BAE2613 Teaching of Reading Course Manual PDF

COURSE MANUAL MODULE BAE2613 TEACHING OF READING INSTRUCTIONS  The Module should be taught by an Academic Specializing in Teaching of Reading at Least at Master’s Level. Lecturer should discuss more than what is summarized he...

COURSE MANUAL MODULE BAE2613 TEACHING OF READING INSTRUCTIONS  The Module should be taught by an Academic Specializing in Teaching of Reading at Least at Master’s Level. Lecturer should discuss more than what is summarized here, especially, in terms of methods of delivery.  All the Topics as per the Syllabus should be touched during the Contact Hours.  Special instructions are given at the end of lessons; where Lecturer should provide examples for classroom. (Highlighted in Yellow color).  This document is only a synopsis. The content in this document is not sufficient for students to write answers at the examination.  Students need to read more on the given Topics. (40% Lectures and 60% Self Learning.)  References – are the sources which had been used in compiling this document. Therefore, Students do not have to refer in their learning. DISCLAIMER This is a free distribution, based on the request of KASP Leaning Campus of Sri Lanka; this compilation is authorized by the university to be referred by undergraduate students of Bachelor of Education – TESL for academic purpose, not for any commercial activity. Reproduction and distribution to Third Party/ies without written permission of the owner is prohibited. This Compilation contains a set of notes to help the Lecturer and the students. The University will take limited and reasonable care to ensure that it does not knowingly infringe the copyright of anyone. If it is suspected that information on this is infringing the copyright of someone, the local office of University in Sri Lanka, should be informed so that appropriate action can be taken. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 1  CONTACT TOPIC BAE 2613 TEACHING OF READING HRS CONTENT 1 Introduction to Teaching of Reading 2 - Definition of Reading Skill - Importance of Reading Skill - Developing Reading Skill - Factors Affecting Reading Skill - Types of Reading Texts ▪ Narrative Text ▪ Informational Text 2 Reading Approaches 2 - Definition - Bottom-Up Reading Approach - Top-Down Reading Approach - Interactive Reading Approach 3 The Reader 3 -Introduction to L2 Reader -Factors Influencing L2 Reader -Reader Schemata ▪ Linguistic Schemata ▪ Formal Schemata ▪ Content Schemata -Individual Differences Among L2 Readers ▪ Motivation ▪ Learning styles ▪ Learner strategies 4 Levels of Reading processing Stages of Reading Development 3 - Pre-emergent Stage - Initial Reading Stage - Alphabetic Stage - Reading for Learning the New Stage - Multiple viewpoint/ Intermediate stage - Skillful Literacy Stage / Advanced Readers Teaching And Learning Reading Across The Reading Development Stages CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT – M I D 5 Reading Strategies 6 - Introduction To Reading Strategies - Types Of Reading Strategies ▪ Cognitive Reading Strategies ▪ Metacognitive Reading Strategies Teaching Reading Strategies - Activating Background Knowledge - Cultivating Vocabulary - Reading Aloud - Teaching Reading Comprehension - Scanning - Skimming - Focused / Purposive Reading - SQ3R - Active Reading - Using Text Resources - The FIVES 6 Components of Reading Skill Development 3 - Motivation / Attitude - Phonological Awareness / Phonics - Comprehension - Reading Fluency - Vocabulary 7 Stages of the Reading Lesson 3 - Pre- Reading Stage - While-Reading Stage - Post-Reading Stage Reading Lesson Plan 8 Reading Assessment 2 - Goals of Reading Assessment - Format of Reading Assessment TOTAL 24 BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 2  HOW TO ASSESS YOUR STUDENT B.ED IN TESL - ASSESSMENT MODES (APPLICABLE FROM JULY 2019) NOTE : Please refer to the respective module you are assigned to and ensure the students are assessed accordingly. (Excl: Mid / End Exams). Summative Continuous (End Exams) Written (Mid) 50 Presentaion - Micro Teaching - 100 Assignment - Others - Written (End) - Code Module Marks 100 Marks Marks 100 Marks 100 Marks 100 Marks BAE 2613 Teaching of Reading 20% No Presentation 15% 25% - 40% BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 3 CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION 1.1 Definition of Reading Skill Reading is a complex, purposeful, interactive, comprehending, flexible activity that takes considerable time and resources to develop. Reading is rapid, which means that readers should maintain flow of information at a sufficient rate to make connections and inferences vital to comprehension. The reader has a purpose for reading, whether it is for entertainment, information or research. Reading for a purpose provides motivation - an important aspect of being a good reader. It is an interactive activity - the reader makes use of information from his/her background knowledge as well as information from the printed page; reading is also interactive in the sense that many skills work together simultaneously in the process. The reader typically expects to understand what s/he is reading. Reading is flexible, meaning that the reader employs a range of strategies to read efficiently. Finally, reading develops gradually; the reader does not become fluent suddenly or immediately following a reading development course. Reading is not merely a process of exact identification of letters, words and ultimately sentences leading to comprehension built from letter to word to phrase to sentence. Readers make use of their existing background knowledge (schemata) to make predictions about what is coming next in the text and about how some new, unfamiliar piece of information relates to what is already known. It is clear that basic decoding processes are important for comprehension and are used by readers in interaction with the more complex processes of meaning generation. However, it is equally clear that readers engage in reading in order to gain information. A reading skill is a cognitive ability which a person is able to use when interacting with the written text. Reading skills involve: identifying word meaning, drawing inferences, identifying writer‘s technique, recognizing mood of passage, finding answers to questions. Reading skills can also include: recognizing the script of language; deducing the meaning, use of unfamiliar lexical items; understanding explicitly and non-explicitly stated information, conceptual meaning, communicative value of sentences, relations within the sentences and between parts of text through lexical cohesion devices; recognizing indicators and main point of information in discourse; distinguishing main idea from supporting detail; selective extraction of relevant points from the text; basic reference skills; skimming, scanning, transcoding information from diagrams/charts. Reading skills still further involve: word meaning in context, literal comprehension, drawing inferences, interpretation of metaphor, finding main ideas, forming judgments. Reading skills also involve automatic recognition skills, vocabulary and structural knowledge, formal discourse structure knowledge, content/world background knowledge, synthesis and evaluation skills/strategies, metacognitive knowledge and skills monitoring. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 4 1.2 The Importance of Reading Skill ―The more you read the more things you know. The more that you learn, the more places you‘ll go‖ (Dr. Suess, 1904-1991). Reading is fundamental to functioning in today's society. There are many adults who cannot read well enough to understand the instructions on a medicine bottle. That is a scary thought - especially for their children. Filling out applications becomes impossible without help. Reading road or warning signs is difficult. Even following a map becomes a chore. Day-to-day activities that many people take for granted become a source of frustration, anger and fear. Reading is a vital skill in finding a good job. Many well-paying jobs require reading as a part of job performance. There are reports and memos which must be read and responded to. Poor reading skills increases the amount of time it takes to absorb and react in the workplace. A person is limited in what they can accomplish without good reading and comprehension skills. Reading is important because it develops the mind. The mind is a muscle. It needs exercise. Understanding the written word is one way the mind grows in its ability. Teaching young children to read helps them develop their language skills. It also helps them learn to listen. Everybody wants to talk, but a few can really listen. Lack of listening skills can result in major misunderstandings which can lead to job loss, marriage breakup and other disasters. Reading helps children [and adults] focus on what someone else is communicating. Why is reading important? It is how we discover new things. Books, magazines and even the Internet are great learning tools which require the ability to read and understand what is read. A person who knows how to read can educate oneself in any area of life they are interested in. We live in an age where we overflow with information but reading is the main way to take advantage of it. Reading develops imagination. TV and computer games have their place, but they are more like amusement. Amusement comes from two words "a" [non] and "muse" [think]. Amusement is non-thinking activities. In line with the above, reading develops the creative side of people. When reading to children, stop every once in a while and ask them what they think is going to happen next. Get them thinking about the story. When it is finished, ask if they could think of a better ending or anything that would have improved it. If they really liked the story, encourage them to illustrate it with their own drawings or to make up a different story with the same characters. Reading is fundamental in developing a good self-image. Non-readers or poor readers often have low opinions of themselves and their abilities. Many times they feel as if the world is against them. They feel isolated [everybody else can read - which isn't true] and behavior problems can surface. They can perform poorly in other subjects because they cannot read and understand the material. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 5 Good reading skills, especially in a phonics reading program, improve spelling. As students learn to sound out letters and words, spelling becomes easier. Also, reading helps to expand vocabulary. Reading new words puts them in their mind for later use. Seeing how words are used in different contexts can give a better understanding of the word usage and its definitions rather than just the cold facts of a dictionary. There is an old saying, "The pen is mightier than the sword." Ideas written down have changed the destiny of men and nations for better or worse. The flow of ideas cannot be stopped. We need to read and research to build on the good ideas and expose the bad ideas before they bring destruction. Only by reading can we be armed in this never-ending, life-and-death struggle. The fact of the power of written ideas communicated through reading is a foundational reason why some governments oppose free and honest communication. Illiterate people are easier to control and manipulate. They cannot do their own research and thinking. They must rely on what they are told and how their emotions are swayed. 1.3 Factors that Affect Reading Comprehension According to Dennis (2008), reading comprehension is a complex process between identifying printed symbols and interpreting the meaning behind the symbols. Some factors affect reading comprehension skill. They are complexity of the reading text, environmental influences and anxiety during reading comprehension, interest and motivation, decoding or word recognition speed and medical problems. In the following section, these factors are elaborated in detail. One of the factors that impacts learners‘ reading comprehension is the complexity of the texts. This factor is influenced by the readers‘ strength and fluency in language and their comprehending of its applications and different meanings. Oral abilities have a significant part in identifying how skilled a reader can be because learners hear words and obtain a lot of vocabulary. A lot of vocabularies assist learners in explaining the unknown words through applying the opinions of context (Dennis, 2008). The second factor is related to the environmental conditions that impact the learners who try to read a passage. Readers may have a lot of problems to understand a text in an unorganized environment than those who read in a calm and controlled place. If learners are in an unsafe place, they find it difficult to focus on their reading. When they are in safe environments, their reading comprehension ability will be better. Readers will lose their concentration in understanding a text when there are noises like televisions or radios. The third factor is pertinent to the anxiety during reading comprehension. Examinations, class work or homework situations can put more pressure on readers‘ reading than reading for enjoyment. Some learners react positively to examinations while others are overwhelmed by the pressure to carry out a reading activity. Learners who experience this anxiety may not completely understand the instructions and this may lead to confusion and poor comprehension of the reading task. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 6 The fourth factor is interest and motivation. According to Dennis (2008), learners‘ interest and motivation are very important in developing reading comprehension skill. If readers find the reading material monotonous, they will have a lot of problems in concentrating their comprehension. This can lead to a lowering of reading comprehension among readers. If the reading material is interesting for learners they can easily understand it and can remember clearly. EFL teachers should motivate their learners providing interesting reading materials. The fifth factor is related to decoding or word recognition speed. Readers who have problems in decoding and recognizing words read slowly and find it more difficult to understand the meaning of passages than those without decoding problems. Readers apply decoding skills to understand the pronunciation and meaning of words they have not seen before. Persons who have enough vocabulary can clarify the meaning or reading passages faster than those who should guess the meaning of unfamiliar words according to the clues of context. The last factor is concerned with the medical problems. According to Hollowell (2013), poor reading comprehension skill may be related to medical difficulty that does not get addressed until the child is older. This involves undiagnosed ADD (attention deficit disorder), speech problems and hearing impairments. Learners with speech and hearing difficulties are less likely to take part in oral reading and class discussions. 1.4 Types of Reading Texts 1. Narrative 2. Non-fiction 3. Poetry Adventure Discussion texts Free verse Mystery Explanatory texts Visual poems Science Fiction Instructional texts Structured poems Fantasy Persuasion texts Historical fiction Non-chronological reports Contemporary fiction Recounts Dilemma Stories Dialogue, Play scripts, film narratives Myths Legends Fairy tales Fables Traditional tales guidance BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 7  1.4.1. Narrative Narrative is central to children‘s learning. They use it as a tool to help them organize their ideas and to explore new ideas and experiences. Composing stories, whether told or written, involves a set of skills and authorial knowledge but is also an essential means for children to express themselves creatively and imaginatively. The range of narrative that children will experience and create is very wide. Many powerful narratives are told using only images. ICT texts tell stories using interactive combinations of words, images and sounds. Narrative poems such as ballads tell stories and often include most of the generic features of narrative. Narrative texts can be fiction or non-fiction. A single text can include a range of text types, such as when a story is told with the addition of diary entries, letters or email texts. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 8 Purpose: The essential purpose of narrative is to tell a story, but the detailed purpose may vary according to genre. For example, the purpose of a myth is often to explain a natural phenomenon and a legend is often intended to pass on cultural traditions or beliefs. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer The most common Language features vary in different  Decide on your intended style and structure is: narrative genres. impact.  an opening that Common features:  Plan before writing/telling to establishes setting  presented in spoken or written organise chronology and ensure main and introduces form; events lead towards the ending. characters  may be  Visualise the setting and main augmented/supplemented/partly characters to help you describe a few  a complication and presented using images (such as key details. resulting events illustrations) or interactive/multimedia elements  Rehearse sentences while writing to  a resolution/ending. (such as hypertext/ images/ assess their effectiveness and the video/ audio); way they work together. Effective writers are not  told/written in first or third  Find some different ways of telling constrained by person (I, we, she, it, they); what characters think and feel, e.g. predictable  told/written in past tense describe what they did or said. narrative structure. (sometimes in present tense); Authors  chronological (plot or content  Use some strategies to connect with and storytellers often have a chronology of events that the reader/listener e.g. use repetition modify or adapt a happened in a particular order); of the same phrase or the same generic  main participants are characters language pattern; ask them a structure, e.g. changing with recognizable qualities, question or refer to the reader as chronology by not telling often stereotypical and ‘you‘. What on earth was happening? the events in order (time contrasting (hero/villain); Who do you think it was? shifts, flashbacks,  typical characters, settings and backtracking). Children events are used in each genre;  Show how the main character has can add these less  connectives are widely used to changed or moved on in some way at predictable narrative move the narrative along and to the end. structures to their own affect the reader/listener:  Read or listen to the whole text as if writing repertoires.  to signal time (later that you are the reader/listener or try it day, once); out on someone else: check that it  to move the setting makes sense and change anything (meanwhile back at the that could work better. cave, on the other side of the forest);  to surprise or create suspense (suddenly, without warning). BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 9   Narrative – Adventure Purpose: To entertain. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer Typically a recount or retelling of a An effective blend of action, Create characters your readers will have series of exciting events leading to dialogue and description develops a strong opinion about. Make the reader a high impact resolution. The most archetypical characters who the like your hero so they want him/her to common structure is a reader will care about, at the same succeed. chronological narrative. Building time as moving the plot along at an excitement as the hero faces and exciting pace. Create a villain that is a good match for overcomes adversity is an the hero, someone the reader definitely important element, so more Description adds to the sense of doesn‘t want to win in the end. Don‘t complex structures such as adventure by heightening the forget that villains we dislike most often flashbacks are less common. reader‘s awareness, e.g. a sense of work in subtle ways. They do sneaky, potential danger (The cliffs were mean things that they might just get Archetypical characters are the high and jagged...) or dropping away with. norm and much of the building clues to encourage involvement tension comes from the reader through prediction (The captain Keep the plot moving but vary the pace: predicting who or what represents welcomed them aboard but his  use fast-moving action to create the threat (the villain) and what is eyes were narrow and cruel- excitement at a high point; likely to go wrong for the hero. looking...)  Slow things down a little with description or dialogue when you Longer narratives build tension in Dialogue is an element of want to build tension and create waves, with one problem after characterization but is used more to suspense. another accelerating the adventure advance the action than to explore  in several sections or chapters, a character‘s feelings or Can you surprise the reader at the end? with the high point of tension near motivation. ―What was that noise? Perhaps someone who seemed the end. Did you hear it too?‖ insignificant saves the day and turns out to be a real hero, or perhaps a character The story can take place in any Language usually has a cinematic that appeared good and helpful turns out setting where there is the potential quality, with powerful, evocative to be two-faced. for adventure through a danger or vocabulary and strong, varied threat. verbs for action scenes. (He leaped from his horse, charged into the ICT ‗adventure‘ texts often employ banquet hall and hurtled himself different structures, allowing the onto the table where the prince was user to select different routes devouring a chicken.) through the order of events, sometimes with different resolutions that depend on the choices made by the reader. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 10   Narrative - Mystery Purpose: To intrigue and entertain. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer Structure is often chronological, even in a longer narrative, but The narrator uses questions to exaggerate Use questions to highlight complex structural techniques are the mystery, e.g. Who could it be? Why key moments as the mystery sometimes used for effect. had the car suddenly stopped? deepens (A sudden noise! Different structures can be used for What could be making that layering of information or drip- low mumbling sound?). feeding facts to build up a full picture for the reader, e.g. using Decide what the mystery is flashbacks to fill in information Language is used to intensify the mystery, before you begin writing needed that wasn‘t provided earlier particularly adjectives and adverbials. and introduce it fairly soon in the story or organising sections Some typical vocabulary is associated with so the reader wants to find so they tell the story both before this narrative type (puzzling, strange, out the solution. and after a key event. Knowing peculiar, baffling, weird, odd, secretive, what is going to happen and then Keep readers interested by unexplained, and bewildering). reading about it happening can add hinting and suggesting but to the suspense. don‘t give too much away too soon. Drop clues and puzzles for the reader to Settings are often places the main pick up and think about Use of pronouns to create mystery by character is unfamiliar with. Different cultures often share views avoiding naming or defining characters, along the way. about the kinds of settings that especially when they first appear in the Make adventurous word seem mysterious (deep, dark story. (First line: He climbed in through choices to make your reader forests, old, uninhabited places, the window on the stroke of midnight. The really think about what lonely rural landscapes). Other wind howled and there was no moon.) you‘re describing. settings can be very familiar places (school, home, the local town) but Don‘t just say someone is with an added ingredient that ‗mysterious‘, make them triggers the mystery (a stranger seem mysterious by arrives in town, a parcel arrives, Use of the pronoun ‗it‘ to suggest a non- describing them, their people begin acting strangely, human or mysterious character. (And actions or what they say. something unusual happens). that‘s when I saw it, creeping carefully along behind the hedge. It wasn‘t much Don‘t describe everything in taller than me.) detail. What is left out can often be scarier than what is described. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 11   Narrative – Science Fiction Purpose: To entertain and, sometimes, to speculate about the future. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer Can use any of the varied structures The plot usually includes Even if the story is set in the typical of narrative. The setting is adventure so action is fast- future, you still need to often a time in the future so may use moving. create a setting, characters structures that play with the time and plot that readers can sequence, such as flashbacks and time believe possible. travel. Where futuristic characters are created, dialogue may use Science Fiction typically includes unusual forms and vocabulary, Make sure you have main detail about the way that people might or even alternative languages. characters the reader will live in the future, predicting in a care about (e.g. a likeable creative and imaginative way how hero) even if the characters technology might advance. Description is important to are non-human. convey imagined settings, technology, processes and characters. Use description carefully when you want your reader to imagine something they have never seen. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 12   Narrative - Fantasy Purpose: To entertain and to fuel the imagination. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer May simply be a basic Description is very important Choose adjectives carefully to chronological narrative set in a because fantasy uses settings describe the places and things in the fantasy world but some fantasy (and often characters) that story. narratives extend the ‗fantastic‘ must be imagined by the Use similes to help the reader imagine element to the structure as well. reader. what you are describing more clearly. For example, the story may play (The glass castle was as big as a with the concept of time so that Imagery plays an important football field and as tall as a characters find themselves moving role in helping to describe skyscraper. It‘s clear walls sparkled through time in a different way. places and things the reader like blocks of ice in the sun.) Some fantasy structures focus on has never seen. character development or Don‘t make everything so fantastic description of setting at the that it is unbelievable. expense of plot so that the actual order of events becomes less Make what happens as interesting and important or even impossible to detailed as the setting where it follow. happens. Don‘t get so involved in creating amazing places and characters that you forget to tell a good story about what happens to them. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 13   Narrative – Historical fiction Purpose: To entertain and, sometimes, to inform. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer The narrative is about something Historical settings need detail to Include accurate historical detail to that has already happened in the make them authentic and to give create the setting (The winter of 1509 past so a series of events is usually important ‗mapping‘ clues to the was bitterly cold and many poor the underlying structure. reader. When was this happening? country folk were starving) or let the Whereabouts is this story taking reader work it out (The young prince The writer can adapt the place? had just been crowned King Henry structure to achieve a specific VIII when a country boy called Tom effect. For example, the story can arrived in London). begin with a main character Appropriate archaic language is looking back and reflecting on the used, including old-fashioned Use the right kind of old-fashioned past (I was just a lad then. Let me words that have fallen out of language when characters speak to tell you what happened …). usage, e.g. Let me carry thy one another. basket, old dame. Sometimes, a historical narrative Description is important for the begins with the final event and setting and characters but you can then goes on to explain what led up It can also include models of add historical detail in different ways to that by moving back in time to sentence grammar no longer to give variety: tell the whole story. commonly or informally used, e.g. Historical fiction requires a That which you seek, you shall Description: The little girl was historical setting but can also be an find in the forest. wearing a long cloak and woolen adventure or a mystery. hood. It can also give a fictionalized Action: He threw his sword to the account of real events or floor and rushed down the stone additional, fictional detail to things spiral staircase. that really happened. Dialogue: Wait, I‘ll get a candle to light our way. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 14   Narrative – Contemporary Fiction Purpose: To entertain and, sometimes, to create empathy with familiar characters. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer Contemporary settings are Dialogue plays an important part Hero and villain characters are often familiar ones. in the characterization. more difficult to create because Characters tend to use language the characters look like ordinary This type of narrative familiar to children. people, not superheroes or includes school stories, monsters. You can still create things that happen in the Contemporary language features strong characters because they home or in local settings include the informal dialogue aren‘t always what they seem on that children either know children use themselves, as well the outside – a nervous little boy themselves or recognize. as familiar phrases from adults at might turn out to be a brave hero Stories therefore often home and school (Don‘t let me and a smiling old lady might not reflect children‘s own tell you again!) really be a kind character. experiences, are often personal and structured as a You don‘t need to write recount. everything that is said to tell the story. Make sure you only use dialogue because it helps to create a character, provides information for the reader or moves the action along. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 15   Narrative – Stories which raise dilemmas Purpose: To entertain and to explore issues or dilemmas. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer The strength of the story often depends Characterization is Make sure the dilemma on a character facing a difficult (or fundamental. The main or issue to be faced is a seemingly impossible) dilemma, with a characters are often well- really tricky one to deal limited choice of actions. A strong, established from the beginning with. If there is no easy simple story structure usually leads the with additional detail such as or obvious answer, it character to the dilemma quite quickly background, history or will be even more and then makes the reader wait to find interests included. The reader interesting to read what out how it is dealt with. understands why a character your main character feels the way they do. decides to do. The narrative makes the waiting interesting by adding to the suspense, Key characters also develop If characters change for example by increasing the and change over time, usually during the story, decide complexity or gravity of the dilemma or as a result of the events that how to show this. by threatening the right/chosen course take place in the story and Do they behave of action. (The main character has particularly as a result of the differently? Do they decided to apologize just in time and is dilemma they face and their speak differently? on the way to do so but has an accident resulting actions. and is taken to hospital - soon it will be too late.) Most forms of narrative can include Description, action and stories which raise dilemmas. dialogue are all important for developing and deepening character and showing both why and how someone has changed.  Narrative – Traditional Tales Traditional or ‗folk‘ tales include myths, legends, fables and fairy tales. Often originating in the oral tradition, examples exist in most cultures, providing a rich, culturally diverse resource for children‘s reading and writing. Many of these stories served an original purpose of passing on traditional knowledge or sharing cultural beliefs. They tend to have themes that deal with life‘s important issues and their narrative structures are often based on a quest, a journey or a series of trials and forfeits. Characters usually represent the archetypical opposites of good and evil, hero and villain, strong and weak or wise and foolish. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 16 The style of traditional stories usually retains links with their origins in oral storytelling: rich, evocative vocabulary, repetition and patterned language, and strong use of imagery. When written in a traditional style, they also use some archaic language forms and vocabulary. Many regional stories include localized vocabulary and dialect forms. Different types of traditional tales tend to have some narrative features (purpose, characters, language, style, structure) of their own.  Narrative-Myths Purpose: To provide a fictional explanation for natural phenomena. Many cultures use myths to explain the world and its mysteries by handing them down from one generation to the next. Myths can also pass on cultural, religious or spiritual beliefs and traditions. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer The plot is often based on a Rich less use of dialogue and Make the characters larger than life by long and dangerous journey, repetition than some other types giving them supernatural powers or strong a quest or a series of trials of traditional story. characteristics like courage and wisdom. for the hero. Create a negative character who is the Myths often provide good opposite of your hero: good and evil, brave The plot usually includes examples of the use of symbols: and cowardly, strong and weak. incredible or miraculous Theseus unwinds a thread Consider including a character who is a events, where characters behind him in the Minotaur‘s ‗trickster‘ to add to the fun or to create behave in superhuman ways den – a thread could be seen as a twists in the plot. using unusual powers or with symbol of his link between the the help of superhuman real world of humans and the Choose a setting that gives a dramatic beings. supernatural vocabulary evoking backdrop for the action: (a huge, dense the power and splendor of the forest, a mountain shrouded in icy fog or a Myths are often much longer characters and settings: Hercules wide, sun- baked desert). texts than other traditional hurled the glittering spear with Weave description, dialogue and action stories (apart from some all the strength of a mighty together but don‘t slow down the story with legends) especially in their army. too much detail about who said what. original form. They provide a very useful contrast with Use of imagery to help the shorter forms of traditional reader imagine. Simile is used narrative such as fables. widely to help convey grand settings and describe awe- inspiring characters: Thor‘s hammer was as heavy as a mountain. Vivid description of characters and settings. Fast-moving narration of action to keep the drama moving along. Myths tend to make world of the gods. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 17   Narrative-Legends Purpose: To provide information about the way particular people lived, and what they believed. Legends also help us to reflect on our own lives because they often deal with issues that are cross-cultural and relevant today. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer Structure is usually Language features are Work out how the story will tell of a struggle, chronological, with one very similar to those e.g. between good and evil, friend and foe, episode told after another, of myths: wise and foolish. for example as the phases  rich, evocative of a journey or the stages vocabulary; of an ongoing battle.  memorable language When you‘ve decided on your main Some legends tell the character, decide on the structure you will use; whole life story of their use and what will be included in each  use of rhythm and hero as a series of linked episode/each stage of the journey or quest. repetition techniques; episodes; each one may be  formulaic openings and Consider adding ingredients of magic or the a story in its own right endings; supernatural to make your legend different Common structures include:  imagery: simile, from other kinds of stories. metaphor and  chronological episodes; Use symbols your reader will recognise to symbolism.  journey stories; help them get involved in the story,  sequential stories; e.g. red for anger/danger, darkness for  life stories and danger/evil, a light or flame for goodness and Legends written in a community histories. hope. traditional style often use more literary language than fairy tales or fables. Modern versions such as twenty- first century retellings or new legends may use more contemporary, informal language. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 18   Narrative-Fairy Tales Purpose: Fairy tales were originally intended for adults and children. They were passed down orally to amuse and to convey cultural information that influences behavior, such as where it is safe to travel and where it is dangerous to go. Fairy tales are found in most cultures and many derive from the oldest stories ever told. Some modern fairy tales could be included in the more recently categorized genre of ‗fantasy‘. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer Setting is nearly always Formulaic sentences are Characters may be fairy folk or even talking vague. (Once upon a time used: Once upon a time... animals but make sure they are still... A long, long time ago There was once a... Long interesting, believable characters your reader...) ago in the... And it came to will care about, e.g. a good- hearted hero, a Structure is most typically pass... scheming villain, a wise helper. a recount in chronological order, where events retell Decide how the world of people and the what happened to a main Language often reflects the world of fairy land will come into contact character that came into settings, in the past, using and how this will cause a problem. contact with the ‗fairy archaic or regional Use numbers and patterns that usually world‘. vocabulary and grammar: appear in fairy tales: Numbers 3 and 7. Say these words thrice! I Use phrases that have a strong rhyme or shall return and take thy rhythm or another kind of pattern: a magic Often the hero or heroine gold. He knew not where sentence is repeated several times during the is searching for something he was. story, the hero must say a secret rhyme to (a home, love, acceptance, escape, and a line is used at the beginning of wealth, wisdom) and in each section or chapter. (On and on walked many tales dreams are the little old man.) fulfilled with a little help from magic. ‗Fairy tale Use different styles of language for the endings‘ (where human beings and the characters from the everything turns out for fairy world when they speak, to make a the best) are common but strong contrast between them: many fairy tales are darker ―Eeeek! Who are you, you wrinkly old and have a sad ending. thing?‖ asked Tom. ―Beware, child and address me with respect. I am not of your world,‖ came the goblin‘s whispered reply. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 19   Narrative-Fables Purpose: A fable sets out to teach the reader or listener a lesson they should learn about life. The narrative drives towards the closing moral statement, the fable‘s theme: the early bird gets the worm, where there‘s a will there‘s a way, work hard and always plan ahead for lean times, charity is a virtue. The clear presence of a moral distinguishes fables from other folk tales. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer There is a shared The short and simple They are portrayed as simple stereotypes rather than understanding between structure of the narrative multidimensional heroes or villains. storyteller and audience that leaves little room for If your main characters are animals, make them the events told did not additional details of behave like human stereotypes: a brave little ant, a actually happen so fables do description or character wise old turtle, a cunning fox, a lazy donkey. not need to convince and development. Use the main characters to give your fable a title: The their structure is usually Dialogue is used to advance Ant and the Elephant. simple. They are often very the plot or to state the short with few characters – moral, rather than to engage State the moral of your fable clearly at the end: a wise sometimes only two. a reader with the characters person always plans ahead. Structure is typically the and their qualities. Establish the setting in the first line and introduce the simplest kind of narrative Characterization is limited two main characters as soon as you can. with a beginning, a but specific: A lazy duck Give clues to your reader about what might happen: a complication and a was making its way to the greedy but impatient fox was watching the chickens resolution. Two characters river... A crafty raven was from behind a tree. (often animals) meet, an sitting on a branch... event occurs and they go on There is limited use of Don‘t add too much detail of description and only use their way with one of them description because settings dialogue that helps to tell what happened. having learned an important are less important than the Use connectives when characters talk to one another, lesson about life. events that take place. to explain or show cause and effect: ―If you will give Action and dialogue are me your hand, I will help you over the river‖, said the used to move the story on wolf. ―I can‘t possibly eat you because I‘m a because the all-important vegetarian,‖ lied the bear. moral is most clearly evident in what the main Use connectives to show your reader quickly and characters do and say. easily when things happened and how time passed: Connectives are an (One morning... as he was... first he saw... then he important language feature saw... When winter came... And then the grasshopper to show cause and effect understood...) and to give coherence to a short narrative. Questions are often the way one character introduces themselves to another in a fable: Why do you howl so loudly? What are you writing so busily in your book, little bird? BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 20   Narrative – Dialogue, Play Scripts, and Film Narrative Purpose: Although these forms of storytelling differ from narrative in that they are not necessarily ‗narrated‘, they usually share the same purposes: to tell a story and to have a deliberate effect on the viewer/listener/reader. They include scripts for film/digital viewing or audio (e.g. digital audio recording or radio plays) and stories told using images and speech bubbles (such as comic strips) sometimes supplemented with an additional narrative element. Generic structure Knowledge for the writer Structural conventions for Knowledge of standard narrative for writer PLUS: scripting vary, particularly in their layout on the page or  Use only direct speech. screen but they usually include:  Play scripts: apply the presentational conventions of a  name of character and the script consistently throughout. words they speak:  Comic strip with speech bubbles, animations, MRS GRAY multimedia and other dialogue: keep the text fairly Hello dear. How are you? short and only include dialogue that moves the story on  organizational information or gives important information; make the images and (Scene 2 The kitchen words work well together so they each add something DAY); special to the story.  stage directions (ENTER Mary, dancing). Comic strip and some digital animations usually include speech bubbles within the images; interactive texts may include combinations of on- screen speech bubbles and audio dialogue, e.g. accessed by rollover or mouse click. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 21  1.4.2 Non-Fiction Non-fiction texts are wide ranging and occur in many forms in everyday life. The following tables and supporting guidance select the most common forms of non-fiction. Many non-fiction texts in real life blur the boundaries between text types and their features. The most common language features are listed for each text type but variants of all text types occur, especially when they are used in combination. The features listed are often but not always present.  Non-Fiction – Discussion Texts Discussion texts are not limited to controversial issues but polarized views are generally used to teach this text type as this makes it easier to teach children how to present different viewpoints and provide evidence for them. Discussions contrast with persuasion texts which generally only develop one viewpoint and may present a biased view, often the writer‘s own. Like all text types, discussion texts vary widely and elements of discussion writing are often found within other text types. Purpose: To present a reasoned and balanced overview of an issue or controversial topic. Usually aims to provide two or more different views on an issue, each with elaborations, evidence and/ or examples. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer The most common Written in simple present Questions often make good titles. (Should structure includes: tense. everyone travel less to conserve global  a statement of the Generalizes the energy?) issues involved and a participants and things it Use the introduction to show why you are preview of the main refers to using uncountable debating the issue. (There is always a lot of arguments; noun phrases (some disagreement about x and people‘s views vary  arguments for, with people, most dogs), nouns a lot.) supporting that categorize (vehicles, Make sure you show both/all sides of the evidence/examples; pollution) and abstract argument fairly.  arguments against or nouns (power). Support each viewpoint you present with alternative views, Uses connectives (for reasons and evidence. with supporting example, therefore, If you opt to support one particular view in the evidence/examples. however). conclusion, give reasons for your decision. Another common structure Generic statements are Don‘t forget that discussion texts can be presents the arguments often followed by specific combined with other text types depending on ‗for‘ and ‗against‘ examples (Most your audience and purpose. alternatively. vegetarians disagree. Dave Discussion texts usually Smith, a vegetarian for 20 end with a summary and a years, finds that...) statement of Sometimes combined with recommendation or diagrams, illustrations, conclusion. The summary moving images and sound may develop one particular to provide additional viewpoint using reasoned information or give judgments based on the evidence. evidence provided. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 22   Non-Fiction – Explanatory Texts Explanatory texts generally go beyond simple ‗description‘ in that they include information about causes, motives or reasons. Explanations and reports are sometimes confused when children are asked to ‗explain‘ and they actually provide a report, e.g. what they did (or what happened) but not how and why. Although some children‘s dictionaries do include an encyclopedia-like explanation, others are inaccurately categorized as explanation texts when they simply define a word‘s meaning. Like all text types, explanatory texts vary widely and are often found combined with other text types. Purpose: To explain how or why, e.g. to explain the processes involved in natural/social phenomena or to explain why something is the way it is. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 23   Non-Fiction – Instructional/Procedural Texts Like all text types, variants of instructions occur and they can be combined with other text types. They may be visual only (e.g. a series of diagrams with an image for each step in the process) or a combination of words and images. Instructions and procedural texts are found in all areas of the curriculum and include rules for games, recipes, instructions for making something and directions. Purpose: To ensure something is done effectively and/or correctly with a successful outcome for the participant(s). Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer Begin by defining the goal or Use of imperative verbs Use the title to show what desired outcome. (How to (commands), e.g. Cut the the instructions are about. make a board game.) card... Paint your design (How to look after List any material or equipment... goldfish.) needed, in order. Instructions may include Work out exactly what Provide simple, clear negative commands. (Do sequence is needed to instructions. If a process is to be not use any glue at this achieve the planned undertaken, keep to the order in stage.) goal. which the steps need to be Additional advice (It‘s a Decide on the important followed to achieve the stated good idea to leave it points you need to goal. overnight if you have time. include at each stage. If the mixture separates...) Diagrams or illustrations are Decide how formal or or suggested alternatives often integral and may even informal the text will be. (If you would like to make take the place of some text. (Cook for 20 a bigger decoration, you (Diagram B shows you how to minutes/Pop your could either double the connect the wires.) cheesecake in the oven dimensions of the base or for 20 minutes. just draw bigger flowers.). Present the text clearly. Think about using bullet points, numbers or letters to help your reader keep track as they work their way through each step. Keep sentences as short and simple as possible. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 24  Avoid unnecessary adjectives and adverbs or technical words, especially if your readers are young. Appeal directly to the reader‘s interest and enthusiasm. (You will really enjoy this game. Why not try out this delicious recipe on your friends? Only one more thing left to do now.) Include a final evaluative statement to wrap up the process. (Now go and enjoy playing your new game. Your beautiful summer salad is now ready to eat.) Re-read your instructions as if you know nothing about the procedure involved. Make sure you haven‘t missed out any important stages or details and check that the language is as simple and clear as possible. Use procedural texts within other text types when you need a set of rules, guidelines or instructions to make something really clear for the reader. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 25   Non-Fiction – Persuasion Texts Persuasive texts can be written, oral or written to be spoken, e.g. a script for a television advert or presentation. The persuasive intention may be covert and not necessarily recognized by the reader or listener. Texts vary considerably according to context and audience so that persuasion is not always a distinct text-type that stands alone. Elements of persuasive writing are found in many different texts including moving image texts and digital multimedia texts. Some examples may include evidence of bias and opinion being subtly presented as facts. Purpose: To argue a case from a particular point of view and to encourage the reader/listener towards the same way of seeing things. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer An opening Written in simple Decide on the viewpoint you want to statement (thesis) present tense. present and carefully select the that sums up the Often refers to information that supports it. viewpoint being generic rather than Organize the main points to be presented. specific participants made in the best order and decide (Greentrees Hotel is egetables are good which persuasive information you the best in the world. for you. They...). will add to support each. School uniform is a Uses logical rather than Plan some elaboration/explanation, good idea.) temporal connectives evidence and example(s) for each key Strategically (This proves that... So point but avoid ending up with text that organized it‘s clear sounds like a list. information presents... Therefore...). Think about counter arguments your and then elaborates Tends to move from reader might come up with and on the desired general to specific include evidence to make them seem viewpoint. (Vote for when key points are incorrect or irrelevant. me because I am being presented. (The Try to appear reasonable and use facts very experienced. I hotel is comfortable. rather than emotive comments. have been a school The beds are soft, the Choose strong, positive words and councilor three times chairs are specially phrases and avoid sounding negative. and I have made to support your Use short sentences for emphasis....) back and all rooms Use techniques to get the reader on your A closing statement have thick carpet.) side: repeats and Use of rhetorical  address them directly (This is reinforces the questions. (Do you just what you‘ve been waiting original thesis. (All want to get left behind for.) the evidence shows in the race to be  adopt a friendly and informal that fashionable? Want to tone;= BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 26... It‘s quite clear that be the most relaxed  use memorable or... Having seen all person in town? So alliterative slogans that we offer you, what do you have to do (Happy Holidays at Hazel there can be no to?) House) doubt that we are the Text is often combined  use simple psychology to best.) with other media to appeal to the reader‘s emotively enhance an judgment. (Everyone knows aspect of the argument, that... Nine out of ten people e.g. a photo of a agree that... Choosing this secluded beach, the will make you happy and sound of birds in a contented. You‘d be foolish forest glade or a picture not to sign up.) of a cute puppy. Re-read the text as if you have no opinion and decide if you would be persuaded. Remember that you can use persuasive writing within other text types. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 27   Non-Fiction – Non-Chronological Reports Non-chronological reports describe things the way they are, so they usually present information in an objective way. Sometimes, the selection of information by the writer can result in a biased report. As with all text types, variants occur and non-chronological reports can be combined with other text types. A text that is essentially a non-chronological report written in the present tense may include other text types such as other types of report, e.g. when a specific example is provided to add detail to a statement. (Sharks are often seen around the coasts of Britain but they rarely attack people. In 2006, a man was surfing in Cornwall when he was badly bitten but it was the only incident recorded there for twenty years.) Purpose: To provide detailed information about the way things are or were. To help readers/listeners understand what is being described by organizing or categorizing information. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer In the absence of a Often written in the Plan how you will organize the temporal (chronological) third person and information you want to include, e.g. structure where events present tense. (They use paragraph headings, a spider-gram happen in a particular like to build their nests or a grid. order, non-chronological... It is a cold and reports usually have a dangerous place to Gather information from a wide range logical structure. They live.) of sources and collect it under the tend to group headings you‘ve planned. information, often Sometimes written in Consider using a question in the title moving from general to the past tense, as in a to interest your reader (Vitamins – more specific detail and historical report. why are they so important?). examples or elaborations. (Children as young as A common structure seven worked in Try to find a new way to approach the includes: factories. They were subject and compose an opening that  an opening poorly fed and clothed will attract the reader or capture their statement, often a general and they did dangerous interest. Use the opening to make very classification (Sparrows work.) clear what you are writing about. are birds); Include tables, diagrams or images  Sometimes The passive voice is (e.g. imported photographs or followed by a more frequently used to drawings) that add or summarise detailed or technical avoid personalisation, information. classification (Their Latin to avoid naming the name is...); agent of a verb, to add Find ways of making links with your  a description of variety to sentences or reader. You could ask a direct whatever is the subject of to maintain an question (Have you ever heard of a the report organised in appropriate level of hammerhead shark?) or add a personal some way to help the formality for the touch to the text (So next time you BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 28  reader make sense of the context and purpose of choose a pet, think about getting a information. For writing. (Sparrows are dog). example: found in  its qualities (Like... Sharks are hunted... most birds, sparrows Gold is highly valued have feathers.);...) Re-read the report as if you know  its parts and their Tends to focus on nothing about its subject. Check that functions (The beak is generic subjects information is logically organised and small and strong so that (Dogs) rather than clear. it can...); specific subjects (My  its dog Ben). Use other text-types within your habits/behaviour/ uses report if they will make it more (Sparrows nest in...). Description is usually effective for your purpose and an important feature, audience. including the language of comparison and contrast. (Polar bears are the biggest carnivores of all. They hibernate, just like other bears. A polar bear‘s nose is as black as a piece of coal.) Description is generally used for precision rather than to create an emotional response so imagery is not heavily used.  Non-Fiction – Recounts Recounts are sometimes referred to as ‗accounts‘. They are the most common text type we encounter as readers and listeners, not least because they are the basic form of many storytelling texts. Stories and anecdotes can have a range of purposes, frequently depending on the genre being used, and they often set out to achieve a deliberate effect on the reader/listener. In non- fiction texts they are used to provide an account of events. Recounts can be combined with other text types, for example, newspaper reports of an event often consist of a recount that includes elements of explanation. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 29  Purpose: The primary purpose of recounts is to retell events. Their most common intentions are to inform and/or entertain. Generic structure Language features Knowledge for the writer Structure often includes: Usually written in the past Plan how you will organise the  orientation such as tense. Some forms may use way you retell the events. You scene-setting or present tense, e.g. informal could use a timeline to help you establishing context (It anecdotal storytelling (Just plan. was the school holidays. imagine – I‘m in the park and I went to the park...); I suddenly see a giant bat Details are important to create a  an account of the events flying towards me!). recount rather than a simple list that took place, often in of events in order. Try using chronological order Events being recounted have a When? Where? Who? What? (The first person to chronological order so Why? Questions to help you arrive was...); temporal connectives are plan what to include.  some additional detail common (then, next, first, about each event (He afterwards, just before that, at Decide how you will finish the was surprised to see last, meanwhile). recount. You‘ll need a definite me.); ending, perhaps a summary or a  reorientation, e.g. a The subject of a recount tends comment on what happened (I closing statement that to focus on individual or think our school trip to the may include elaboration. group participants (third Science Museum was the best (I hope I can go to the person: they all shouted, she we have ever had). park again next week. It crept out, it looked like an was fun.) animal of some kind). Read the text through as if you  don‘t know anything about what Structure sometimes Personal recounts are common it is being recounted. Is it clear reorganises the chronology (first person: I was on my way what happened and when? of events using techniques to school... We got on the such as flashbacks, moving bus). Is the style right for the genre the focus backwards and you are using? forwards in time, but these (Technical/formal language to strategies are more often recount a science experiment, used in fiction recounts. powerful verbs and vivid description to recount an adventure, informal, personal language to tell your friends about something funny that happened to you.) BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 30 CHAPTER 2 - READING APPROACHES There are three main approaches to reading. Some scholars have tried their best to define approaches. Stanovich (1980) explains, "first of all came the bottom-up approach, which was replaced by the top-down model, which is in turn was replaced by interactive models" ( P. 35). Devine (1988) states, ―A model might best be understood as a set of assumptions about what happens when a reader approaches a text, that is the ways a reader derives meaning from printed material‖(p.127). 2.1 Bottom-Up Approach The bottom up approach is used for both first and second language research and theory. This model is also a recent trend to emphasize the important contribution of bottom-up and data- driven processing to fluent reading, and decoding process. This model views reading as a process beginning with printed page: According to Alderson (2000), "Bottom-up approaches are serial models, where the reader begins with the printed word, recognizes graphic stimuli, decodes them to sound, recognizes words and decodes meanings. Each component involves sub-processes which take place independently of each other and build upon prior sub-processes. Sub-processes higher up the chain cannot, however, feed back into components lower down (identification of meaning does not lead to letter recognition). ―(p.16). The main assumption behind this approach is that reading is not more than associating to sounds to decode a certain text starting from small unit to the larger ones. The reading is seen as analyzing the text in small pieces, and building up meaning from this unit. The bottom-up model attributes priority to the text. According to Nunan (1991), „The central notion behind the bottom- up approach is that reading is basically a matter of decoding series of written symbols into their aural equivalents‖ (p.64). Nunan (1991) has further cited, ―According to this model, the reader processes each letter as it is encountered. These letters are matched with the phonemes of the language, which it is assumed the reader already knows. These phonemes with the minimal units of meaning in the sound system of the language are blended together to form words. (Phonemes are the individual unit of sound in language.) The derivation of meaning is thus the end process in which the language is translated from one form of symbolic representation to another‖ (P. 64). That means letters do represent sounds, and despite the fact that in English twenty-six written symbols have to represent over forty four aural symbols. Thus a reader approaches a written text by identifying letters and words. Then after the words are recognized, the reader starts to work on finding their meaning and ultimately makes sense of sentence and paragraph. So the decoding of a text is essential for grasping the meaning of the text. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 31 This approach ignores important issues such as: the role of reader‘s general knowledge, thought, experience, setting, and purpose of reading. Concentration is on the role of the text that is why it is also called data-driven or text-based. There are three major issues related to the Bottom-up-- (1) eye fixation (2) decoding (3) attention. Eye fixations means, the reader makes a pause on the words. The eye fixation reveals that poor readers make many more fixations than good readers. A lot of attention has been paid to answer three questions related to decoding process: 1) whether the reader must retrieve the sound of a printed word in order to access its meaning 2) what to do with the unit of word decoding, and 3) what to do with words themselves. Dealing with the attention issue, the reader‘s approach performs two tasks when they read: 1) decoding and 2) comprehension. The amount of attention required for decoding depends upon the reader's skill and the reader's familiarity with words in the text. The attention required for comprehension depends on such factors as the number of ideas contained in a sentence and on the degree to which the ideas presented by a writer are matched by knowledge contained in the reader's head. NOTE: The lecturer should provide examples for classroom instruction using Bottom-Up Approach. 2.2. Top-Down Approach Reading, for its approach is considered meaning driven in which the reader makes guesses of the content of passage. David Nunan (1991) has cited, ―basically all agree that the reader rather than text is the heart of the reading process‟‟. (p. 65). Cambourne, B. (1979) provides the following schematization of the approach. Past experience, Language → selective aspects → meaning → sound, pronunciation Intuitions and expectations of print if necessary Nunan has stated, "One of the shortcomings of the top-down model is that it sometimes fails to distinguish adequately between beginning readers and fluent readers‖( p. 66). Regarding the top-down model, the researcher thinks that in case of many texts, the reader has little knowledge of the topic and cannot generate a prediction. The amount of time is a more serious problem to generate a prediction, maybe greater than the time the fluent reader needs simply to recognize the words. Moreover, top-down models emphasize the prediction of meaning BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 32 by means of the content clues or background knowledge at the expense of the rapid and accurate identification of syntactic and semantic knowledge that help the predicting content. Alderson (2000) has claimed a typical statement of the top-down approach: We would claim that in natural language understanding a simple rule is followed. Analysis proceeds in a top-down predictive manner. Understanding is expectation based. It is only when the expectations are useless or wrong that bottom-up processing begins‖ ( p.17). The top-down approach focuses on the students' interpretation and prior syntactic and semantic knowledge that help in predicting the content. Thus reading is not a passive activity where a reader gets the meaning from the text, but it is an active one in which a reader brings all his experiences and prior knowledge to the reading activity. NOTE: The lecturer should provide examples for classroom instruction using Top-Down Approach. 2.3 Interactive Approach Reading as an interactive process has been widely spread. Rumelhart (1977) assumed that the lower level, bottom-up process and the higher-level, top-down process, work hand in hand interactively to accomplish the goal of comprehension. The interactive model concentrates on the general interaction that takes place between reader and the text or the interaction of many component skills or techniques that simultaneously work together in the process of reading. A reader makes use of his background knowledge to reconstruct the information found in the text. In addition, the interactive model takes into account the influence of bottom-up (decoding) and top-down processing (comprehension and interpretation of the text.) Therefore, it is worth mentioning that for any successful reading two levels (lower and higher) strategies need to operate at the same time. Stanevich (1980) claims that bottom-up and top-down are not sufficient when they are used separately. Accordingly, he proposed this approach. To understand a text requires the interaction of top-down and bottom-up processing. In other words, meaning is created through the interaction between the text and the reader. So linguistic items are only one resource of the reader to construct the meaning of the text. The reader also requires to have knowledge to organize, interpret and integrate information. Background knowledge that facilitates text comprehension has been studied under the effect of schema theory of Rumelhart (1977). Rumelhart (1977) introduces reading as a process that incorporates the bottom-up and the top- down level as well. He comments "reading is at once a 'perceptual' and cognitive process‖(p.573). In this regard, Carrel and Eisterhold (1988) state, ―as long as the incoming information being processed through the bottom-up processing and the conceptual predictions being made through top-made prediction are compatible, we have a satisfactory interpretation of the text. When we encounter a mismatch between BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 33  the top-down prediction and the bottom-up information, we are forced to revise the interpretation in such a way as to make the two compatible again‖ (p.559). Therefore if there is deficiency at any early print analysis stage, higher-order knowledge will attempt to compensate for the poor reader who may be both inaccurate and slow at word recognition but who has knowledge of the text topic, top-down processing may allow for this compensation. On the other hand, if the reader is skilled at word recognition but who has knowledge of the text topic, it may be easier to simply recognize the words on the page and rely on bottom-up process. According to this approach, texts become easier if they correspond to student‘s prior knowledge. NOTE: The lecturer should provide examples for classroom instruction using Interactive Approach. CHAPTER 3 - THE READER 3.1 Introduction to L2 Reader and Factors Influencing the L2 Reader  The Definition of Second Language Acquisition Simply explained, acquisition is basically another word for learning. However, it is sometimes used for different use and meaning in second language acquisition. The process by which a person learns a language is sometimes called acquisition instead of learning, because some linguists believe that the development of a first language in a child is a special process (Richards, 1985, p.3). (Ellis, 1986, p. 292; Alice Omaggio, 1986, p. 29) explain that acquisition can be broadly defined as the internalization of rules and formulas which are then used to communicate in L2. They further say that it is the spontaneous process of rule internalization that result from natural language used while learning consists of the development of conscious L2 knowledge through formal study. In other words, acquisition is unconscious study of a language in natural way and it does not depend on the language teaching. On the other hand, learning is a conscious study through formal instruction such as language classroom learning. In Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, Jack Richards, et al. (1985, p. 252) states that second language acquisition is, ―the process by which people develop proficiency in a second or foreign language.‖ Rod Ellis (1986, p. 4) explains that SLA is ―a complex process, involving many interrelated factors. It is the product of many factors pertaining to the learner on the one hand and the learning situation on the other.‖ In addition, Victoria Fromkin et. al (2002, p. 593) says that SLA is ―the acquisition of another language or language after first language acquisition that is under way or completed.‖ To conclude, second language acquisition (best known as SLA) is subconscious study through which a person acquires L2 or additional languages. BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 34  3.1.1 Factors Influencing Second Language Acquisition There are many general factors that influence second language learning such as age, aptitude, intelligence, cognitive style, attitudes, motivation and personality (Ellis, 1985).  Motivation Motivation is one of the most important factors in second language acquisition. Richards (1985, p. 185) believes motivation as a factor that determines a person‘s desire to do something. It is obvious that learners who want to learn are likely to achieve more than those who do not. The role of attitudes and motivation in SLA has been investigated by Gardner and Lambert (1972), who define motivation in terms of ‗ the learner's overall goal or orientation‘, and attitude as ‗the persistence shown by the learner in striving for a goal‘ (Ellis 1985, p. 117; Patsy Lightbown at.al, 2000, p. 56). They distinguish two types of motivation: 1) Integrative motivation: a learner studies a language because he is interested in the people and culture of the target language or in order to communicate with people of another culture who speak it. 2) Instrumental motivation: a learner‘s goals for learning the second language are functional and useful, for example they need the language to get a better job, to pass tests, to enable him to read foreign newspaper etc. It has been stated that learners can be influenced by both types of motivation. However, there are situations when one can be more effective than the other. Integrative motivation plays a major role where L2 is learned as a 'foreign language', while an instrumental motivation is more important where L2 functions as a 'second language'. Gardner (1979) links an integrative motivation to 'additive bilingualism' which means that learners add a second language to their skills with no harm to their mother tongue. Instrumental motivation is more likely to be linked to 'subtractive bilingualism', where the learners tend to replace the mother tongue by the target language (Ellis, 1985). Motivation can be also distinguished into intrinsic and extrinsic. ―Intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no apparent reward except the activity itself. Intrinsically motivated behaviors are aimed at bringing about certain internally rewarding consequences, namely, feelings of competence and self-determination‖ (Edward Deci, 1975, as cited in Brown, 1994, p. 155). Extrinsically motivated behaviors expect a reward, for example money, a praise or positive feedback. Maslow (1970) and other researchers claim that intrinsic motivation leads to greater success in learning a foreign language, especially in a long run (Brown 1994).  Attitude Ellis (1985, p. 292) clarifies that attitude is sets of beliefs about factors as the target language culture, their own culture and, in case of classroom learning, of their teachers, and the learning task they are given. Language attitudes are the attitude which speakers of different languages have toward other‘s languages or to their own language. Expression of positive or negative feelings toward a language may reflect impression of linguistic difficulty or simplicity, ease or difficulty of learning, degrees of importance, social status etc. (Richards, 1985, p. 155). Gardner BACHELOR OF EDUCATION_TESL MODULE 2613_ TEACHING OF READING 35 and Lambert have investigated a number of different attitudes, which were classified by Stern (1983, p. 376-7) int