Research 2ndG L5-8 PDF

LESSON 05: WRITING THE RESEARCH DESIGN & PARTICIPANTS/VARIABLES SECTION Introduction The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the study coherently and logically, thereby ensuring you will effectively addres...

LESSON 05: WRITING THE RESEARCH DESIGN & PARTICIPANTS/VARIABLES SECTION Introduction The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the study coherently and logically, thereby ensuring you will effectively address the research problem. Furthermore, a research design constitutes the blueprint for the selection, measurement, and analysis of data. The research problem determines the research you should. Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques. The kind of research is dependent on the researcher’s aim in conducting the study and the extent to which the findings will be used. In writing the Research Design section of your paper, the first step is to identify the type of quantitative research you will be conducting. Types of Quantitative Research: A Recall Experimental Research has the following characteristics: ❖ strictly adheres to a scientific research design ❖ includes a hypothesis, a variable that can be manipulated by the researcher, and variables that can be measured, calculated, and compared ❖ completed in a controlled environment ❖ seeks to determine a relationship between the dependent variable and the independent variable Type of Description Sample Studies Experimental Research True Experimental ▪ Rigid manipulation of variables Effect of administering Drug Z to ▪ Use of control, individuals who have high level selection, and random anxiety assignment Quasi-experimental ▪ Rigid manipulation of Side effects of administered variables Vaccine A and Vaccine B to ▪ Use of control without senior high school students of randomization of two universities in Bacolod City variables ▪ Intact groups or Effect of blended online learning participants are used in versus modular learning in their entirety computer programming competency of STEM-EIT students DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication Non-Experimental Research has the following characteristics: ❖ does not control, manipulate, or alter the subjects ❖ simply measures variables as they naturally occur ❖ relies on interpretation, observation, or interactions to come to a conclusion ❖ has a high level of external validity; can be generalized to a larger population According to Research Purpose Type of Non-experimental Description Sample Studies Research Descriptive ✓ Describes the status of a variable ✓ Designed to provide Senior citizens’ quality of life in systematic the time of pandemic information of phenomena ✓ i.e. Surveys Predictive ✓ Predict or forecast Factors affecting the decision to phenomena without exercise political rights by young establishing cause professionals in Negros and effect ✓ i.e. Correlational Occidental Explanatory ✓ Develop or test atheory to explainhow and why it operates The role of text familiarity and ✓ Identify causality pragmatics in the research behind abilities of Engineering students phenomena According to Time Dimension Cross-sectional ✓ Data collected at a Level of social responsible single point in time marketing and green market ✓ Comparisons are practices of Tourism students made across when they are grouped variables of according to sex and academic interest performance Retrospective ✓ Comparisons are made between K-12 graduates’ perceptions estimated data towards the persuasive quality from the past and of environmental advertisements data sets from in 2018 and 2021 the present Longitudinal ✓ Data is collected at the present Pharmacists’ evaluation of the ✓ Data collection will implementation of over-the- be done again at a counter medication future time administration policies during ✓ Data sets are and after the pandemic compared to each other Take note of the following guidelines when writing your Research Design section: 1. Explain the type of quantitative research used. 2. Justify its use and appropriateness for the study. 3. Rationalize why quantitative methodology is best suited to address the research questions. 4. Provide scholarly citations that support the reason why the design was chosen. 5. Write your Research Design section in at least one (1) paragraph. DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication Sample Research Design Paragraphs 1. Quantitative research is a type of research that emphasizes objectivity and uses numerical data and statistics with larger populations as its sample size (Babbie, 2010). This research method will be applied to determine the physical fitness state of teenagers residing in Bacolod City. The type of research design that will be used in this study is descriptive research. According to McCombes (2019), descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information for statistical analysis. The researchers will assess the physical fitness state of teenagers during the COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown in Bacolod City. The procedures include collecting data of the participants, specifically, their body mass index (BMI) last March before the lockdown started and their current BMI this September. They will be given questionnaires about their lifestyle whether they are physically active or living a sedentary life during the community quarantine. 2. The most appropriate research design for this study is post-test only control group. A post-test only control group is a type of experimental design and is thought to be the most accurate type of experimental research. This is because a post-test only control group supports or refutes a hypothesis using statistical analysis (Krishnan, 2019). The Complete Randomized Design (CRD) was used in the experiment with seven (7) treatments, one is control and three (3) replicates to determine the corrosion inhibition efficiency and corrosion rates of IALE as green inhibitor to mild steel corrosion. Writing the Participants/Variables Section Non-experimental research studies require the Participants Section while Experimental research studies require the Variables Section. Participants Section This section must include individuals involved in the data gathering of the study and their demographic characteristics including the percentage by variables and categories, participants’ location and setting during the data gathering, and the sample size and sampling technique used in recruiting the participants. Use the following guide questions when constructing the Participants section: ❖ Who will be in the study? ❖ How many participants? ▪ Say exactly how many participants are intended, and do not make it “about” how many. ❖ What important characteristics of the participants should be mentioned? ▪ Mention the demographics of your sample. ▪ This could include age—should include age range, race/ethnicity—should include numbers and/or percent, sex—should include numbers and/or percent, strand, grade level, and other categories/sub-groups. ❖ What type of sampling technique will be used? ▪ State the sampling technique you will use in the study and justify why it would be appropriate for your study. ▪ Be sure you understand sampling definitions. DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication Participants - Inclusion and Exclusion Characteristics Many studies require participants to have certain qualities, for example: ❖ Must have a diagnosis ❖ Must be a parent-child pair ❖ Must be married ❖ Must be of a certain income range ❖ Must live in a specific location Studies must clearly state if participants must have any characteristics or must meet certain requirements. On the other hand, many studies exclude participants with certain qualities, for example: ❖ Must have one diagnosis, but must not have another diagnosis ❖ Must be depressed but not schizophrenic ❖ Must not have a serious alcohol or drug problem ❖ Must not be taking psychiatric medication Studies need to clearly state any exclusion characteristics or things that would mean that someone should not be in the study. Sample Participants Section Paragraphs 1. Participants will be a convenience sample of 30 couples who have been married or cohabiting at least 10 years and are at least 30 years of age and under age 55. Both members of the couple must be employed full time outside the home. Couples may be of any sexual orientation, and any race or ethnicity. Couples with a reported or documented history of domestic violence will be excluded. There are no other exclusion criteria. 2. Participants will be 42 adults who meet criteria for a diagnosis of major depressive disorder. This convenience sample will be 100% Hispanic-American and will include 18 men and 26 women. Participants with current alcohol or drug problems or a history of psychosis are excluded. 3. The respondents in the research were the Grade 12 STEM students of UNO-R. Total population is 443. Sample size of 207 was determined through Slovin’s formula. Stratified random sampling was used to determine the actual number of respondents. There were 125 participants from STEM-EIT and 82 participants from STEM-MAH. Variables Section This is where you describe the variables you used in the study. Important Variables in an Experimental Study ❖ Independent Variable – This is the variable whose change is not affected by any other variable in the experiment. ❖ Dependent Variable – This is the variable being studied and measured in the experiment, and the variable it changes because of the changes to the independent variable. The independent variable is what the researcher changes, and the dependent variable is what changes because of that. DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  ❖ Controlled Variables (Constant Variables) – These are the quantities that a researcher wants to remain constant, and he/she must observe them as carefully so that no other explanations could be given for the results except for those that resulted from the experiment. EXAMPLE: Research question: "How does the size of a dog affect how much food it eats?” Independent Variable: Size of the dog Dependent Variable: Amount of food consumed Controlled Variables: Hunger of the dogs before the experiment, type of food, and whether the dogs like the type of food Sample Paragraphs for the Variables Section 1. The cold asphalt mixture, composed of paving grade aggregates and asphalt emulsion, identified as the product of combining different variables. The variables used in the study were identified as independent and dependent variables. The independent variables were plastic wastes, namely polyethylene, and polyethylene terephthalate, also known as plastic wrappers and plastic bottles, respectively. These types of plastic wastes were chosen in the study since most of the societies waste disposal were composed of these plastics. The plastic wastes were used as modifiers to the dependent variable, the compaction of the cold asphalt mixture. The control group, which are the bitumen emulsion and the frame size, were both given to all the samples without alterations. 2. The independent variable were the concentrations of IAPE used as treatments ranging from 0-2000 parts per million (ppm) and the varying temperatures; 30° C, 60° C, 90° C. Corrosion rates and inhibition efficiencies were the dependent variable. The size of mild steel coupons and time immersion were the controlled variables. References David, F. (2002). Understanding and Doing Research: A Handbook for Beginners. Panorama Printing, Inc. Orleans, A., Laurel-Sotto, R. (2018). Science in Today’s World Research in Daily Life 2. Quezon City, Sibs Publishing House Inc. Pulmones, R. (2016). Quantitative Research. Phoenix Publishing House. San Miguel, J., Ph.D. (2018). STEP BY STEP Practical Research 2 for Senior High School. Cavite City, NCR: REAP. DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Lesson 6: IDENTIFYING SAMPLING METHODS AND CONSTRUCTING THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT Quantitative Data Collection Techniques and Sampling Procedure Data Collection Data Collection is an extremely important part of research because the conclusions of the study are based on what the data reveal. There are several ways of collecting data. The choice of procedures usually depends on the objectives and design of the study and the availability of time, money, and personnel. Another consideration is the kind of data the researcher wishes to generate. What are Data? The term ‘data’ refers to any kind of information researchers obtain on the subjects, respondents, or participants of a study. In research, data is collected and used to answer the research questions or objectives of the study. Examples of research data: Demographic information such as age, sex, household size, civil status, religion. Social and economic information such as educational attainment, health status, the extent of participation in social organization, occupation, income, housing condition, and the like Scores in standardized or researcher-made tests or results of laboratory examination and clinical observation of patients or clients. Grades of ratings obtained from records or forms Verbal or written responses to questions regarding attitudes towards and perception of something. Techniques for Collecting Data The choice of the best way to collect data depends largely on the type of data to be collected and the source of data. Before starting to collect a researcher should decide: What data to collect Where or from whom the data will be obtained What instrument/s or device/s to use in collecting the data The two most common means of collecting primary quantitative information are the self- administered questionnaires and the structured interview. Quantitative information may also be collected from secondary sources and service statistics (Fisher, et.al., 1991) Studies which obtain data by interviewing people or by administering questionnaires are called surveys. When the people interviewed or asked to respond to questionnaires as a representative sample of a larger population, such studies are called sample surveys. DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Self-administered Questionnaires Questionnaires are distributed to the respondents who write their answers to the questions in appropriate spaces in the questionnaire. Questionnaires may be administered individually or in a group by the researcher or by an authorized individual. Features of a Self-administered Questionnaire Questionnaires are given to the respondents who are asked to read and answer the questions themselves Questions and instructions are addressed to the respondents Instructions on how to accomplish the questionnaire are specified in the instrument Advantages of Using a Self-administered Questionnaire 1. A self-administered questionnaire is less expensive per respondent in an interview 2. A questionnaire requires less time and fewer skills in data gathering and processing. 3. External influence is avoided. 4. Respondents have time to think before answering because they are not under pressure to give an answer immediately. Disadvantages of a Self-administered Questionnaire 1. The per respondent cost of self-administered questionnaires may below, but the return rate is also generally low, usually less than 50%. 2. Many respondents do not return accomplished questionnaires. 3. Respondents included in the sample may not be representative of the population being studied. 4. No one will answer and clarify questions that may arise. Mailed Questionnaires Some questionnaires are mailed to respondents accompanied by self-addressed envelopes. The respondents are asked to mail back accomplished questionnaires. The drawback of mailed questionnaires is the high non-response rate. Often less than 50 percent return take is obtained when questionnaires are mailed. The low return rate affects the representation of the sample and may render the validity of the findings questionable. Other Quantitative Data that Researchers Use Two other kinds of quantitative data that researchers use are service statistics and secondary data. SERVICE STATISTICS Service statistics refers to information generated by organizations or agencies for management use. Examples: mortality rate, birth rate, morbidity rate from the Department of DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Health, land ownership, land use fro, crop and livestock production from the Department of Agriculture, industry data from the Department of Trade and Industry, education data from the Department of Education. The quality of service statistics varies from organization to organization depending on how the data were gathered and recorded. How to RETRIEVE Service Statistics ✓ Service statistics may be requested from an office or agency through proper means. Official permission is usually sought from the head of the office or whoever is authorized to grant permission for the use of information. ✓ Restrictions of requirements may be imposed on the retrieval or use of service statistics and these should be adhered to by the researchers. ✓ Before retrieving the data needed from documents, the researchers must first ask permission to use the data for a specific purpose from the head of the office or the person- in-charge of the data. SECONDARY DATA Secondary data are existing information from censuses, national surveys, and other completed studies that may be used for further analysis. One can do research using regional, national, international data. Secondary data may also be used to enrich and supplement data collected for a study. Volumes of data population, business, health, family planning, agriculture, and other kinds of data are collected regularly. These data are available in national or regional offices and can be further analyzed to answer new questions or problems other than those answered by the original study. Examples of Secondary Data Data on population and housing from the National Statistics Office Data on family planning practice, reproductive health, immunization, and adolescent sexuality from the National Health and Demographics Survey Data on price, indices, employment and unemployment, Gross National Product (GNP) from the Department of Trade and Industry For instance, data from two censuses may be used for comparative analysis of population and housing patterns across different regions of a country. National demographic and health surveys of different countries can be a good source of data for regional or provincial comparison of demographic and health indicators or correlation analysis of various factors. The Nature of Sampling (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1996) What is SAMPLING? DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Sampling is the process of choosing a representative portion of a population or some elements in a population that will represent the entire population. It is assumed that the characteristics of the chosen elements, called a sample, reflect the characteristics of the entire population. In contrast, total enumeration or census requires the study of all elements in the population. Sampling is the process of obtaining the participants of a study from a larger pool of potential participants termed as population. In the study of sampling, it is important to distinguish the following concepts: population, target population, sampling population, sampling frame, and sample. Population. This refers to the total number of elements (e.g. items, objects, areas, or individuals) to be studied. For example in the study of “ Attitudes and Practices of Students in Public High Schools in Province A”, all students in public high school in the province constitute the study population. Population Element. This pertains to an item, an object, an area or am individual on which data will be taken. It is considered the unit of study. In the previous example, a student in public high school is a population element. Target Population. This is the population for which representative information is desired. Sampling Population. This is the population from which a sample is desired. Sampling Frame. The frame is a list of all elements or sampling units (e.g. items, persons) in a population. The sample is drawn from the sampling frame. Sample. This refers to an individual, an element, or a group of individuals or elements on which information is obtained. The sample is drawn from a population to which research results are generalized. Why study a SAMPLE? There are several advantages of studying a sample rather than the total population. It is cheaper. It is faster. It is more accurate. It can yield more comprehensive information It is cheaper. Since a sample is smaller than the entire population, collection, and processing of data I, therefore, cost much less. It is faster. It is quicker to study fewer individuals or elements than an entire population It is more accurate. Fewer errors are expected in data collection and processing in a study of a sample than in a study of the entire population. It allows a more thorough investigation, better supervision, and better handling of data than is possible with complete coverage. DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- It can yield more comprehensive information. A small sample can be more thoroughly investigated and can yield more comprehensive information than a big population. Basic Types of Sampling There are two basic types of sampling: Probability Sampling and Non-Probability (Cooper and Schindler, 2001) Probability Sampling is based on the concept of random selection, a procedure that assures that all elements in the population are given an equal chance of being selected as a sample unit. Non-Probability Sampling is arbitrary (non-random) and is generally subjective. It involves purposely choosing participants according to some identified variables. Data gatherers choose sample cases, ‘as they wish’ or ‘wherever they find them’. Probability Sampling Method Probability Sampling Brief Description Sampling Procedure Method 1. Simple Random It allows for members of the Assign a number to all Sampling population to have an equal members of the population. chance being selected as a Randomly select or draw a member of the sample. predetermined number by using a table of random numbers, generating random numbers using a computer, or by using a mechanical device such as roulette. 2. Stratified Random It involves dividing the Divide the population into Sampling population into homogenous different subgroups or subgroups and then taking a strata (e.g. different year simple random sample in each levels, 1st to 4th year, subgroup. This will ensure Grades 7 to 10, Grades 11- that each subgroup of the 12 in a school) population is represented in Randomly select the the sample. members of the sample for each subgroup 3. Systematic When simple random Number the units in the Random Sampling sampling or stratified random population from1 to N. sampling is too tedious or Decide on the sample size complicated due to the large (n) you need. population, then a systematic Compute for the interval random sampling can be size, k employed. k= N/n DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Randomly select an integer between 1 to k. Take every kth unit of the population as a member of the sample. 4. Cluster or Area When the members (units) of Divide the population into sampling the population are dispersed clusters or geographic across a wide geographic boundaries region, then cluster (or area) Randomly sample clusters. sampling is the preferred Randomly select units from method. As an example, a each sampled cluster. sampling of all areas of Negros occidental might be very difficult. A researcher can instead randomly select a number of districts to be members of the sample. Non-Probability Sampling Non Probability Sampling Brief Description Example Method 1. Accidental or Participants are sampled A psychologist samples Convenience Sampling according to what is his or her clients since conveniently available. they are readily available. A market researcher asks volunteers in a mall to be interviewed. 2. Modal Instance Participants who exhibit the A researcher is Sampling “most common” occurrence are interested in the buying sampled accordingly. preferences of a “typical teenager.” Thus only those who constitute a ‘typical teenager” are sampled. DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3. Expert Sampling Participants who are identified Teachers who are as ‘experts” or those assessed as excellent participants that can give high- teachers by their quality information are students are sampled sampled. to come up with a model of good teaching. 4. Proportional and Non- A predetermined number or For example, you know Proportional/Quota percentage of the population is that in a given sampling sampled. population, there are 60% men and 40% women. In Quota sampling, you will select samples non- randomly until you reach 40% women (4 out of 10) 5. Heterogeneity or Samples who exhibit a wide Samples include Diversity Sampling spectrum of the identified participants with low, characteristics are sampled. moderate, and high intelligence quotient (IQ) 6. Snowball Sampling Participants identify other Students belonging to a potential participants to be study group can included as samples. recommend members of the group to be participants in research about intrinsic motivation to study. Research Instrument and Establishing its Validity and Reliability There are several kinds of instruments that can be used in data collection. Certain conditions dictate the type of instrument to use, such as the characteristics of the research subjects/ respondents, availability of subjects/ respondents, and available resources for the study. Since conclusions of a study are based on what the data reveal, it is important that the instruments used to collect data are valid and reliable. This module describes how survey questionnaires are prepared. The quality of instrument used in research is very important since the conclusions drawn from the findings of a study are based on the data collected. For inferences drawn from the study to be valid, the research instruments must be valid and reliable (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1996). DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- What is Research Instrument? Instruments that are employed to collect facts and data are called tools, or more common data gathering tools. It is of vital importance to select suitable instruments and tools. In quantitative research, there are several tools we can choose from; tests, questionnaires, quantitative interviews, quantitative observations, and content analysis. The most common tools are questionnaires and tests. Tests are particularly useful in educational research because they provide data for both experimental and non-experimental designs. They assess abilities, achievements, and behavioral tendencies. They are usually standardized; hence, their reliability and validity have been measured. QUALITIES OF A GOOD INSTRUMENT Validity. Validity in terms of research tools means that the instrument measures what it claims to measure. Reliability. An instrument is considered to be reliable if its application on the same object of measurement a number of times produces the same results. Objectivity. An instrument that is objective measures without reference to outside influences. An objective rest, for example, is one that produces the same scores regardless of who scores it. VALIDITY OF AN INSTRUMENT Validity refers to the appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness of inferences a researcher makes on the data they collect. A research instrument is valid when it measures what it intends to measure. Researchers should make sure that any information collected through the use of an instrument serves the purpose for which it is collected. The three kinds of the validity of an instrument are: content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct-related validity. 1. Content-Validity An instrument has content- validity if the content and format of an instrument appropriately cover the topics and the variables intended to be studied and the items adequately represent the subject to be assessed. The content and format of the instrument must be consistent with the operational definition of the variables. The key element in content validity is the adequacy of the sampling of items that are included in the instrument. Content validation is intended to determine "if the items contained in an instrument comprise an adequate sample of the content which it is supposed to represent." DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- How to determine content-validity A common way of determining the content validity of an instrument is by having one or more individuals look at the content and format of the instrument and judge whether or not they are appropriate. The person/s who will be asked to look at the instrument should be able to render an intelligent judgment or an expert's opinion on the adequacy and appropriateness of the content and format of the instrument. When two or more individuals evaluate the instrument, the process is called "jury validation." 2. Criterion-related validity An instrument has criterion-related validity if a score obtained by an individual using a particular instrument is significantly associated with a score he/she obtains on another instrument or another measure, known as the criterion. How to determine criterion-related validity To determine the criterion-related validity of an instrument, a researcher can compare the answers or responses of the subjects or respondents in the instrument being evaluated with their responses in another instrument, called the criterion. For example, if one wants to measure the academic performance of a student, he/she can get the student's general average in all academic subjects and compare this to his College Entrance Examination score, which can be the criterion variable. 3. Construct-related validity Construct-related validity refers to specific psychological constructs or characteristics being measured by the instrument and how well these constructs explain the differences in the behavior of individuals. How to determine construct -related validity 1) Clearly define the variable, 2) Formulate a hypothesis based on a theory, and 3) Testing the hypothesis both logically and empirically. For example, a researcher who plans to use a questionnaire to measure the "level of aspiration" of students, wants to use the construct-related validity approach to validate his/her instrument. First, the researcher defines "level of aspiration," then formulates a hypothesis and presents a theory on why the level of aspiration of different individuals vary. Then, the researcher administers the questionnaire and determines variations in the responses of the different groups or categories of respondents. For example, a researcher might theorize that economic deprivation can challenge an individual to aspire for a better life. Based on this theory, the researcher might hypothesize that DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- students from low-income families will more likely have higher aspirations than those who belong to high-income families. The researcher then prepares a questionnaire that will generate information on family income and the level of aspiration of the students. After administering the questionnaire, the researcher analyzes the data. If the result shows that indeed, students from low-income families have higher aspirations than those who belong to high-income families, then, this can be one evidence of the construct validity of the instrument. RELIABILITY OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT Reliability refers to the consistency of the responses or the scores obtained by an individual in a test or research instrument administered ice. For example in a math test, a student is expected to get a high Reliability in the second administration if his/her score in the first is high. The reliability of this test can also be determined if two forms of the test can be prepared and the scores of the students in the two forms can be compared. Methods in Determining the Reliability of an Instrument Three methods commonly used in determining the reliability of an instrument are: test- retest method, equivalent-forms method, and internal-consistency methods. 1. Test-retest method This involves administering the same test mice to the same groups of individuals after a certain time has elapsed. Then the reliability coefficient is calculated to determine the degree of association between the results of the two administrations. If the reliability coefficient is significant, the instrument is reliable. The coefficient is affected by the length of time that elapses between the administration of the two tests. 2. Equivalent-forms method This method involves the administration of two different but equivalent forms of an instrument to the same group of individuals during the same period. A reliability coefficient is calculated between the two sets of scores obtained. A high coefficient would indicate strong evidence of reliability, which means that the two forms are measuring the same thing. 3. Internal consistency methods Unlike all the other methods of determining reliability which require two administrations of tests, the internal-consistency methods require only one administration of the same instrument. There are a number of internal-consistency methods, the most common of which is the split- half procedure. The split-half procedure involves two halves (odd items versus even items) scoring of the first half and then the second half of the instrument separately for each person and then calculating DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- a correlation coefficient for the two sets of the score. The reliability coefficient is calculated using the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula, shown as follows: Reliability of scores on total tests = 2 x reliability for 1/2 tests 1 + reliability for 1/2 tests If the correlation between the two sets of scores is statistically significant, then the instrument is reliable. Methods of Checking Validity and Reliability (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1996) Validity (“Truthfulness”) Methods Procedures ❖ Content-related method ❖ Experts’ judgment ❖ Criterion-related method ❖ Relate to another measure of the same variable ❖ Construct-related ❖ Assess evidence from hypothesis or prediction made from method theory Reliability (“Consistency”) Test-retest Give identical instrument twice Equivalent forms Give two forms of the instrument Equivalent forms retest Give two forms of the instrument with time interval Internal consistency between Divide instrument into halves, score each QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION Before you start questionnaire construction Before you even start developing your questionnaire, you should be very familiar with your research variables. Each variable in a research study needs to be measured separately. All questions in your questionnaire should be measuring a certain variable. For instance, if your research purpose is to investigate the awareness, experience, and practice of Senior High School students regarding Swan Shaming, questions that measure awareness, experience, and practice should be asked. Each of these variables should have at least three to five questions, the mean scores of which give us a picture of awareness, experience, and practice. "Development of new tests is a complex and difficult process that requires considerable training in educational and psychological measurement. Therefore, we recommend that you make certain no suitable test is available before developing your own" (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003, p. 216). Before developing your questionnaire. do a thorough literature search. Using a pre- developed instrument connects your research study to the entire body of research that has used the same instrument. However, if you use an instrument developed by other researchers, then DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- you know that your study fits well into the worldwide knowledge base on your variables of interest. Long-time researchers advise beginner researchers like you that you should make your own questionnaire only if an appropriate instrument is not found. Questionnaire construction basics A rough guideline for writing questionnaire items is provided by the BRUSO model (Peterson, 2000). BRUSO is an acronym that stands for Brief, Relevant, Unambiguous, Specific, and Objective. CRITERION EFFECTIVE POOR Brief Do you believe in soulmates? Are you now or have you ever been a believer in the existence of soulmates? Relevant Do not include this item What is your sexual orientation? unless it is clearly relevant to the research. Unambiguous In a month, how often do you Do you attend church regularly? attend church? Specific Do you think that Facebook use Do you think Twitter and Facebook should be controlled? use should be controlled? Objective What toothpaste brand are you Are you using Hapee toothpaste? using? If not, what toothpaste brand are you using? STEPS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF A QUESTIONNAIRE There are six steps in the preparation of an interview schedule or a questionnaire: 1) determining what information to collect, 2) organizing or grouping the information items under topic or subject headings, 3) formulating the questions, 4) formatting the instrument, 5) modifying and pre- testing the instrument, and 6) improving and finalizing the instrument. STEP ONE: Determining What Information to Collect In designing a research instrument, the designer should know exactly what information or data need to be collected to attain the study objectives. Only relevant items or questions must be included in the instrument. To ensure that all the needed data can be collected using the instrument and that no unnecessary question is asked, the designer must do the following before constructing the instrument: 1. review the objectives of the study, 2. identify the specific variables the study intends to measure DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3. specify the measures or indicators to be used for each variable, and 4. identify the question items for each variable and indicator. One effective way of identifying all the information to collect is by creating a table of specifications that shows the study objectives, the specific variables in each objective, the operational definition or list of indicators of each variable, and the specific data to be collected. The following table of specifications illustrates what specific i information will be collected in the study on: “Fathers' Participation in the School Activities of their Elementary School Children: Its Influence on Academic Performance." It will be noted that the data required are all based on the objectives of the study and the operational definition of the study variables. Table of Specifications Objective Variables Indicator/s Items Operational Definition 1. To determine the The extent of fathers’ Whether fathers are Father’s involvement extent of fathers’ participation in involved or not in in children’s school participation in school school activities of their in children's activities activities of their their children school activities; Specific types of children. Type of activities activities fathers were they are involved in involved in Amount of time they No. Of hours fathers spend in their spend in each children's school activity. activities 2. To determine Age Age as of last Birthday whether their extent Educational birthday (mm/dd/year) of participation varies Attainment Highest level of Age in years according to their Occupation Status education completed School last attended age, educational Major work-where Year last attended attainment, and fathers spend most Highest level/degree occupation status of their time completed Secondary Whether gainfully occupation & other working or not sources of income Major occupation No. of hours spent in Secondary source’s of each work per week income Time spent in major and secondary occupations 3. To determine Children’s school Average of each Subjects taken and whether father’s performance child’s grades in all Grade in each subject DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- extent of participation the academic Average of grades in in their children’s subjects taken during all subjects school work is related the SY to their children’s school performance. STEP TWO: Grouping the Information Items (in outline form) Based on the table of specifications prepared, the topics and items should be grouped under subject or topic headings. In doing so, the following are suggested: 1. Group together related topics or items. 2. Arrange topics/items in a particular sequence, such as chronological, logical, from easiest to most difficult to answer, or from general to specific. 3. Include items on respondent identification and general biographical information, if not included as study variables. Illustration: For the problem illustrated in Step One, the topics and items may be outlined as follows: A. Respondent's Identification 1. Name: 2. Address: 3. Child's Name: 4. Child's Year Level: B. Personal Characteristics 1. Age: Birthday in month/day/year 2. Educational attainment School last attended; Year last attended: Highest level/degree completed 3. Occupation and Income Occupation: a. major and secondary b. Hours spent in major and secondary work per week c. Income from major and secondary occupation per month C. Participation in School Activities 1. Involvement Status DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Types of activities involved in last SY 3. Frequency and amount of time involvement D. Academic Performance of Child 1. Subjects taken 2. Grade in each subject 3. Average grade STEP THREE: Formulating the Questions Based on the items and topics outlined in Step Two, decide on the kind of questions to be asked and how they will be worded. Questions may be closed-ended or open-ended. Closed-ended questions are provided fixed alternative responses. To facilitate recording and data processing later, the alternative responses are usually pre-coded. Example: What is your civil status? 1. Single 2. Married 3. Widowed Open-ended questions are not provided fixed alternative responses. Respondents are expected to respond to the questions in their own words and their answers are recorded verbatim in the instrument by the data collector. Adequate space response is provided in the instrument. Example: In your perception, what factors can affect a person's work performance? In formulating the questions, the following are suggested: 1. Use simple language that can be easily understood by the 2. If respondents cannot easily understand English, translate the research questions into the dialect of the respondents. 3. Avoid double-barreled questions (with double meaning) Example: Do you like coffee and tea? (Reset like coffee, but not tea, or tea, but not coffee.) Better: Do you like coffee? What about tea? 4. Avoid "leading” questions--those that give hint/s to the respondent as to what answer to give. Example: Which section of a magazine do you read first? 1 Cover 4 News Items 7 Features 2 Comics 5 Entertainment 8 Critiques 3 Editorial 6 News 9 Others DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (Note: Even if a respondent does not read magazines, he/she will be led to answer the question.) Better: Do you read magazines? If yes. which part do you usually read first? 5. Provide enough space for recording of responses to open-ended questions. STEP FOUR: Formatting the Instrument A questionnaire must be formatted in such a way that it is easy to read and answer. Decide on the physical format and submit the trial drag to experts or consultants for criticisms and suggestions. In formatting a questionnaire/interview schedule, the following are suggested: Avoid crowding of questions and alternative responses Write the questions using at least Font 12 character size. Arrange the questions as outlined, following hierarchy of items Provide adequate space for answers. Align parallel responses or codes of a group of responses. Make sure that all the important information on the study is asked Illustration of Steps Three and Four: A. Respondent’s Identification Respondent No. A.1 Name: A.2 Address: A.3 Child’s name: B. Personal Characteristics B.1 How old were you on your last birthday? Age in years B.2 When were you born? (GIVE, MONTH, DAY, and YEAR) Month Day Year B.3 What is your highest educational attainment? 0 None 1 Elementary 2 High School 3 College B.4 What kind of high school did you attend? 1 Public HS 2 Private HS B.5 When was the last year you were in school? School year DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- B.6 What is your main source of livelihood? 0 None 1 Self-employed 2 Professional 3 Employed 9 Others B.7 How much is your monthly gross income from your Actual income major occupation? B.8 Do you have other sources of income? 1 Yes 2 No B.9 If yes, what are your other sources of income? 0 None 1 Handicraft 2 Vending/Sales 3 Service Providers 9 Others B.10 How much do you earn monthly from your other Actual income sources of income? B.11 How much is your total income from all sources? Actual income STEP FIVE: Modifying and Pretesting the Instrument The instrument must be pre-tested on individuals with more or less similar characteristics as the study respondents. The number of pretest respondents should be at least 5 percent of the size of the sample population. The results of the pretest must be considered in revising and modifying the instrument. In revising the instrument, the designer of the instrument should watch out for items with: ✓ incomplete answers ✓ inconsistent answers ✓ vague answers ✓ no answers STEP SIX: Improving and Finalizing the Instrument Based on the results of the pretest, the instrument must be modified and improved. In doing so, the following are suggested. 1. Determine the exact space, page by page, to be occupied by identification data, questions, replies, and interviewers' instructions. 2. Finalize the layout, considering the type and size of font, spaces for responses, and instructions. DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3. Ask consultants to comment on the content and format. Weigh the recommendations and suggestions given and make the changes called for. 4. Prepare the final draft. Revise format, if necessary. Make sure there is sufficient space for recording the responses. Ensure that answers can be recorded properly in the right places. A. Respondent’s Personal Characteristics (FOR QUESTIONS WITH PRECODED RESPONSES, JUST ENCIRCLE THE NUMBER CORRESPONDING TO YOUR ANSWER.) 1. Sex 1 Male 2 Female 2. How old were you on your last birthday? 3. What is your civil status? 1 Single 2 Married 3 Widowed 4 Separated 3-A. If married, how many children do you have? 3-B. If married, what is the main occupation of your husband? 0 None 1 Manager/Admin 2 Professional 3 Business 4 Office Employee 5 Others 4. What is your highest educational attainment? 1 Bachelor’s degree 2 Master’s degree 3 Doctorate degree 5. How long have you worked in this bank? (Years and Months) 6. How long have you been manager of this bank (Years and Months) 7. On the average, How much do you approximately earn per month as manager of the bank? 8. Has your being a woman affected your work as manager of 1 Yes this bank? 2 No 9. If yes, in what way? (Give at least two answers.) 10. If no, why? DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- TYPES OF SURVEY QUESTIONS There are many types of survey questions. Your choice of what to use depends on the information you need, the depth of information, and the amount of time your survey respondents have. Below are the most common ones which you can use when developing your survey questionnaire. Closed-ended questions Four types of closed-ended questions are most commonly used: rating scale, forced-choice, dichotomous, and demographic. Rating scale questions. Two frequently used types of rating scale questions are Likert-type scales and semantic differential scales. Let's briefly discuss each. Likert-type scales. Developed by Rensis Likert (pronounced as leek-urt), it is typically a five, seven, or nine-point agreement scale used to measure respondents' agreement with a variety of statements. Likert-type questions are also used to measure frequency, importance, likelihood, quality, etc. Each option is given a numerical score, which can be used to quantitatively analyze results. Example: Using a scale of 1 to 5 where 1 means strongly agree and 5 means strongly disagree, how much do you agree or disagree with the following statements. Strongly Somewhat Neither Agree Somewhat Strongly STATEMENTS Agree Agree or Disagree Disagree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 My school is like my home. My teacher call my by my first name. Semantic differential. Developed by psychologist Charles E. Osgood, the semantic differential scale, is used to gauge people's feelings towards a particular subject. The scale is marked with different or opposing statements usually with polar adjectives at the extremes. Example: Term: School 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Affordable Expensive Happy Unhappy Modern Old Beautiful Ugly Proud of it Not proud of it DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Forced choice. The forced-choice method is the use of two or more specific response options on a survey or questionnaire, for example, “Duterte”, “Aquino”, or “Marcos”. Options such as “not sure”, “no opinion”, “others”, or “not applicable” are missing. Respondents must select a response choice that provides a specific answer to the survey item. Demographic. These are items meant to identify characteristics of a respondent, such as age, race, and educational attainment. Demographic measures are typically used to identify key respondent characteristics that might correlate with behaviors and experiences. Dichotomous questions. These types of questions give respondents only two choices of answers, usually a yes/no, agree/disagree, true/false choices. Rank order scale. The Rank order scale gives the respondent a set of items and asks them to put the items in some form of order. The measure of 'order' can include such as preference, importance, liking, effectiveness, and so on. Example: Please rank the following social media platforms from one to four, with one signaling your favorite and four signaling your least favorite. Twitter Facebook Snapchat Instagram Others (please specify) Interventions are necessary when we use experimental designs. It is the treatment that we give to the experimental group and not to the control group in order to determine causality. Should your research design choice be an experimental one, then a thorough description of the intervention or treatment is necessary. To do this. you must answer the following questions in your description: 1. What is the treatment/intervention you will apply? 2. What is the setting? Where is the location? 3. How do you intend to apply it? 4. To whom will the intervention be applied? Give a thorough description of your control and experimental groups. DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5. How do you ensure that all other factors which may intervene are constant? 6. What factors did you control? The description of your intervention should show that you have done everything possible to control extraneous variables during the experiment. COVER LETTER AND INFORMED CONSENT Cover letter. A major component of a questionnaire consiststo of a short cover letter inning the participant to take pa in the study and complete the insttument. These are the elements of a good cover letter (Creswell, 2012): Importance of participant. The first few sentences indicate the importance of recipients and the value of their response. It is often helpful to begin a cover letter with this statement. Purpose of the study. Include a brief statement indicating your research purpose. This statement also fulfills an important "informed consent" not only informs the participant about the nature of the study, but it also fulfills an important "informed consent" requirement of letting respondents know your purpose. Assurances of confidentiality. Your respondent must know that you value the confidentiality of their answers. Confidentiality in research means that there is no way that the research participant may be identified through his or her answers. Sponsorship. The cover letter should include your teacher's name and your school's name. It is better if it is written on your school's letterhead. Completion time and returns. Indicate how long the survey will take to complete (e.g. It will only take 10 minutes to complete). If you intend to come back for the completed survey, indicate where the respondent should leave it or what he or he should do once it has been completed. Informed Consent. Because of the Philippines ' data privacy law, informed consent is now particularly important. An informed consent form is a statement that participants sign before they participate in research — both for experimental and non-experimental research. This form should state that you will guarantee them certain rights and that when they sign the form, they are agreeing to be involved in the study and acknowledge the protection of their rights, including their right to withdraw at any time from the study, their voluntary participation in the project, and their right to know the purpose of the study. A sample is presented below. DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  UN VERS TY OF NEGROS OCC DENT L-RECOLETOS 51 Lizares Avenue, Bacolod City NTEGR TED SCHOOL – GR DES 11 F 12 Tel. Nos. (034) 433-9836; (034) 433-2449 local 173/185 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Title. "Soft Skills and Work immersion's The following information is provided to help you decide whether you wish to participate in the present study. You are free to decide not to participate or to withdraw at any time without affecting your grades, your relationship with teachers, or with the school authorities. The purpose of this study is to relate your work immersion grade and the results of this survey The survey data and your work immersion grade, obtained from your class adviser. will be the only data collected in the study. Do not hesitate to ask questions about the study. I would be happy to share the findings with you after the research is completed. Your name will be kept confidential. Only I will know your identity for research purposes. There are no known risks and/or discomforts associated with this study. The expected benefits associated with your participation are the information about work immersion experiences particularly in helping hone soft skills. Please sign this consent form. You are signing it with full knowledge of the nature and purpose of the procedures A copy of this form will be given to you to keep. Signature date Santana Lopez, William McKinley High School (0987 -9764321) References: Baraceros, Esther L. (2016). Practical Research 2. REX Book Store. David, Fely P. (2002). Understanding and Doing Research: A Handbook for Beginners. Panorama Printing Inc. Pulmones, Richard. (2016). Quantitative Research. Phoenix Publishing House. San Miguel, J. G. (2018). STEP BY STEP Practical Research 2 for Senior High School. San Sebastian College- Recoletos de Cavite. DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  LESSON 07: RESEARCH PROCEDURE (Data Gathering/Data Collection, Data Analysis, and Statistical Treatment) Introduction: Data Collection is an extremely important part of any research because the conclusions of the study are based on what the data reveal. Without data, there would be no basis of the solution to the research problem. The bigger part of seeking solution to a problem lies in the data itself. What are Data? The term ‘data’ refers to any kind of information researchers obtain on the subjects, respondents or participants of a study. In research, data is collected and used to answer the research questions or objectives of the study. Examples of Research Data Demographic information such as age, sex, household size, civil status, religion. Social and economic information such as educational attainment, health status, extent of participation in social organization, occupation, income, housing condition and the like Scores in a standardized or researcher-made tests or results of laboratory examination and clinical observation of patients or clients. Grades of ratings obtained from records or forms Verbal or written responses to questions regarding attitudes towards and perception of something. Data Collection/Data Gathering Data collection is a systematic process of gathering observations or measurements. Whether you are performing research for business, governmental or academic purposes, data collection allows you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem. While methods and aims may differ between fields, the overall process of data collection remains largely the same. Before you begin collecting data, you need to consider: The aim of the research The type of data that you will collect The methods and procedures you will use to collect, store, and process the data Methods of Data Collection 1. In an observational study, a researcher observes and measures characteristics of interest of part of a population. This type of study is carried out over a long period. It measures and observes the variables of interest without changing existing conditions. DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  When researching the effect of social interaction on human behavior, the subjects who are placed in 2 different environments are observed throughout the research. No matter the kind of absurd behavior that is exhibited by the subject during this period, its condition will not be changed. This may be a very risky thing to do in medical cases because it may lead to death or worse medical conditions. 2. In an experiment, a treatment is applied to part of a population, and responses are observed. Experimental data are collected through active intervention by the researcher to produce and measure change or to create difference when a variable is altered. Experimental data typically allows the researcher to determine a causal relationship and is typically projectable to a larger population. This type of data are often reproducible, but it often can be expensive to do so. 3. A simulation is the use of a mathematical or physical model to reproduce the conditions of a situation or process. It is frequently used when the actual situation is too expensive, dangerous, or impractical to replicate in real life. This method is commonly used in engineering and operational research for learning purposes and sometimes as a tool to estimate possible outcomes of real research. For example, to predict weather conditions, economic models, chemical reactions, or seismic activity. This method is used to try to determine what would, or could, happen under certain conditions. The test model used is often as, or even more, important than the data generated from the simulation. 4. A survey is an investigation of one or more characteristics of a population. A survey is a tool used to gather relevant data about the characteristics of a population and is one of the most common data collection tools. A survey consists of a group of questions prepared by the researcher, to be answered by the research subject. Surveys can be shared with the respondents both physically and electronically. When collecting data through surveys, the kind of data collected depends on the respondent, and researchers have limited control over it. ✓ A census is a measurement of an entire population. ✓ A sampling is a measurement of part of a population. Techniques of Collecting Data The best way to collect data depends largely on the type of data to be collected and the source of data. Before starting to collect a researcher should decide: what data to collect Where or from whom What instrument/s or the data will be device/s to use in obtained collecting the data DISCLAIMER: ALL LEARNING MATERIALS PROVIDED BY TEACHERS ARE OFFICIAL PROPERTY OF THE UNIVERSITY AND SHS DEPARTMENT. ANY DISTRIBUTION OF THESE MATERIALS IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. – Cluster Head for Research with Publication  Most Common The two most common means of collecting primary quantitative information are the self-administered questionnaires and the structured interview. Other techniques Quantitative information may also be collected from