leaving young Newton with his maternal Cambridge University at the age of 27. grandmother. This was only a year after getting his masters At age 12, Newton was reunited with his degree. mother after her second husband died. She Impressed with Isaac Newton’s mathematical brought along her three small children from her works, professor Isaac Burrow gave his post second marriage. to Isaac Newton. # When ask how he was able to make For SLSU use only 15 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES discoveries Newton replied that he found his solutions to Q. problems not buy sudden insight but by A ball is rolled across a counter top and rolls slowly to a stop. How would thinking very long and hard about them until Aristotle interpret this behavior? How he worked them out. He also said that would Galileo interpret it? How would “ He stood on the shoulder of the giants”, acknowledging others like Galileo. you interpret it? Answer. Aristotle would probably say that the ball stop because it seeks its natural state of rest. Galileo would probably say that the friction between the ball and table overcome ball’s natural tendency to continue rolling and brings it to stop. Only you can answer the last question # Centrifugal and Centripetal force Newton found the reason why planet earth NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION maintain its position on the planetary orbit which Kepler was fascinated. According to The acceleration of a system is directly Newton there were two forces acts on the proportional to and in the same direction as planet earth as it revolves around the sun. the net external force acting on the system, First is the centrifugal force created when and inversely proportional to its mass. planet revolve it tends to move outside the orbit and the centripetal force or an inside Third Law of Motion states, "For every force or the gravitational force exerted by the action, there is an equal and opposite sun. These two forces maintained its reaction." This law describes what happens to equilibrium as planet orbiting around the sun. a body when it exerts a force on another body. Forces always occur in pairs, so when one body pushes against another, the second body pushes back just as hard. 1. Newtons first law, usually called law of # Politics inertia is At the age of 46, he was elected a member of restatement of parliament. He attended the sessions for 2 Galileo’s idea years and never gave speech. One day he rose and house fell silent to hear the great Every object continues in a state of rest, or of man. Newton speech was very brief motion in a straight line at constant speed, He simply requested that a windows be unless it is compelled to change that state by closed because of the draft. forces exerted upon it For SLSU use only 16 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES # Why he is address as “ SIR” “I can calculate the motion of heavenly bodies Isaac Newton was knighted by queen Anne but not the madness of people.” that’s why he called as sir. “What we know is a drop, what we don't # Old age know is an ocean.” He remained healthy in body and mind into old age. Newton’s hair turned gray at the age “Gravity explains the motions of the planets, 30, it remained full, long and wavy all his life. but it cannot explain who sets the planets in At age 80 , he still had all his teeth, his eye motion.” sight and hearing were sharp, and his mind was alert. “No great discovery was ever made without a bold guess.” # Reincarnation Some people believed that Isaac Newton was # SELF ASSESSMENT the reincarnation of Galileo, since in the year Galileo died the same year were Newton was.1. Sir Isaac Newton’s birth place and born. And the first law of Newton among his hometown three laws of motion was based on Galileo’s a. Cambridge c. Westminster Abbey point of view. b. Woolstorpe d. Perimeter Institute 2. Newton’s greatest achievement # Isaac Newton never got married. a. Reflecting telescope b. Theory of Universal Gravitation Some historians suggest that since Cambridge c. Publication of Opticks and Principia was the inheritance from Catholic University d. Being the first scientist to be knighted systems, administration usually suggested 3. Which famous king did Aristotle teach? that its students, fellows, and professors a. Lynceus b. William possess a celibate life. c. Jedediah d. Alexander 4. When Isaac Newton was three, his As being the respected member of the mother, Hannah Newton, married Rev. Cambridge University and someone who is Barnabas Smith. Which of the following always in the pursuit of the science, Isaac circumstances of the marriage is not Newton might not find a time for his personal correct? life, or simply, he did not want any a. Smith legally adopted Isaac. distractions. b. Newton never lived in the house with his mother and Smith. # Isaac Newton died at the age of 85 from c. Smith was wealthy and over thirty severe stomach pain. years older than Hannah. d. Hannah had a son and two daughters When he crossed the 80 years mark of his life, by Smith. he started experiencing some digestion 5. There, Galileo made a famous problems, which forced him to be in a strict experiment to disprove whose theory of diet. downward motion? On March 31, 1727, Newton passed away a. Ptolemy’s c. Kepler’s on his sleep. b. Aristotle’s d. Copernicus’s 6. Who was the first modern thinker to Isaac Newton Quotes question 17gocentricity? a. Brahe c. Kepler “If I have seen further it is by standing on the b. Copernicus d. Galileo shoulders of Giants.” 7. Who was the real inventor of For SLSU use only 17 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES telescope? 16. What was the Scientific Revolution? a. Copernicus c. Kepler a. An era of political upheaval when b. Lippershey d. Galileo scientists led rebellions against 8. The place where a planet is farthest governments in Europe away from the Sun in its orbit around the b. An era that transformed the way that Sun is called the society understood the universe, which a. aphelion c. perihelion was based in science b. perigee d. apogee c. An era of military aggression against 9. In 1616, what did the Church declare scientists as governments cracked down regarding heliocentricity? on science a. That it was contrary to scripture, and d. An era that saw the very first theories should not be taught about the way that the universe worked b. That it deserved further study 17. Galileo is known as the “father of c. That it was correct science” because d. That it should be taught in all a. he performed experiments and universities analyzed the results mathematically b. he developed an early evolutionary 10. The farther away a planet is from the theory of how life beganhe sun, the _______ it takes it to orbit around c. invented microscope to view small the sun. things a. longer c. shorter d. he determined the planets traveled in b. same d, nothing change elliptical orbits 11. Where was the sun in the Copernican 18. Which is NOT the alleged reason of system? Brahe’s death. a. At the edge of the universe a. mercuric poisoning b. Orbiting the earth b. urinary tract infection c. At the center of the earth c. hypertension d. At the center of the universe d. prosthetic nose 12. The farther away a planet is from the 19. Draw and label the Geocentric and sun, the _______ it revolves around the sun. heliocentric theory. a. faster c. remain the same 20. Discuss the relationship of the b. slower d, non of these distance of planets away from the sun 13. During the Scientific Revolution the with their respective orbital velocity. heliocentric view of the universe was first 21. A certain planet has an average proposed by distance of 8.5 AU away from the sun. a. Ptolemy c. Galieo Determine the ff. a. Time it takes for one b. Bacon d. Copernicus complete revolution. b. Determine the 14. Who of the following is a famous value of 3rd law T2/R3 astronomer of the scientific revolution? 22. an unknown planet takes 19 years to a. Toussaint c. Ptolemy revolve around the sun. Determine the b. Karl Marx d. Nicholas Copernicus average distance of the said planet. 15. What event really started the Scientific Revolution? ]a. Copernicus' work on the heliocentric model b. Newton's work on gravity c. Bacon's work on the scientific method d. Galileo's work on the orbit of the planet For SLSU use only 18 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES https://www.history.com/topics/renaissanc https://int.search.myway.com/search/GGmai e/renaissance#:~:text=The%20Renaissance n.jhtml?n=78494ec2&p2=%5ECP5%5Exdm2 %20was%20a%20fervent,classical%20philos 05%5ETTAB02%5EPH&ptb=8AEBB11B-47 o https://www.biography.com/scientist/isaac- https://www.microsoft.com/en- newton us/microsoft-365/business/new-business- software- Conceptual Physical Science (5th Edition) 5th suites?OCID=AID2100142_OLA_24371502_2 Edition by Paul G. Hewitt (Author), John A. 76396466_134308552 Suchocki (Author), Leslie A. Hewitt (Author) http://www.angelfire.com/art/Reniassance/ Overview.html https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/ci rcles/Lesson-4/Kepler-s-Three-Laws https://www.biography.com/scholar/petrarc h https://www.famousscientists.org/tycho- brahe/ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny- hccc-worldhistory/chapter/humanism/ https://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/ice https://dailyhistory.org/How_did_the_de_Me core/The_Astronomers_Tycho_Brahe_and_Joh dici_contribute_to_the_Renaissance%3F annes_Kepler.pdf *https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/5334 58/facts-about-nicolaus-copernicus https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/ nicolaus-copernicus http://users.clas.ufl.edu/ufhatch/pages/03- Sci-Rev/SCI-REV-Teaching/03sr-definition- concept.htm https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/144 040 https://www.famousscientists.org/tycho- brahe/ https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/5630d7fecc 88ea7b33b01f78/scientific-revolution http://users.clas.ufl.edu/ufhatch/pages/03- Sci-Rev/SCI-REV-Teaching/03sr-definition- concept.htm https://www.britannica.com/science/Scienti fic-Revolution For SLSU use only 19 GEC08-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY MODERN AGES For SLSU use only 20