Chapter 3 Assessment of, for and as learning PDF

Chapter 3 Assessment of, for and as learning Introduction...

Chapter 3 Assessment of, for and as learning Introduction Chapter 2 covered some of the principles of assessment – reliability, validity and fairness. This chapter will discuss different purposes of assessment: summative assessment (assessment of learning), formative assessment (assessment for learning), self-assessment and self-regulation (assessment as learning). Learner assessment is an integral part of the teaching and learning process and, as such, must be thoughtfully integrated in the planning and delivery of the curriculum. As noted in the previous chapter, assessment is the process of gathering valid and reliable information using different context-appropriate approaches to determine what learners’ actual level of performance is in relation to what they ultimately ought to attain. In guiding learners to close the gap between their actual level of achievement and their possible level of achievement, teachers use informal and formal assessment processes to scaffold and improve learning. Scaffolding is the assistance and guided support that teachers give to learners as they move from simple to more complex levels of understanding. In so doing, teachers use multiple sources of information as part of on-going assessment to determine where learners are along their zones of proximal development, and what the next learning step(s) should be to close the gap. The term zone of proximal Copyright © 2022. Juta & Company, Limited. All rights reserved. development (ZPD) was coined by Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky and in his words: ‘It is the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers’ (Vygotsky 1978: 86) (see Figure 3.1). Apart from the fact that the insights gained by the teacher from learner assessment should inform the teacher’s own teaching, teachers are also ultimately responsible, both legally and professionally, for reporting learner progress to all relevant stakeholders, such as parents and other educational institutions as required. Figure 3.1 represents teacher support across levels of achievement and development to highlight the location of the zone of proximal development. 43 Reddy, C.. Quality Assessment in South African Schools, Juta & Company, Limited, 2022. 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QUALITY ASSESSMENT - September 22, 2022  Quality Assessment in South African schools ——————————————————————————— Learner’s ZPD before mediation Alone With help Zone of Proximal Development (ZDP) Actual level of achievement Learner can complete tasks with Possible level of achievement Learner work independently and do the appropriate scaffolding Learner cannot complete tasks, even with the tasks on his/her own guidance and support of others (teacher guidance, assistance and support) Learner’s ZPD after mediation Alone With help Zone of Proximal Development (ZDP) Actual level of achievement Possible level of achievement Learner work independently and do tasks on his/ Learner can complete tasks with Learner cannot complete tasks, even her own the appropriate scaffolding with the guidance and support of others (teacher guidance, assistance and support) Figure 3.1: Shifting ZPD of learner before and after teacher media mediation and support Generally, assessment should reflect the objectives of the curriculum and the learner’s ability to learn. The teacher is the professional who should understand the factors influencing the measurement of learning and should have a thorough mastery of the subject-matter to be tested, of written communication and of assessment techniques. The teacher translates the stated subject goals into learning objectives and selects assessment procedures to reflect the curriculum content designed to achieve those goals and objectives. The teacher uses a variety of procedures to recognise differences in teaching methods, and learners’ Copyright © 2022. Juta & Company, Limited. All rights reserved. abilities, needs and learning styles. As noted in chapter 2, these procedures should be fair, just and equitable. They should motivate learners, instil confidence in their ability to learn and succeed, test a variety of skills, and are also expected to comply with the requirements stated in the National Protocol on Assessment (DoE 2005) and the National Policy pertaining to the programme and promotion requirements of the National Curriculum Statement Grades R−12. (Government Gazette No 36042: 2012). Assessment therefore holds an important place in the process of learning − a place sometimes more important than teaching, because assessment is the process that will definitely determine whether a learner is promoted to the next grade or not (Brown 2004−5: 81). Realising this, it is not difficult to understand how assessment eventually shapes and reshapes the enacted curriculum. The enacted curriculum is the manner in which the intended curriculum (what is prescribed nationally) plays out in classrooms. 44 Reddy, C.. Quality Assessment in South African Schools, Juta & Company, Limited, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/wits-ebooks/detail.action?docID=30374757. Created from wits-ebooks on 2023-04-05 10:20:20. QUALITY ASSESSMENT - December 7, 2022  —————————————————————————— Chapter 3: Assessment of, for and as learning Assessment for different purposes As indicated earlier, assessment is the process of gathering and interpreting evidence of learner progress, mainly in terms of the stated curriculum for a particular subject and grade. It also allows teachers to make valid inferences about how a learner developed relative to identified learning aims, and how successful the teaching was. How teachers execute this process depends on the purpose of assessment rather than on the specific method used to collect the evidence of learner progress. Teachers design assessments for a variety of purposes and deliver them with mixed results. Moss (2013: 235) argues that some assessments bring learners a sense of success and fairness, while others have perceptions of failure and injustice. Assessment is one of the processes or strategies that teachers use to tailor-make their teaching in the context of their learners’ needs and their ZPD. One can view assessment from different perspectives: its purpose, its methods, its objectives, the evidence it offers, its measurement accuracy, and its relationship to activities outside the school. However, while these aspects consider different pedagogical elements, they are not mutually exclusive. There is much overlapping, and any given assessment activity may fall into several of the perspectives mentioned above. The danger, however, would be to regard one type of assessment as better than the other; all types of assessment have a place in the classroom, as long as they can play a role in improving teaching and learning. Consequently, McMunn (2000: 6) argues that ‘classroom assessment is an ongoing process through which teachers and [learners] interact to promote greater learning’. Classroom assessments are utilised by teachers to measure knowledge and understanding of the learning goals that have been set by the teacher, based principally on the stated curriculum. During the school year learners are engaged in a variety of assessments, ranging from day-to-day informal classroom assessments to the more formal and policy-required continuous assessments Copyright © 2022. Juta & Company, Limited. All rights reserved. (assignments, tests, practicals, mid-year examinations, etc) during and at the end of terms. At the end of a grade year, learners sit for examinations that determine to a large extent if they will be promoted to the next grade or not. In grade 12, which is the exit level of the schooling system, learners are given the government’s high-stakes end-of-year assessment that measures a learner’s achievement of the required standards at the end of basic education. Schneider, Egan and Julian (2013: 55), however, warn that, although it is often believed that each of the three assessment types that will be discussed in this chapter is measuring the same construct (government-set requirements or standards), ‘the observed knowledge, skills and processes measured may differ. When this occurs, teachers, [learners], and parents may receive mixed messages from each assessment source regarding what the [learner] is actually able to do. Moreover, the ability of the teacher to summarise information either to assist learning or to understand [learner] progress may be hindered’. 45 Reddy, C.. Quality Assessment in South African Schools, Juta & Company, Limited, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/wits-ebooks/detail.action?docID=30374757. Created from wits-ebooks on 2023-04-05 10:20:20. QUALITY ASSESSMENT - November 7, 2022  Quality Assessment in South African schools ——————————————————————————— The primary purposes of learner assessment – assessment of learning (summative), assessment for learning (formative) and assessment as learning (self-assessment and self-regulation) – are used to facilitate the teaching and learning processes, which is aimed at diagnosing learner strengths and weaknesses (see Figure 3.2). In the latter process, a teacher uses the results of assessment and other relevant information to make a decision about the quality, value or worth of a learner’s response during the learning process, or a learner’s overall performance for placement and reporting purposes. However, the assessments that are part of the day-to-day assessment programme are seldom designed to address multiple purposes. Assessment takes place in different forms and for different purposes in a complex educational landscape. Whatever the combination of form, purpose and landscape (place) and depending on the quality of the assessment, it has the potential to contribute significantly to the intellectual and personal growth of learners and enhanced professionalism of teachers. Three purposes of assessment will now be discussed starting with the most dominant one practised in South African schools. Figure 3.2 represents in visual form the three main purposes of education. Summative assessment – Assessment of learning The purpose of summative assessment is to determine a learner’s overall achievement in a specific area of learning at a particular time – usually at the end of a learning process, school term or year. Summative assessment is used as a culminating experience that gives information on a learner’s level of mastery of content, knowledge or skills. The evidence of learning is then used by teachers to make judgements on the learner’s achievement against curriculum aims and standards. The term summative assessment has been used for many years, but more recently it is referred to as assessment of learning, to indicate that it is an assessment form that occurs after a learning activity or episode has transpired. The so-called ‘original’ purpose of summative assessment according to Copyright © 2022. Juta & Company, Limited. All rights reserved. Danielson (2008: 193) is that it certifies learners, mainly through government mandated high-stakes examinations. The results of these examinations are typically used to make the following decisions about the learner: transition from secondary to higher education (for example, the NSC examination) completion of a course and the accompanying grade certification of the completion of advanced courses (for example, different level music courses) by external bodies (for example, UNISA, Trinity College, Royal Schools) admission to further or higher education institutions – the results of these examinations are used to admit or decline admission to individual learners. Also referred to as assessment of learning, it provides a means of rating learners, or comparing them one to another. There is also a perception that it provides a transparent interpretation of evidence of achievement across all audiences – 46 Reddy, C.. Quality Assessment in South African Schools, Juta & Company, Limited, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/wits-ebooks/detail.action?docID=30374757. Created from wits-ebooks on 2023-04-05 10:20:20. QUALITY ASSESSMENT - November 7, 2022  Copyright © 2022. Juta & Company, Limited. All rights reserved. SUMMATIVE TEACHER EXAMPLES: EXAMPLES: High Stakes is responsible, is Learner self-assess and Assessment ‘High stakes’ graded end or decision-maker receive a grade for this mid-year exam, QUALITY ASSESSMENT - September 22, 2022 OF LEARNING judgement. Learners and project, essay Created from wits-ebooks on 2023-04-05 10:20:20. teachers both grade the work To demonstrate DBE performance levels or (summative co-assessment) achievement percentage clarification Learners self review and/or ‘Low stakes’ graded in class peer review to make participation; MCQs online a judgement primarily for feedback (critical evaluation) of their purposes. work LEARNING LEARNING Assessment Learners judge their work Assessment Written/oral feedback to learner; FOR LEARNING Teacher-learner dialogue; based on holistic or analytic AS LEARNING http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/wits-ebooks/detail.action?docID=30374757. criteria, or by comparing To give feedback on Feed-forward (actions to 47 To self-regulate and improve); Early feedback to staff exemplars learning and teaching —————————————————————————— Chapter critically evaluate to improve teaching. Learners collaborate to Learner request feedback LEARNER based on their develop their own shared assessment criteria. self-monitoring. is responsible, is Low Stakes decision-maker FORMATIVE Reddy, C.. Quality Assessment in South African Schools, Juta & Company, Limited, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central, Figure 3.2: Purposes of assessment in the teaching and learning process 3: Assessment of, for and as learning  Quality Assessment in South African schools ——————————————————————————— Figure 3.3 illustrates the processes involved in summative assessment, from which there is usually no immediate feedback into teaching and in which learners have no or a minimal role. Forms of Learner Communicating assessment evidence the report Judging the learners level Tests of achievement in terms Practicals Demonstration of To school and parents of: or guardians Examinations acquired knowlwdge as criteria mediated during Assignments seen in answerbooks for promotion or teaching as well as in progression to be made Projects, etc. Submitted assignments the task instructions and project reports and to decide on further learning Forms of Forms of Teacher Forms of assessment assessment evaluation assessment Summative Assessment is about evaluating learning and overall competence of a learner in terms of targeted learning goals at the end of a teaching period which may be weeks, a term or a school year Figure 3.3: The summative assessment process The effectiveness of summative assessments depends on the validity and reliability of the assessment activities. A close alignment of curriculum aims, classroom instruction and the assessment format will increase content validity and reliability (see chapter 2). Summative assessment data is generally obtained by giving assessment activities such as school-based controlled tests, end-of-quarter or end-of-year examinations, national and provincial tests. Given its nature, data derived from these activities, however, cannot reflect the full range of goals of learning. According to Moss (2013: 235) the accuracy of summative judgements Copyright © 2022. Juta & Company, Limited. All rights reserved. depends on the quality of the assessments and the competence of the assessors. Summative assessments have several advantages in that they: are relatively easy to manage are less time-consuming than formative assessments help in making decisions about promotion from one grade to another and serve as a basis for decisions in granting access to further and higher education can be used as indicators of the performance of national education systems. However, summative assessments also have disadvantages: The fact that teachers have no part in the design of high-stakes examinations might force many to prepare for the test rather than focus on deep learning and understanding. 48 Reddy, C.. Quality Assessment in South African Schools, Juta & Company, Limited, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/wits-ebooks/detail.action?docID=30374757. Created from wits-ebooks on 2023-04-05 10:20:20. QUALITY ASSESSMENT - December 12, 2022  —————————————————————————— Chapter 3: Assessment of, for and as learning In developing the summative assessments, policy developers of a mandatory curriculum, like the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS), often do not consider the assessment of the curriculum’s stated learning aims and goals. Given its nature, summative assessment tends to consist of mainly low-level recall and objective type questions, regardless of the grade or subject area. Where this is the order of the day, it impacts negatively on the motivation of learners to do well. Summative assessments in the school context are largely unable to test development in the learner’s psychomotor and affective domains. Summative assessment may result in the labelling of learners and teachers based on results that ignore context. Some grade 12 learners also experience anxiety while they await their examination results, and feelings of shame, embarrassment, guilt and anger after the publication of examination results. When summative assessment plays a dominant role in countries, as is the case in South Africa, society tends to treat results of such assessments as the major goal of schooling, rather than as a useful but limited indicator of achievement. In chapter 1 we discussed the three overlapping domains of education: qualification, socialisation and subjectification. The purpose of summative assessment is to determine what knowledge and skills learners have acquired and what they are able to do after learning experiences. Summative assessment therefore aligns strongly with the first domain of education, qualification. Formative assessment – Assessment for learning Formative assessment occurs through formal and informal assessment activities throughout the teaching and learning process. It refers to the gathering and use of information/evidence about learners’ on-going development of knowledge, understanding and skills to inform the teacher’s teaching and, in so doing, the Copyright © 2022. Juta & Company, Limited. All rights reserved. individual learning processes of their learners. Increasingly, the term assessment for learning is used to depict this form of assessment because it involves assessments that occur during the learning process and aimed at supporting learning. The UK-based Assessment Reform Group (ARG) adds another dimension to assessment for learning by stating that it also seeks ‘to identify where the learners are in their learning, where they need to go and how best to get there’ (ARG 2002). Formative assessment, therefore, reflects a view of learning in which assessment helps learners learn better, rather than just achieve a better mark. According to Butt (2010: 49) the main purpose of formative assessment ‘is to create a closer link, essentially a relationship, between assessment (of the curriculum) and learning. It focuses on what happens in the classroom, on the nature of interactions between (and among) teachers and learners, and on the quality of their educational experience’. 49 Reddy, C.. Quality Assessment in South African Schools, Juta & Company, Limited, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/wits-ebooks/detail.action?docID=30374757. Created from wits-ebooks on 2023-04-05 10:20:20. QUALITY ASSESSMENT - September 22, 2022  Quality Assessment in South African schools ——————————————————————————— It is these aspects that make formative assessment distinctive from summative assessment, where the tendency is rather to exacerbate a dislocation between assessment, curriculum and learning. Furthermore, McMillan (2013: 9) notes that ‘using assessment to monitor progress and provide feedback, reconceptualised the purpose of assessment from a precise, summative, static measure of learning to a means of generating hypothesis about learning progress and the instructional process’. The key components of formative assessment are depicted in Figure 3.4, which illustrates the processes involved in formative assessment, as well as the sequence of processes. Copyright © 2022. Juta & Company, Limited. All rights reserved. Figure 3.4: The formative assessment process 50 Reddy, C.. Quality Assessment in South African Schools, Juta & Company, Limited, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/wits-ebooks/detail.action?docID=30374757. Created from wits-ebooks on 2023-04-05 10:20:20. QUALITY ASSESSMENT - December 12, 2022  —————————————————————————— Chapter 3: Assessment of, for and as learning Formative assessment seeks to provide effective feedback that indicates the existence of a ‘gap’ between the actual level of the work being assessed and the required standard, and feed-forward that motivates/support the learner and can lead to improvement. This reflects a belief that all learners can improve. These aspects will be discussed in detail in chapter 4. Teachers, especially in terms of their pedagogy, play a critical role in formative assessment. When teachers believe that learners can improve and grow and that learners can be scaffolded to reach their highest possible levels of achievement, assessment provides a vehicle for enhancing learning. This is possible because formative assessment sets targets for learners and provides feedback on progress toward those targets in ways that foster more progress (Butler & McMunn 2006: 3). Although a theoretical distinction can be made between formative and summative assessments, in reality these are not different types of assessment, but rather different purposes belonging to the single broader teaching, assessment and learning process. For assessment to be formative, multiple summative assessments need to be made to determine where the learner is. Taras (2005: 468) therefore holds the view: ‘It is possible for the assessment to be uniquely summative where assessment stops at the judgement. However, it is not possible for the assessment to be uniquely formative without the summative judgement having preceded it.’ The relationship between summative and formative assessment is illustrated in Figure 3.5. Copyright © 2022. Juta & Company, Limited. All rights reserved. 51 Reddy, C.. Quality Assessment in South African Schools, Juta & Company, Limited, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/wits-ebooks/detail.action?docID=30374757. Created from wits-ebooks on 2023-04-05 10:20:20. QUALITY ASSESSMENT - November 28, 2022  Quality Assessment in South African schools ——————————————————————————— ASSESSMENT PROCESS Assessments with Assessments with a formative purpose a summative purpose Assessing to support learning Making a judgement and to improve teaching about learning Assessment for learning: “ …the process of seeking and interpreting evidence for use by learners and their teachers, to identify where the learners are in their learning, where they need to go to and how best to get there.” Figure 3.5: The relationship between summative and formative assessment In a similar way to which summative assessment aligns with the domain of education, qualification, formative assessment aligns with the domain of education, sociali- sation. When formative assessment is performed then the teacher gives learners feedback on their acquisition, knowledge skills and values. This enables learners to gain a sense of how they are progressing. Good teachers do more than merely give learners feedback to meet the technical requirements of what is prescribed in a curriculum. They support learners to develop intellectual abilities and citizenship traits that are aligned with the dimensions of productive pedagogies discussed in chapter 1. Moreover, through quality formative assessment they socialise learners into fields of inquiry/disciplines that enable learners to think scientifically, artistically, mathematically, philosophically, sociologically, etc. Copyright © 2022. Juta & Company, Limited. All rights reserved. 52 Reddy, C.. Quality Assessment in South African Schools, Juta & Company, Limited, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/wits-ebooks/detail.action?docID=30374757. Created from wits-ebooks on 2023-04-05 10:20:20. QUALITY ASSESSMENT - November 28, 2022  —————————————————————————— Chapter 3: Assessment of, for and as learning Self-assessment and self-regulation – Assessment as learning For Boud and Falchikov (2007: 3) a serious problem is that assessment in schools focuses little on the process of learning and how the learner will learn in situations in which teachers and examinations are not present to focus their attention. As a result, learners do not develop their own repertoire of assessment-related practices necessary to prepare them for their lives as citizens. Furthermore, Boud (2007: 17) indicates that the fundamental problem with assessment and the way it is conducted in most schools is that it constructs learners as passive subjects. He writes:... students are seen to have no role other than to subject themselves to the assessment acts of others, to be measured and classified. They conform to the rules and procedures of others to satisfy the needs of an assessment bureaucracy: they present themselves at set times for examinations over which they have little or no influence and they complete assignments which are, by and large, determined with little or no input from those being assessed. Assessment as learning, as a response to the limitations of traditional school assessment, is on-going and occurs when learners reflect on and monitor their progress to inform their future learning goals. This ‘longer-term’ purpose of assessment is inclusive of the processes involved in summative and formative assessment. The difference here is that, whereas in the case of summative and formative assessment the processes were mainly teacher- or examination body-driven, in assessment as learning it is learner-initiated, learner-judged and -sustained. Earl (2003: 25) avers that:... over time, students move forward in their learning when they can use personal knowledge to construct meaning, have skills of self-monitoring Copyright © 2022. Juta & Company, Limited. All rights reserved. to realise they don’t understand something, and have ways of deciding what to do next... Students, as active, engaged, and critical assessors, can make sense of information, relate it to prior knowledge, and master the skills involved. So in contrast to the two previously discussed purposes of assessment, in this instance the learner him- or herself operationalises and uses the functions of assessment to analyse their progress and growth, as is illustrated in more detail in Figure 3.6. 53 Reddy, C.. Quality Assessment in South African Schools, Juta & Company, Limited, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/wits-ebooks/detail.action?docID=30374757. Created from wits-ebooks on 2023-04-05 10:20:20. QUALITY ASSESSMENT - November 28, 2022  Quality Assessment in South African schools ——————————————————————————— Self-regulation is the ability of learners to understand and manage their motivation, behaviour and actions as they work towards achieving certain goals. Self-regulated learning is a cyclical process in which learners plan for a task, monitor their performance, and then reflect on the outcome to do tasks better next time. STEP 1: Plan, set goals and lay out strategies Analyze the learning task Set goals (short to long term) Plan strategies and resources to do the task Set expectations to complete the task STEP 2: Use strategies and monitor progress Use results, experiences and Use self-observation to reflect on actions taken and progress made what was learnt Plan what to do when obstacles or unexpected new demands arise to guide taking on Stick with planned strategies rather than reverting back to known ones the next task Monitor progress on the intermediate goals and the strategies used Step 3: Reflect on performance and achievement Evaluate performance and results in terms of original goal(s) Reflect on the effectiveness of the plans and strategies used Manage emotions by directing them toward productive lines of thinking about how to plan to improve their performance in next tasks Why is self-regulation important? Match desired learning to appropriate strategies and Monitor and understand progress towards learning actions goals Give regular feedback in a classroom ethos where mistakes Analyse feedback and access help when needed are seen as opportunities to learn Implement appropriate guidance to improve Guide learners to monitor their progress and adjust performance accordingly Identify when a more effective learning strategy is Teach learners different learning strategies and when to required apply them Create a classroom environment where there is mutual How teachers can foster self-regulation in learners? respect, high expectations and encouragement of risk Explain the gap between learners’ current taking performance and the desired learning goal(s) Remind learners that self-regulation is a skill that develops Guide learners to use feedback to inform the next over a life-time steps as they close the ‘gap’ Copyright © 2022. Juta & Company, Limited. All rights reserved. Figure 3.6: The self-regulation process learners go through to improve their performance Assessment as learning requires that learners take an active role in their own learning and assessment. The ‘underpinning principle of self-assessment is that [learners] are more responsible for and involved in their own learning’ (Weedon, Winter, & Broadfoot 2002: 73). They understand the learning (curriculum) aims and objectives involved and from that, they generate personal learning goals that link into the broader exit level outcomes or goals they are working towards. Pursuing these aims and goals independently (without the help of a teacher) is a complex process which requires learners to ask themselves metacognitive questions as they actively reflect on their progress. By metacognitive questions, we mean that learners have the ability to reflectively ask questions about their own learning (their own cognitive development). This is a self-monitoring 54 Reddy, C.. Quality Assessment in South African Schools, Juta & Company, Limited, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/wits-ebooks/detail.action?docID=30374757. Created from wits-ebooks on 2023-04-05 10:20:20. QUALITY ASSESSMENT - December 12, 2022  —————————————————————————— Chapter 3: Assessment of, for and as learning process that serves as motivation for learning. These questions initiate metacognitive processes like individual reflection and self-regulation, which are as social in nature as reflection is to engage in a conversation with oneself. Determining progress in learning requires regular informal and formal self- and peer-assessment. Self-assessment is essential as it is very difficult for learners to achieve a learning goal, unless they understand it and can assess what they need to do to reach it (Black et al 2003: 49). The goal of the self-feedback they generate is to develop their understanding of themselves and be sure about what they understand (know) and what they are still unsure of. The insights developed about a possible gap between the actual and desired levels of attainment in this process are referred to as metacognitive knowledge which informs the self-regulated actions to improve further learning. Finding an appropriate strategy to close the gap is referred to as a metacognitive skill. Self- and peer-assessment provide learners with information on their own achievement and prompts them to consider how they can continue to improve their learning. They use criteria based on previous learning and personal learning goals to make adaptations to their learning process and to develop new understandings. In the process, learners ask questions about their learning and use formal and informal feedback to help them understand the next steps in learning. Comparison with others in assessment for learning is almost irrelevant. Instead, as stated by Earl (2003: 25) ‘the critical reference points are the [learner’s] own prior work and the aspirations and targets for continued learning’. It is evident that self-assessment (assessment as learning) aligns with the education domain, subjectification. Through the process of self-assessment learners develop the ability to distance themselves from their learning process so as to reflexively evaluate what and how they are learning. Through the process of self-assessment the seeds are planted at school level for learners to become active-critical citizens and independent thinkers. Balanced assessment for more effective Copyright © 2022. Juta & Company, Limited. All rights reserved. curriculum delivery Balancing assessment of learning, assessment for learning, and assessment as learning is a key aspect of an integrative approach to enhancing assessment, that is, one which brings the many and various strands of assessment together in a coherent way to address the desired goals and take account of opportunities and constraints in the setting concerned. Each of the mentioned assessment purposes has their place and time, but a critical aspect is to get the balance right. In most South African schools today, the purpose of assessment is mainly summative, as even the continuous assessment (CASS) activities, which promised possibilities for using evidence formatively, are used mainly for the purpose of contributing to the summative ‘mark’ allocated. Assessment as learning, in which the development of metacognitive knowledge and skills become part of instilling a 55 Reddy, C.. Quality Assessment in South African Schools, Juta & Company, Limited, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/wits-ebooks/detail.action?docID=30374757. Created from wits-ebooks on 2023-04-05 10:20:20. QUALITY ASSESSMENT - December 8, 2022  Quality Assessment in South African schools ——————————————————————————— way of life to deal with future learning challenges without assistance of others, has not really become a strong thrust in the South African education system. While there is widespread political enthusiasm for assessment-based reforms in South Africa, many of the current uses of large-scale annual national and systemic assessments are based on unverified assumptions about the extent to which they will actually lead to improved teaching and learning. Likewise, the different purposes of assessment − formative and summative − are only alluded to in the new CAPS documents, without any deep engagement on how these assessment practices can become functionally part of productive pedagogies that may potentially realise the curriculum aims and objectives in different subjects. Furthermore, the longer-term purpose of assessment as learning has, up till now, not become part of the teaching and learning discourse in South Africa. In the process, more emphasis is placed on the ‘measurable’ number of assessment activities that must be done, rather than what constitutes quality assessment that will produce reliable evidence from which valid inferences can be made, and on which teaching and learning can be improved. The partial migration to online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic has further exposed the limitations of summative assessment and now may be the time for authentical formative assessment and self-assessment to find their rightful place in the education system, as we imagine a different future in the post-pandemic era. In an attempt to rebalance the purposes of assessment so that the focus is on the maximum growth and development of learners and professional efficiency of teachers, greater emphasis should be placed on assessment for and as learning. This shift is illustrated in Figure 3.8. Focus on reporting Focus on enhancing and compliance learning and teaching Copyright © 2022. Juta & Company, Limited. All rights reserved. x Assess mainly content x Also assess competencies x Teacher takes responsibility x Learner takes responsibility x Emphasis on schooling x Emphasis on education Figure 3.8: Shifting the emphasis of assessment 56 Reddy, C.. Quality Assessment in South African Schools, Juta & Company, Limited, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/wits-ebooks/detail.action?docID=30374757. Created from wits-ebooks on 2023-04-05 10:20:20. QUALITY ASSESSMENT - December 8, 2022  —————————————————————————— Chapter 3: Assessment of, for and as learning Assessment is unquestionably one of the most important teaching and learning processes in formal education. It should therefore be placed much higher on the schooling agenda and be prioritised as one of the key pedagogical strategies to enhance teaching and learning. As Moss (2013: 235): writes ‘What teachers assess and how and why they assess sends a clear message to [learners] about what is worth learning, how it should be learned, and how well they are expected to learn it’. Conclusion This chapter discussed the different purposes of assessment: summative assessment (assessment of learning); formative assessment (assessment for learning) and self-assessment and self-regulation (assessment as learning). These are not types of assessment but purposes of assessment that are all integral to the assessment enterprise. They are purposes that serve different needs in education and should be used in combination to ensure quality education. Summative assessment is aligned more strongly with the qualifications dimension of education, formative assessment with the socialisation dimension of education, and self-assessment and self-regulation with the individuation dimension of education. References Assessment Reform Group (ARG). 2002. Ten Principles of Assessment for Learning. Cambridge: University of Cambridge. Beets, PAD. 2007. ‘Assessering vir leer in geografie-onderwys in die VOO-baan’. (Unpublished PhD thesis, Stellenbosch University). Black, P, Harrison, C, Lee, C, Marshall, B & Wiliam, D. 2003. Assessment for Learning: Putting It Into Practice. Buckingham: Open University Press. Boud, D. 2007. ‘Reframing assessment as if learning were important’, in Boud, D Copyright © 2022. Juta & Company, Limited. All rights reserved. & Falchikov, N (eds) Rethinking Assessment in Higher Education: Learning for the Longer Term. London: Routledge. Boud, D & Falchikov, N. 2007. Rethinking Assessment in Higher Education: Learning for the Longer Term. London: Routledge. Brown, A. 2004−5. ‘Assessment for Learning’. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, 1. Butler, SM & McMunn, ND. 2006. A Teacher’s Guide to Classroom Assessment: Understanding and Using Assessment to Improve Student Learning. San Francisco: Jossey Boss. Butt, G. 2010. Making Assessment Matter. London: Continuum. Danielson, C. 2008. ‘Assessment for learning − for teachers as well as students’, in Dwyer, CA (ed) The Future of Assessment: Shaping Teaching and Learning. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 57 Reddy, C.. Quality Assessment in South African Schools, Juta & Company, Limited, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/wits-ebooks/detail.action?docID=30374757. Created from wits-ebooks on 2023-04-05 10:20:20. QUALITY ASSESSMENT - December 8, 2022  Quality Assessment in South African schools ——————————————————————————— Department of Education (DoE). 2005. The National Protocol on Assessment for Schools in the General and Further Education and Training Band (Grades R−12). Pretoria: Department of Education. Earl, LM. 2003. Assessment as Learning: Using Classroom Assessment to Maximize Student Learning. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press. Government Notices Nos 1115 and 1116 in Government Gazette No 36042 of 28 December 2012. Harlen, W. 2006. ‘On the relationship between assessment for formative and summative purposes’, in Gardiner, J (ed) Assessment and Learning. Los Angeles: SAGE. https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-intellectual-and- developmental-disorders/i17153.xml (Accessed 12 May 2021). https://www.ucd.ie/teaching/resources/assessmentfeedback/ whydoweassessstudents/ (Accessed 18 May 2021). https://theeducationhub.org.nz/ (Accessed 22 April 2021). Leighton, JP. 2019. ‘Students’ interpretation of formative assessment feedback: three claims for why we know so little about something so important’. Journal of Educational Measurement, 56(4): 793−814. McMillan, JH. 2013. SAGE Handbook of Research on Classroom Assessment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. McMunn N. (2000). ‘Classroom assessment: a driving force to improved learning’. Assessment HotSpots, 2(2): 6. Moss, CM. 2013. ‘Research on classroom summative assessment’, in McMillan, JH (ed) Sage Handbook of Research on Classroom Assessment. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE: 235−256. Schneider, MC, Egan, KL & Julian, MW. 2013. ‘Classroom assessment in the context of high-stakes testing’, in McMillan, JH (ed) Sage Handbook of Research on Classroom Assessment. Los Angeles: SAGE: 55−70. Taras, M. 2005. ‘Assessment − summative and formative − some theoretical reflections’. British Journal of Educational Studies, 53(4). Copyright © 2022. Juta & Company, Limited. All rights reserved. Vygotsky, LS. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Weedon, P, Winter, J & Broadfoot, P. 2002. Assessment: What’s In It For Schools? London: RoutledgeFalmer. 58 Reddy, C.. Quality Assessment in South African Schools, Juta & Company, Limited, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/wits-ebooks/detail.action?docID=30374757. Created from wits-ebooks on 2023-04-05 10:20:20. QUALITY ASSESSMENT - December 8, 2022