Neuropsychology: Definition, History, and Methods

NEURO PSYCHOLOGY YASIRAH GOHAR  WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? If you asked this question from several people, you would probably get very different answers. In some European universities the discipline of psychology was known as ‘mental philosophy’ – not psychology – even as l...

NEURO PSYCHOLOGY YASIRAH GOHAR  WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? If you asked this question from several people, you would probably get very different answers. In some European universities the discipline of psychology was known as ‘mental philosophy’ – not psychology – even as late as the beginning of the twentieth century.  DEFINITION Psychology is the scientific study of behavior. The word ‘psychology’ comes from two Greek words, psukhe, meaning ‘breath’ or ‘soul’, and logos, meaning ‘word’ or ‘reason’. The modern meaning of psycho- is ‘mind’ and the modern meaning of -logy is ‘science’ The word ‘psychology’ literally means ‘the science of the mind’.  HISTORY Early in the development of psychology, people conceived the mind as an independent, free- floating spirit. Later, they described it as a characteristic of a functioning brain whose ultimate function was to control behavior. The first modern scientific psychology laboratory was established in 1878 and the first person ever to call himself a psychologist was still alive in 1920.  STUDY AREA Psychologists study a wide variety of phenomena, including Physiological processes within the nervous system Genetics Environmental events Personality characteristics Human development  Mental abilities Health Social interactions. As it is such a diversified field, it is rare for a person to be described simply as a psychologist.  SPECIALTIES OF WITHIN THE FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGY Clinical Psychologist is an individual who measures and treats psychological disorders. Developmental Psychologist is the one who studies child development. Neuro Psychologist is a person who explores the relationship between physiology and behavior. A biopsychologist/physiological psychologist/psychobiologist,if they study the brain and other bodily processes.  Psychobiology is the study of the role of physiology and anatomy in the regulation and execution of behavior. The topics can range from the role of hormones in sexual reproduction, the effect of glucose deprivation on hunger, the relationship between hormone secretion and stress, the effect of relaxing music on heart rate, or the activation of the brain while a person is engaged in a particular task.  DEFINITION OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGY A branch of science that studies the physiological processes of the nervous system and relates them to behavior and cognition, in terms both of their normal function and of the dysfunctional processes associated with brain damage.  FATHER OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Donald Hebb (1904-1985) is often considered the “father of neuropsychology” because of the way he was able to merge the psychological world with the world of neuroscience. This achievement was accomplished largely through his work The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory which was published in 1949.  REVIEW- NEUROPSYCHOLOGY/SCIENTIST Neuroscientists study similar processes but limit themselves to studying certain parts of the body – the brain and spinal cord. Together these parts are known as the central nervous system (CNS), so called because not only do they occupy the central position of the body but they are also the most important part of the nervous system for maintaining and producing behavior. Neuroscientists study the CNS of any organism that possesses one. Neuropsychologists, study the relationship between the brain and its function. A goal of neuropsychology is localization of function – the idea that parts of the brain perform specific function.  Neuropsychology and neuroscience examine the relationship between the brain and spinal cord, and behavior (Martin, 2006). Neuropsychology helps to shed light on the role of these structures in movement, vision, hearing, tasting, sleeping, smelling and touching as well as emotion, thinking, language and object recognition and perception, and others.  Neuropsychologists normally (but not always) study patients who have suffered injury to the brain through accident or disease which disrupts functions such as speech production or comprehension, object recognition, visual or auditory perception, and so on.  CLINICAL NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Clinical neuropsychology involves the identification and treatment of problems arising from nervous system disorders and injuries. Clinical neuropsychologists typically work in a hospital and collaborate closely with neurologists (physicians who specialize in diseases of the nervous system), although some teach or work in private practice.  MODERN METHODS Modern neuropsychology also relies on sophisticated brain imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) which allow researchers to monitor the activity of the brains of individuals while they perform some psychological task. This approach combines two approaches in psychology: neuroscience and cognitive psychology Because of this, the area of study is sometimes described as cognitive neuroscience (Gazzaniga, 1995) or behavioral neuroscience.  A new development in this area has been the study of the psychobiological processes involved in social behavior, a sub-branch called social neuroscience. Social neuroscientists examine the role of the brain in behaviors such as: Empathy Turn-taking Seeing things from another person’s point of view, social interaction political outlook  Scientists have identified the seat of human wisdom by pinpointing parts of the brain that guide us when we face difficult moral dilemmas. Sophisticated brain scanning techniques have found that humans respond by activating areas associated with the primitive emotions of opposite gender attraction, fear and anger as well as our capability for abstract thought.  PSYCHOBIOLOGY & NEUROSCIENCE Psychology is a discipline with many subdivisions. Sometimes these subdivisions are further subdivided into more specific areas of study. Psychologists who study the role of physiology in behavior, for example, may be interested only in specific behaviors, organisms and techniques. Consequently, psychologists who specialize in researching the role of the brain and body in behavior are known by different names.  As we know that the Neuropsychologists, study the relationship between the brain and its function. A goal of neuropsychology is localization of function – the idea that parts of the brain perform specific functions. Although much of the research in neuropsychology derives from the effects of brain damage on behavior, neuropsychologists also study psychological function in healthy individuals by using modern neuroimaging techniques. Psychophysiologists study physiological processes such as heart rate, hormone secretion, brain electrical activity and skin conductance and the conditions in which changes to these processes arise  In his famous book The Modularity of Mind, the philosopher Jerry Fodor (Fodor, 1983) argues that particular modules have particular functions – just as the transistors, resistors and capacitors in a computer chip do – and are relatively independent of each other. Although this idea – modularity – is still controversial, the evidence broadly supports some degree of modularity in the brain. The aim of psychobiology and neuroscience is to understand how individual nerve cells work, how they connect with each other to form modules, and just what these modules do.  WHAT IS BRAIN? The brain looks like a lump of porridge and has the consistency of blancmange. This organ, weighing an average 1400 g in an adult human, is the most important part of the body (it was not always so – Aristotle, for example, believed that the heart was more important to behaviour). It contains an estimated 10 to 100 billion nerve cells and about as many supporting cells, which take care of important support and ‘housekeeping’ functions.  Brain contains many different types of nerve cell which differ in shape, size and the kinds of chemicals they produce. These nerve cells of the brain are organized in modules – clusters of nerve cells that communicate with each other – individual modules do not stand alone. They are connected to other neural circuits, receiving information from some of them, processing this information and sending the results on to other modules. The brain can be divided into three basic units: The forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain. The hindbrain includes the upper part of the spinal cord, the brain stem, and a wrinkled ball of tissue called the cerebellum. The hindbrain controls the body's vital functions such as respiration and heart rate.  FOREBRAIN The Cerebrum: Also known as the cerebral cortex, the cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain, and it is associated with higher brain function such as thought and action. Nerve cells make up the gray surface, which is a little thicker than our thumb. White nerve fibers beneath the surface carry signals between nerve cells in other parts of the brain and body. Its wrinkled surface increases the surface area, and is a six-layered structure found in mammals, called the neocortex. It is divided into four sections, called “lobes”. They are; the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe and the temporal lobe.  The brain has two primary functions: the control of behavior and the regulation of the body’s physiological processes. The brain cannot act alone – it needs to receive information from the body’s sense receptors and it must be connected with the muscles and glands of the body if it is to affect behavior and physiological processes. The spinal cord is a long, thin collection of nerve cells attached to the base of the brain and running the length of the spinal column  It contains circuits of nerve cells that control some simple reflexes, such as automatically pulling away from a painfully hot object. The central nervous system communicates with the rest of the body through the nerves – bundles of fibers that transmit information in and out of the central nervous system. Peripheral Nervous System The nerves, which are attached to the spinal cord and to the base of the brain, make up the peripheral nervous system  The human brain has three major parts: The brain stem The cerebellum and the cerebral hemispheres. The lower part of the cerebellum and brain stem projects beneath the cerebral the upper part is normally hidden. If the human brain is removed from the skull, it looks as if it has a handle or stem. The brain stem is one of the most primitive regions of the brain, and its functions are correspondingly basic – primarily control of physiological functions and automatic behaviors such as swallowing and breathing. The brains of some animals, such as amphibians, consist primarily of a brain stem and a simple cerebellum.  Because the central nervous system is vital to an organism’s survival, it is exceptionally well protected. The brain is encased by the skull, and the spinal cord runs through the middle of a column of hollow bones known as vertebrae. Both the brain and the spinal cord are enclosed by a three-layered set of membranes called the meninges (meninges is the plural of meninx, the Greek word for ‘membrane’; meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges). The brain and spinal cord do not come into direct contact with the bones of the skull and vertebrae. Instead, they float in a clear liquid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). This liquid fills the space between two of the meninges, thus providing a liquid cushion surrounding the brain and spinal cord and protecting them from being bruised by the bones that encase them.  The surface of the cerebral hemispheres is covered by the cerebral cortex (the word cortex means ‘bark’ or ‘rind’). The cerebral cortex consists of a thin layer of tissue approximately 3 mm thick. It is often referred to as grey matter because of its appearance. It contains billions of nerve cells and is the structure where perceptions take place, memories are stored and plans are formulated and executed. The nerve cells in the cerebral cortex are connected to other parts of the brain by a layer of nerve fibres called the white matter because of the shiny white appearance of the substance that coats and insulates them. Figure 4.3 shows a slice of the brain. As you can see, the grey matter and white matter are distinctly different. The human cerebral cortex is wrinkled in appearance; it is full of bulges separated by grooves. The bulges are called gyri (singular ‘gyrus’), and the large grooves are called fissures. Fissures and gyri expand the amount of surface area of the cortex and greatly increase the numb  MENINGES FUNCTIONING The meninges functions primarily to protect and support the central nervous system (CNS). It connects the brain and spinal cord to the skull and spinal canal. The meninges forms a protective barrier that safeguards the sensitive organs of the CNS against trauma. It also contains an ample supply of blood vessels that deliver blood to CNS tissue. Another important function of the meninges is that it produces cerebrospinal fluid. This clear fluid fills the cavities of the cerebral ventricles and surrounds the brain and spinal cord. Cerebrospinal fluid protects and nourishes CNS tissue by acting as a shock absorber, by circulating nutrients, and by getting rid of waste products.  Increase the number of nerve cells it can contain. Animals with the largest and most complex brains, including humans and the higher primates, have the most wrinkled brains and, thus, the largest cerebral cortices.  FUNCTIONS OF THE LOBES Frontal Lobe – The frontal lobe lies just beneath our forehead and is associated with our brain’s ability to reason, organize, plan, speak, move, make facial expressions, serial task, problem solve, control inhibition, spontaneity, initiate and self-regulate behaviors, pay attention, remember and control emotions. Parietal Lobe – The parietal lobe is located at the upper rear of our brain, and controls our complex behaviors, including senses such as vision, touch, body awareness and spatial orientation. It plays important roles in integrating sensory information from various parts of our body, knowledge of numbers and their relations, and in the manipulation of objects. Portions are involved with our visuospatial processing, language comprehension, the ability to construct, body positioning and movement, neglect/inattention, left-right differentiation and self-awareness/insight.  Occipital Lobe – The occipital lobe is located at the back of our brain, and is associated with our visual processing, such as visual recognition, visual attention, spatial analysis (moving in a 3-D world) and visual perception of body language; such as postures, expressions and gestures.  Temporal Lobe – The temporal lobe is located near our ears, and is associated with processing our perception and recognition of auditory stimuli (including our ability to focus on one sound among many at a party), comprehending spoken language, verbal memory, visual memory and language production (including fluency and word-finding), general knowledge and autobiographical memories.  A deep furrow divides the cerebrum into two halves, known as the left and right hemispheres. And, while the two hemispheres look almost symmetrical, each side seems to function differently. The right hemisphere is considered our creative side, and the left hemisphere is considered our logical side. A bundle of axons, called the corpus callosum, connects the two hemispheres.  EVOLUTION OF BRAIN The evolution of the brain refers to the progressive development and complexity of neural structures over millions of years, resulting in the diverse range of brain sizes and functions observed across different species today, particularly in vertebrates. The volume of the human brain has more than tripled since the divergence from chimpanzees and is approximately eight times that of the New World monkeys  However, recent phylogenomic and cladistic analysis suggests that complex brains may have independently evolved at least 9 times within different animal lineages. Indeed, even within the phylum Mollusca cephalization might have occurred at least 5 times.  Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a group of related organisms, represented by a phylogenetic tree. A clade is a group of organisms that includes an ancestor and all of its descendants. Cladistics is a method of comparing traits in related species to determine ancestor-descendant relationships.  In Mollusca, cephalization means the same thing that is does for us, the formation of a head with a brain. Cephalization occurs during the embryonic stage of development and, particularly in cephalopods, results in a well developed brain.  WHAT MADE OUR BRAINS EVOLVE? THEORY As early humans faced new environmental challenges and evolved bigger bodies, they evolved larger and more complex brains. Large, complex brains can process and store a lot of information. That was a big advantage to early humans in their social interactions and encounters with unfamiliar habitats. Structural changes altered the way the brain operated. The neocortex grew larger while reorganizing its structure to use several different regions of the brain at once. This lasted for millions of years until around 1.9 million years ago. Then, brain evolution sped up significantly. WHAT ARE THE THREE STAGES OF BRAIN EVOLUTION? To simplify a complex process spanning 600 million years, your brain developed in ways that are loosely related to three major stages of vertebrate evolution: Reptile: Brainstem, focused on avoiding harms. Mammal: Subcortex, focused on approaching rewards. Primate/human: Neocortex, focused on attaching to “us” SEVEN STAGES OF BRAIN DEVELOPMENT Brain development can be broadly divided into seven stages: Neurogenesis: is the process of generating new neurons. It occurs primarily during embryonic development and continues to a lesser extent in some specific brain regions during adulthood. Neurogenesis plays a crucial role in increasing the size and complexity of the brain. Cell migrations a stage in which newly generated neurons travel from their birthplace to their final destination in the brain. This process is guided by chemical signals and is essential for the appropriate wiring of brain circuits.  Cell differentiation is the stage where cells become specialized and acquire distinct functions. During this stage, neurons start to express specific genes that determine their identity and role in the brain. Cell maturations the process through which neurons develop and mature structurally and functionally. Neurons undergo significant changes in morphology and establish connections with other neurons.  Synaptogenesis is the formation of synapses, which are the connections between neurons. Synapses allow for communication and information processing in the brain, and their formation is a crucial step in brain development. Cell death and pruning is a natural process of eliminating unnecessary or poorly functioning neurons and synapses. This pruning process helps refine brain circuitry and improve the efficiency of information processing. Myelogenesis is the final stage of brain development, where myelin, a fatty substance, is produced and wraps around the nerve fibers. Myelin acts as an insulator and allows for faster and more efficient transmission of electrical signals in the brain. DOES BRAIN SIZE AFFECT IQ? In healthy volunteers, total brain volume weakly correlates with intelligence, with a correlation value between 0.3 and 0.4 out of a possible 1.0. In other words, brain size accounts for between 9 and 16 percent of the overall variability in general intelligence. WHICH ANIMAL HAS THE MOST EVOLVED BRAIN? Homo sapiens Among these outliers includes our own species, Homo sapiens, which has evolved more than 20 times faster than all other mammal species, resulting in the massive brains that characterize humanity today WHAT IS THE OLDEST PART OF THE BRAIN EVOLUTION? The so-called reptilian brain, the oldest of the three in evolutionary terms, which controls the body's vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, body temperature and balance. The main structures here are the brainstem and the cerebellum. WHY IS IT CALLED THE LIZARD BRAIN? (The amygdala's role) Humans' common ancestor with lizards likely also had an amygdala, which is why it's often referred to as our “lizard brain.” It's typically associated with detecting threats and processing fear.  A classic example of the amygdala in action is someone’s physiological and emotional response to seeing a snake: startled body, racing heart, sweaty palms. But the amygdala also does other things as according to Braga, an assistant professor of neurology at Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine. “For instance, the amygdala is responsible for social behaviors like parenting, mating, aggression and the navigation of social-dominance hierarchies,” said “Previous studies have found co-activation of the amygdala and social cognitive network, but this study is novel because it shows the communication is always happening.” WONDER WHAT OTHERS ARE THINKING? IT’S YOUR ‘LIZARD BRAIN’ TALKING New understanding of brain communication could one day help treat anxiety and depression. n a new Northwestern Medicine study, scientists sought to better understand how humans evolved to become so skilled at thinking about what’s happening in other peoples’ minds. THE BACKGROUND: EVOLUTIONARY TIMELINES “We spend a lot of time wondering, ‘What is that person feeling, thinking? Did I say something to upset them?’” said senior author Rodrigo Braga. “The parts of the brain that allow us to do this are in regions of the human brain that have expanded recently in our evolution, and that implies that it’s a recently developed process. In essence, you’re putting yourself in someone else’s mind and making inferences about what that person is thinking when you cannot really know.”.  The study found the more recently expanded parts of the human brain that support social interactions — called the social cognitive network — are connected to and in constant communication with a more ancient part of the brain called the amygdala. POTENTIAL TREATMENT OF ANXIETY, DEPRESSION Both anxiety and depression involve amygdala hyperactivity, which can contribute to excessive emotional responses and impaired emotional regulation, Edmonds said. Currently, someone with either condition could receive deep brain stimulation for treatment, but this means having an invasive, surgical procedure. Now, with this study’s findings, a much less-invasive procedure, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), might be able to use knowledge about this brain connection to target the amygdala by stimulating regions of the social cognitive network which sit on the brain surface.  While researchers don’t yet know if this would have a beneficial effect, it presents an exciting future avenue of investigation, Braga said. “Through this knowledge that the amygdala is connected to other brain regions — potentially some that are closer to the skull, which is an easier region to targe that means people who do TMS could target the amygdala instead by targeting these other regions. HOW MANY GB IS THE HUMAN BRAIN? 2.5 million gigabytes As a number, a “petabyte” means 1024 terabytes or a million gigabytes, so the average adult human brain has the ability to store the equivalent of 2.5 million gigabytes digital memory. Mobile? Laptop ? WHAT INFLUENCES HEALTHY BRAIN DEVELOPMENT STAGES? Healthy brain development is greatly influenced by various factors, including relationships, positive interactions, and negative environmental factors. These factors play a crucial role in shaping a child’s brain and development. Positive relationships and interactions with caregivers are vital during the early stages of brain development. When a child feels secure and loved, their brain is able to develop strong neural connections.  Responsive and nurturing interactions with caregivers help stimulate and strengthen these connections, promoting healthy brain growth. On the other hand, negative interactions, such as neglect or abuse, can have detrimental effects on brain development. Stress and trauma experienced during these interactions can hinder the formation of important neural connections, impeding healthy brain development. 10 TIPS TO IMPROVE BRAIN FUNCTION AND MEMORY CAPACITY Keep learning. Grab a good book. Get a good night's rest. Spend your free time wisely. Practice positive affirmations. Build an exercise routine. Stay active socially. Be creative. WHAT ARE THE ETHICAL ISSUES IN NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH ? Ethical considerations have to be considered when administering or interpreting the results of a neuropsychological assessment. It includes the provision of consent, confidentiality, indirect warnings, avoiding assumptions, and generalizations on effort tests. WHAT IS ETHICAL? It is connected with beliefs of what is right or wrong ? or morally correct. APA define ethics – the principles of morally right conduct accepted by a person or a group or considered appropriate to a specific field. In psychological research, proper ethics requires that participants be treated fairly and without harm and that investigators report results and findings honestly. code of ethics; professional ethics; research ethics  RESEARCH ETHICS The values, principles, and standards that guide the conduct of individual researchers in several areas, including the design and implementation of studies and the reporting of findings. (Ethics committee for research approval ) HERE ARE SOME KEY ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH IN NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Discuss intellectual property frankly- To prevent disagreements, it’s best to discuss authorship early in collaborations, psychologists should only claim credit for their actual contributions Be conscious of multiple roles – It’s common for researchers to mentor students while supervising them in labs. To prevent misuse of power, set clear expectations and responsibilities before starting supervision. A written agreement can help clarify roles, supervision intensity, and authorship. Follow informed-consent rules- Respect confidentiality and privacy- Reference – https://www.apa.org/monitor/j 1 INFORMED CONSENT: Firstly, informed consent is essential, requiring participants to fully understand the study’s purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits before voluntarily agreeing to participate (American Psychological Association, 2017). Written Consent Assent for minors Debriefing after participation  APA’s Ethics Code mandates that psychologists who conduct research should inform participants about: The purpose, duration and procedures of the research. Participants’ rights to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research once it has started, as well as the anticipated  consequences of doing so. Reasonably foreseeable factors that may influence their willingness to participate, such as potential risks, discomfort or adverse effects. Any prospective research benefits. Limits of confidentiality, such as data coding, disposal, sharing and archiving, and when confidentiality must be broken. Incentives for participation. Who participants can contact with questions.  For Example: In a study investigating the effects of a new medication on memory in individuals with Alzheimer’s disease, researchers must ensure that participants or their legally authorized representatives understand the study’s objectives, potential side effects, and voluntary nature before providing consent. SAMPLE OF INFORMED CONSENT FORM You, _________________________, are being asked to participate in a research project titled _________________. This project is being conducted under the supervision of _________________ and was approved by _________________ University/College’s IRB (or Committee on the Use of Human Participants) on _________________. The investigators hope to learn __________________________ from this project. While participating in this study, you will be asked to _________________ for _________________ period of time. The nature of this study has been explained by _________________. The anticipated benefits of your participation are ___________________. The known risks of your participation in this study are _________________.  he researchers will make every effort to safeguard the confidentiality of the information that you provide. Any information obtained from this study that can be identified with you will remain confidential and will not be given to anyone without your permission. If at any time you would like additional information about this project, you can contact _________________ at _________________. You have the right to refuse to participate in this study. If you do agree to participate, you have the right to change your mind at any time and stop your participation. The grades and services you receive from _________________ University/College will not be negatively affected by your refusal to participate or by your withdrawal from this project. Your signature below indicates that you have given your informed consent to participate in the above-described project. Your signature also indicates that:  You have been given the opportunity to ask any and all questions about the described project and your participation and all of your questions have been answered to your satisfaction. You have been permitted to read this document and you have been given a signed copy of it. You are at least 18 years old. You are legally able to provide consent. To the best of your knowledge and belief, you have no physical or mental illness or weakness that would be adversely affected by your participation in the described project. Signature of Participant & Date Signature of Witness & Date 2. CONFIDENTIALITY AND PRIVACY Confidentiality and privacy are equally important, necessitating researchers to protect participants’ personal information and identity throughout the study (National Institutes of Health, 2018). Data anonymization- Ensuring that the identities of research participants cannot be linked to their responses or data. Secure storage Limited access Researchers conducting neuroimaging studies should safeguard participants’ identity by removing any identifying information from brain images and ensuring secure storage of data.  Researchers should take include: Discuss the limits of confidentiality. Know state law Take practical security measures. Think about data sharing before research begins. Understand the limits of the Internet. 3. BENEFICENCE & NON-MALEFICENCE Researchers must also strive to minimize harm by employing standardized procedures to reduce physical or psychological distress during the study, particularly in vulnerable populations like patients with traumatic brain injury (World Medical Association, 2013). Example: In studies involving cognitive testing of patients with traumatic brain injury, researchers must employ standardized procedures to minimize frustration or distress caused by challenging tasks.  Beneficence and non-maleficence principles underscore the importance of maximizing benefits while minimizing harm, particularly when experimental interventions are involved (Beauchamp & Childress, 2019).  Risk assessment Monitoring participant well-being Providing support or counseling 4 PARTICIPANTS’ AUTONOMY Lastly, respect for participants’ autonomy mandates that researchers obtain consent from legally authorized representatives while also respecting participants’ preferences and autonomy to the extent possible, especially in cases of severe cognitive impairment (Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences, 2016). Example: In studies involving individuals with severe cognitive impairment, researchers should obtain consent from legally authorized representatives while also respecting participants’ preferences and autonomy to the extent possible. 5 INTEGRITY Ensuring fairness in the selection of research participants and the distribution of benefits and risks. Avoiding fabrication or falsification of data Peer review Transparency in reporting results 6 DATA FABRICATION & FALSIFICATION: Creating or falsifying research data without conducting the actual research or experiment. Manipulating research data or results to fit a desired outcome or hypothesis. 7. PLAGIARISM Plagiarism is the act of using someone else’s ideas, words, or work without proper acknowledgment or permission, presenting them as your own. It can be categorized into several types: Direct Plagiarism: Copying verbatim from a source without proper citation. Example: Using a paragraph from a book without acknowledging the author. Self-Plagiarism: Reusing your previously published work without citation. Example: Submitting a previously published paper without indicating it’s recycled content.  Mosaic or Patchwork Plagiarism: Paraphrasing someone else’s work without citation. Example: Rearranging sentences from a source and incorporating them without proper attribution. Inaccurate Plagiarism: Incorrectly attributing authorship to someone else. Example: Claiming sole ownership of a group project without crediting co-authors.  Consequences of plagiarism include academic penalties (e.g., failing grades, suspension), professional repercussions (e.g., damaged reputation, termination), and legal consequences (e.g., copyright infringement lawsuits, fines). To avoid plagiarism, always cite sources properly, adhere to ethical writing practices, and utilize plagiarism detection tools and citation guides. By adhering to these ethical issues in research in neuropsychology, researchers can ensure the integrity and welfare of participants while advancing knowledge in neuropsychology.  American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/ethics/code/ National Institutes of Health. (2018). Protecting personal health information in research: Understanding the HIPAA Privacy Rule. Retrieved from https://privacyruleandresearch.nih.gov/ – World Medical Association. (2013). Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. Retrieved from https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma- declaration-of-helsinki-ethical-principles-for-medical-research-involving-human-subjects/ – Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (2019). Principles of biomedical ethics (8th ed.). Oxford University Press. – Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences. (2016). International ethical guidelines for health-related research involving humans. Retrieved from https://cioms.ch/publications/product/international-ethical-guidelines-for-health-related- research-involving-humans/