Research Paper - LESSON 4 TO 6 PDF

LESSON IV: ESSENTIALS OF dependent variable. It is a variable RESEARCH PAPER that is not being studied but could impact the results of the study. For...

LESSON IV: ESSENTIALS OF dependent variable. It is a variable RESEARCH PAPER that is not being studied but could impact the results of the study. For example, in a study on the effects of Variables in Research a new drug on a disease, a - In Research, Variables refer to confounding variable could be the characteristics or attributes that can patient’s age, as older patients may be measured, manipulated, or have more severe symptoms. controlled. - They are the factors that researchers Mediating Variable observe or manipulate to - This is a variable that explains the understand the relationship between relationship between the them and the outcomes of interest. independent variable and the dependent variable. It is a variable that comes in between the Types of Variables in Research independent and dependent variables and is affected by the Independent Variable independent variable, which then - This is the variable that is affects the dependent variable. manipulated by the researcher. It is - For example, in a study on the also known as the predictor relationship between exercise and variable, as it is used to predict weight loss, the mediating variable changes in the dependent variable. could be metabolism, as exercise - Examples of independent variables can increase metabolism, which can include age, gender, dosage, and then lead to weight loss. treatment type. Moderator Variable Dependent Variable - This is a variable that affects the - This is the variable that is measured strength or direction of the or observed to determine the effects relationship between the of the independent variable. independent variable and the - It is also known as the outcome dependent variable. It is a variable variable, as it is the variable that is that influences the effect of the affected by the independent independent variable on the variable. dependent variable. For example, in - Examples of dependent variables a study on the effects of caffeine on include blood pressure, test scores, cognitive performance, the and reaction time. moderator variable could be age, as older adults may be more sensitive Confounding Variable to the effects of caffeine than - This is a variable that can affect the younger adults. relationship between the independent variable and the Control Variable  - This is a variable that is held discrete variables include the constant or controlled by the number of siblings a person has, the researcher to ensure that it does not number of times a person exercises affect the relationship between the in a week, and the number of independent variable and the students in a classroom. dependent variable. Control variables are important to ensure that any observed effects are due to Dummy Variable the independent variable and not to - This is a variable that takes on only other factors. For example, in a two values, typically 0 and 1, and is study on the effects of a new used to represent categorical teaching method on student variables in statistical analyses. performance, the control variables Dummy variables are often used could include class size, teacher when a categorical variable cannot experience, and student be used directly in an analysis. For demographics. example, in a study on the effects of gender on income, a dummy Continuous Variable variable could be created, with 0 - This is a variable that can take on representing female and 1 any value within a certain range. representing male. Continuous variables can be measured on a scale and are often Extraneous Variable used in statistical analyses. - This is a variable that has no Examples of continuous variables relationship with the independent or include height, weight, and dependent variable but can affect temperature. the outcome of the study. Extraneous variables can lead to Categorical Variable erroneous conclusions and can be - This is a variable that can take on a controlled through random limited number of values or assignment or statistical techniques. categories. Categorical variables can be nominal or ordinal. Latent Variable - Nominal variables have no inherent - This is a variable that cannot be order, while ordinal variables have directly observed or measured, but a natural order. Examples of is inferred from other variables. categorical variables include Latent variables are often used in gender, race, and educational level. psychological or social research to represent constructs such as Discrete Variable personality traits, attitudes, or - This is a variable that can only take beliefs. on specific values. Discrete variables are often used in counting Moderator-mediator Variable or frequency analyses. Examples of  - This is a variable that acts both as a variable. Regression analysis can be used to moderator and a mediator. It can predict the value of the dependent variable moderate the relationship between based on the value of the independent the independent and dependent variable, and can also determine the variables and also mediate the significance of the relationship between the relationship between the two variables. independent and dependent variables. Moderator-mediator Factor analysis: This involves identifying variables are often used in complex patterns and relationships among a large statistical analyses. number of variables. Factor analysis can be used to reduce the complexity of a data set and identify underlying factors or Variables Analysis Methods dimensions. - There are different methods to analyze variables in research, Cluster analysis: This involves grouping including: data into clusters based on similarities between variables. Cluster analysis can be Descriptive statistics: This involves used to identify patterns or segments within analyzing and summarizing data using a data set, and can be useful for market measures such as mean, median, mode, segmentation or customer profiling. range, standard deviation, and frequency distribution. Descriptive statistics are useful Multivariate analysis: This involves for understanding the basic characteristics analyzing multiple variables of a data set. simultaneously. Multivariate analysis can be used to understand complex relationships Inferential statistics: This involves making between variables, and can be useful in inferences about a population based on fields such as social science, finance, and sample data. Inferential statistics use marketing. techniques such as hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, and regression - Muhammad Hassan, 2023 analysis to draw conclusions from data. Thesis statement Correlation analysis: This involves examining the relationship between two or - The thesis statement is the sentence more variables. Correlation analysis can that states the main idea of a writing determine the strength and direction of the assignment and helps control the relationship between variables, and can be ideas within the paper. It is not used to make predictions about future merely a topic. It often reflects an outcomes. opinion or judgment that a writer has made about a reading or Regression analysis: This involves personal experience. examining the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent  - A thesis statement usually appears in the introductory paragraph of a paper. It offers a concise summary of the main point or claim of the essay, research paper, etc. It is usually expressed in one sentence, and the statement may be reiterated elsewhere. It contains the topic and the controlling idea of a paper. Claim What is a claim? A claim is the main argument of an essay. It is the most important part of an academic paper. A claim defines the paper's goals, direction, and scope. It is supported by evidence. - A claim statement is a type of thesis statement in which you present the main idea of what you are writing in the form of an argument. - Claims are matters of opinion, but they are stated as if they are facts and backed up with evidence. - Any time you make a debatable statement in writing that is backed up with facts and/or other types of evidence, you are using a claim. - Making a claim in your writing allows you to present the main idea of the document in the form of an argument that you will support with evidence throughout the document. LESSON V: QUALITATIVE DESIGNS These feelings would need to be identified and then put aside to listen to what the Phenomenological studies examine human mother is saying experiences through the descriptions about how she is living through this provided by the people involved. These experience. experiences are called lived experiences. - The goal of phenomenological It is possible that this mother has discovered studies is to describe the meaning an important reason for living, whereas that experiences hold for each previously she had not felt needed anymore subject. This type of research is by her teenage child. used to study areas in which there is little knowledge (Donalek, 2004). Example: - In phenomenological research, Daly (2005) studied the lived experiences of respondents are asked to describe mothers of suicidal adolescents. She their experiences as they perceive contended that, unfortunately, the mother’s them. They may write about their experience is often the hidden dimension in experiences, but information is the family. Unstructured interviews were generally obtained through conducted with 6 mothers living with interviews. suicidal adolescents. - To understand the lived experience from the vantage point of the Six themes were identified: subject, the researcher must take failure as a good mother, the ultimate into account her or his own beliefs rejection, feeling alone in the struggle, and feeling. helplessness and powerlessness in the - The researcher must first identify struggle, cautious parenting, and keeping an what she or he expects to discover emotional distance. and then deliberately put aside these ideas; this process is called bracketing. Ethnographic studies involve the - Only when the researcher puts aside collection and analysis of data about her or his own ideas about the cultural groups. phenomenon is it possible to see the experience from the eyes of the Agar (1986) described ethnography as person who has lived the “encountering alien worlds and making experience. sense of them” (p. 12). He further stated that ethnographers try to show how actions Phenomenological research would ask a in one world make sense from the point of question such as, “What is it like for a view of another world. mother to live with a teenage child who is dying of cancer?” The researcher might Cameron (1990) wrote that ethnography perceive that she, herself, would feel very means “learning from people” (p. 5). hopeless and frightened. According to Leininger (1985), ethnography conducted weekly at two high schools over can be defined as “the systematic process of one semester. Interviews were conducted observing, detailing, describing, with program administrators, school documenting, and analyzing the lifeways or administrators, group co-facilitators, and particular patterns of a culture (or participants. School-based support group subculture) in order to grasp the lifeways or participation was found to enhance patterns of the people in their familiar self-knowledge and led to self-care and environment” (p. 35). self-healing. In ethnographic research, the researcher As understanding of the data occurs, new frequently lives with the people and questions emerge. The end purpose of becomes a part of their culture. The ethnography is the development of cultural researcher explores with the people their theories. rituals and customs. An entire cultural group may be studied or a subgroup in the Grounded theory is a qualitative research culture. approach developed by two sociologists, Glaser and Strauss (1967). The term culture may be used in the broad sense to mean an entire tribe of Indians, for Grounded theory studies are studies in example, or in a more narrow sense to mean which data are collected and analyzed and one nursing care unit. Ethnographers then a theory is developed that is grounded interview people who are most in the data. Some of the terms used by knowledgeable about the culture. Glaser and Strauss are difficult for nurses to understand. These people are called key informants. Data are generally collected through Leininger (1985) wrote that in 1980 she participant observation and interviews. As began to translate their terms into what she discussed under phenomenological studies, called “standard English.” researchers bracket, or make explicit, their own personal biases and beliefs, set them The grounded theory method uses both an aside, and then try to understand the daily inductive and a deductive approach to lives of individuals as they live them. Data theory development. According to Field and collection and analysis occur Morse (1985), “constructs and concepts are simultaneously. grounded in the data and hypotheses are tested as they arise from the research” (p. 23). These authors argued that given the Example: state of development of nursing theories, Gance-Cleveland (2004) examined the theory generation is more critical than features, critical attributes, processes, and theory testing for the development of benefits of school-based support groups for nursing knowledge. adolescents with an addicted parent. Ethnographic methods were used to gather According to Jacelon and O’Dell (2005), data. Participant observations were grounded theory is an excellent method for understanding the processes through which Pertinent concepts are identified patients learn to manage new or chronic and assigned codes. These codes health problems. Each individual may are constantly reviewed as new manage the health problem in a different interpretations are made of the data. way. For example a nurse researcher might The researcher keeps an open mind be interested in how young women deal and uses an intuitive process in with premenstrual syndrome (PMS). interpreting data. The codes developed frequently are gerunds (words ending in “ing”) like In talking to a group of these soothing, placating, and asserting. women, one woman might seem to be distressed at the mention of PMS and not want to discuss it at all. Example: Another woman might seem The grounded theory qualitative method embarrassed but is willing to ask was used by Williams and Irurita (2005) to questions of the researcher. study the personal control and emotional A third young woman might seem comfort of hospitalized patients. Interviews to be perfectly comfortable talking were conducted with 40 patients, and 75 about PMS and is willing to share hours of field observations were conducted. her experiences with the other women. The basic psychological process identified Each of these women responded to by the researchers was labelled “optimizing the topic in a unique way. personal control to facilitate emotional comfort.” Rather than using probability sampling procedures, purposeful sampling is used. Personal control referred to the ability of The researcher looks for certain subjects patients to influence their environment; who will be able to shed new light on the emotional comfort was defined as a phenomenon being studied. Diversity rather state of relaxation that affected the physical than similarity is sought in the people that status of the patient. Personal control was are sampled. found to be a central feature of emotional comfort. Data are gathered in naturalistic settings (field settings). Data collection primarily Historical Studies consists of participant observation and Nurses are increasingly interested in interviews, and data are recorded through establishing a body of nursing knowledge handwritten notes and tape recordings. Data and defining the role of professional nurses. collection and data analysis occur One means of achieving these aims is to simultaneously. examine the roots of nursing through historical research. A process called constant comparison is used, in which data are constantly compared Historical studies concern the identification, to data that have already been gathered. location, evaluation, and synthesis of data from the past. Historical research seeks not primary source of data. If a friend only to discover the events of the past but to summarized the information about nursing relate these past happenings to the present care during the Crimean War based on a and to the future. Leininger (1985) wrote, letter she received from Florence “Without a past, there is no meaning to the Nightingale, this source of information present, nor can we develop a sense of would be considered a secondary source. ourselves as individuals and as members of groups” (p. 109). The data for historical research should be subjected to two types of evaluation. These evaluations are called external criticism and Although there is a need for internal criticism. historical research in nursing, a limited number of nurse researchers External criticism is concerned with the have chosen it. According to the authenticity or genuineness of the data and noted nursing historian Teresa should be considered first. Christy (1975), nurses are action oriented and have preferred Internal criticism examines the accuracy experimental research to historical of the data and is considered after the data research. She contended that many are considered to be genuine. Whereas nurses think of historical research external criticism establishes the validity of as more “search than research” (p. the data, internal criticism establishes the 189). reliability of the data. But the process of historical Case studies are in-depth examinations of research is basically the same as in people or groups of people. A case study many other types of scientific could also examine an institution, such as research. The problem area or area hospice care for the dying. of interest is clearly identified and the literature is reviewed. Research The case method has its roots in sociology questions are formulated. Finally, and has also been used a great deal in the data are collected and analysed. anthropology, law, and medicine. In medicine, case studies have frequently been The sources of historical data are frequently concerned with a particular disease. referred to as primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are those that In nursing, the case study approach might provide firsthand information or direct be used to answer a question such as “How evidence. Secondary sources are second do the nurse and patient manage nausea hand information (or sometimes third or associated with chemotherapy?” Jacelon fourth hand). and O’Dell (2005) have proposed the use of case studies to explore real clinical For example, a letter written by Florence situations in depth. Nightingale about nursing care during the Crimean War would be considered a Content analysis is used in evaluating the observation and from 35 nurses data from case studies. Content analysis during 34 hours of interviews. involves the examination of communication Nurses used a range of coping messages. The researcher searches for mechanisms to manage the patterns and themes. After reading the dissonance they felt between what diaries of the individuals who are using was considered to be ideal and what insulin pumps, the nurse researcher might could realistically be done in the come up with themes such as: “freedom operating department. Nursing from rigid schedule,” “more normal life,” behavior was “administratively and “release from self-inflicted pain.” modelled by the nursing hierarchy and negatively reinforced by the When subjects are chosen for case studies, medical profession” (McGarvey et care must be taken in the selection process. al., 2004, p. 1119). In the previously discussed example, the researcher should avoid choosing only those Action research is a type of qualitative clients who are expected to respond research that seeks action to improve favourably or unfavourably to the insulin practice and study the effects of the action pump. that was taken (Streubert & Carpenter, 2002). Solutions are sought to practice A case study may be considered as problems in one particular hospital or health quantitative or qualitative research care setting. depending on the purpose of the study and the design chosen by the researcher. As is There is no goal of trying to generalize the true of other types of qualitative studies, for findings of the study, as is the case in a case study to be considered as a quantitative research studies. In action qualitative study, the researcher must be research, the implementation of solutions interested in the meaning of experiences to occurs as an actual part of the research the subjects themselves, rather than in process. There is no delay in generalizing results to other groups of implementation of the solutions. people. Example: Case studies are not used to test hypotheses, Action research was used with staff but hypotheses may be generated from case in one hospice and one nursing studies (Younger, 1985). home setting in London (Dunckley, Aspinal, Addington-Hall, Hughes, Example: & Higginson, 2005).The purpose of the study was to identify facilitators A case study approach was used to and barriers to the use of the study the roles of perioperative Palliative Care Outcome Scale nurses in Ireland (McGarvey, (POS). Staff took part in Chambers, & Boore, 2004). Data semi-structured interviews, were collected in three different completed diaries, and participated hospitals during 358 hours of in monthly meetings to give their  opinions of what they thought were rigor in qualitative research, there is the facilitators and barriers to the widespread agreement about the implementation of the POS. need for clear and complete reporting. Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research Optimal reporting would enable editors, reviewers, other Qualitative research contributes to researchers, and practitioners to the literature in many disciplines by critically appraise qualitative describing, interpreting, and studies and apply and synthesize the generating theories about social results. One important step in interactions and individual improving the quality of reporting experiences as they occur in is to formulate and define clear natural, rather than experimental, reporting standards. situations. Some recent examples include Guidelines for Critiquing Qualitative studies of professional dilemmas, Designs medical students’ early experiences of workplace learning, patients’ 1. Does the phenomenon lend itself to study experiences of disease and by qualitative methods or would a interventions, and patients’ quantitative approach have been more perspectives about incident appropriate? disclosures. 2. Does the study focus on the subjective nature of human experience? The purpose of qualitative research 3. Is the specific qualitative approach is to understand the named and described? perspectives/experiences of 4. Will the study findings have significance individuals or groups and the for nursing? contexts in which these 5. Does the researcher clearly describe how perspectives or experiences are participants were selected? situated. 6. How was the sample size determined? 7. Is the data collection and recording Quality is multifaceted and includes process fully presented? consideration of the importance of 8. Is it clear how researcher bias in data the research question, the rigor of collection was avoided? the research methods, the 9. Is the data analysis method consistent appropriateness and salience of the with the purpose and approach of the study? inferences, and the clarity and 10. Are the study findings clearly presented completeness of reporting. and study limitations acknowledged? 11. Are suggestions made for further Although there is much debate research, based on the study findings? about standards for methodological  LESSON VI: QUANTITATIVE AND Method QUALITATIVE STUDIES This endeavor would be quantitative, correlational study Quantitative - as the name suggests, is describing the relationship between concerned with trying to quantify things; it the independent variables: asks questions such as ‘how long’, ‘how opportunity, need, family, and many’or ‘the degree to which’. Quantitative cultural contextual structures to the methods look to quantify data and dependent variables affectual, generalise results from a sample of the associational and functional population of interest. They may look to solidarity. measure the incidence of various views and opinions in a chosen sample for example or The Methods section of a research article is aggregate results. like a roadmap leading to the core of the research, guiding the readers through the Qualitative – concerned with a quality of actual journey the authors took to reach information, qualitative methods attempt to their destination. gain an understanding of the underlying - In the manuscript, this section reasons and motivations for actions and contains the essential details for establish how people interpret their other scientists to replicate the experiences and the world around them. experiments of the study and help Qualitative methods provide insights into the common readers to understand the setting of a problem, generating ideas the study better. and/or hypotheses The methods, procedures, or protocols you plan to use The workplan – the activities that you will undertake to complete the project. Data Needs - This Part should include the field site description, a description of the instruments you will use. Moreover, you will need to fully describe specifically what data you anticipate to collect. Methodology It answers the question “How do we gain knowledge about the world?” It is an articulated, theoretically informed approach to the production of data (Ellen, 1984, p. 9). Analytical Techniques - This Part should explain in some detail how you will manipulate the data that you assembled to get at the information that you will use to answer your question. - It should include the statistical or other techniques and the tools that you will use in processing the data. Plan For Interpreting Results - This Part should include an indication of the range of outcomes that you could reasonably expect from your observations. - You should indicate how the anticipated outcomes will be interpreted to answer the research A Methods Introduction can focus the question. reviewers’ attention on the research purpose, the research design and timeline You need to provide enough detailed, any particular characteristics of the methods accurate, and clear methods information for that you want the reviewers to notice, such reviewers: as expected outcomes To understand your proposed research design and methods To understand why you decided on particular features of your proposed research design and methods To conclude that your proposed design and methods will result in valid findings To conclude that your proposed research design and methods are appropriate for you to achieve your proposed research objectives and aims Quantitative surveys What is the method? Basic Organization of the Methods Surveys are a popular method of collecting Section primary data. The broad area of survey research encompasses any measurement Introduction procedures that involve asking questions of Body Subsections respondents. They are a flexible tool, which Ending can produce both qualitative and quantitative information depending on how they are structured and analysed. When should it be used? - When you need to generate primary data from a large number of sources to answer your research question. Surveys are a useful a means of gathering data from businesses, community organisations and residents, and survey research is one of the most important areas of measurement in applied social research. However, health warnings need to be attached to the use of quantitative surveys and careful consideration needs to be taken before embarking on any large-scale survey. LESSON VII: WRITING PRINCIPLES prime factors that would effect resilience among people. These Unity, Coherence, Emphasis - strive for socio-ecological factors such clarity as….are found to result in such - Apply those principles thought thru strength to resist…. the lesson on paraphrasing - The use of to + verb means naming - See to it that every sentence express the thing such as: to do, to write, etc a substantial detail connected to ur (do not change the form of the verb) claim - The use of to be would mean participle form hence the next word Look at these sentences: must be in participle form, ex. To It has been found that 70% of the be written, to be presented…To poor Filipino can be located in rural follow….to be followed by…. areas - The use of I must be avoided as this You would ask, why can be? It seems better is technical writing, use neutral if are to denote present condition than a words that would show supposition, right? objectivity….ex. Literature found They were actually a highly people that…. leading nomadic lifestyle… - Review the citation indices…. See to it that your sentence is clear enough to express what you really mean You may rewrite therefore as: they are When in doubt about word, use the people living a nomadic life…. Thesaurus These studies have contributed to There is no word as analyzation, the the literatures that suggest that word is analysis political dynasty has a linkage to Strive to start each paragraph with a the poverty in our country. topic sentence then succeeding Strive for conciseness and coherence in sentences should be supporting writing…. such topic sentence Such sentence may be rewritten as: As Each paragraph must express one or found in studies, political dynasty is linked unified idea –one topic for each to poverty. paragraph Avoid contractions – don’t, isn’t, - A stand alone sentence put it this it’s…. way: This study used the socio-ecological model of resilience. - This one commits the mistakes of clarity and emphasis, firstly, which study? Secondly, what is resilience? - Such may be better written as: Wantenweiler (2017) put in socio-ecological model positing  The most fundamental rule is that in a basic declarative statement, the subject comes first; it is followed by the verb, and then by the objects and adverbial phrases, if there are any. Punctuation is another main element of syntax. In written language, punctuation takes the Strive to be an effective writer form of a number of "punctuation marks" that are used in many different languages. 1. Be mindful of the Subject-Verb In written English, the essential marks are: agreement ,. ; : ? ! and ". Singular subject- present tense verb w/ s Ex. Angel likes, Josie teaches, The literature In spoken English, punctuation is indicated forwards… by means of pauses, stressed words, and inflexions of the voice (intonation). Plural subject -present tense verb w/o s Ex. They want, Everybody receive, People In very simple declarative statements, realize, Newspapers read…. punctuation is not usually essential to the understanding of the statement, but as soon Linking verbs can be helping verbs (is, are, as the statement becomes even a little bit was, were, has, have, etc) but are often complex, punctuation may be vital. rightly used in progressive cases ex. Has been trying, is walking, was driving etc Look at the following examples in the next or in participle form ex. Have tried, liked to slide. sketch, wanted to repay etc. To & verb are infinitives – they act as noun in a sentence, do not change the form of the verb Ex. To establish, to paint, to read etc Convert active voice to passive voice Josie teaches research. Research is being taught by Josie. Take keen watch of word order as this is the most important element of technical writing (syntax). The relation between words is principally determined by the order in which they are placed.