PSYU2234 Social & Personality Psych Lecture Notes PDF

lOMoARcPSD|41366523 PSYU2234 Social & Personality Psych Lecture Notes Personality and Social Psychology (Macquarie University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloa...

lOMoARcPSD|41366523 PSYU2234 Social & Personality Psych Lecture Notes Personality and Social Psychology (Macquarie University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 WEEK 1 LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION TO UNIT Introduction to theory and research Personality Individual differences in behaviour Consistency across different situations Social Psychology Reactions to situational influences The scientific study of the feelings, thoughts, and behaviours of individuals in social situations ○ Actual others Asch’s line judgement - influenced by actual others ○ Imagined or implied others Rigdon dictator game: participants are asked to split money, anonymous split 40% elected to keep all money (control) When the dots were on the page 25% elected to keep it all themselves - activate the concern that eyes are watching ★ They each draw on many of the same theories ★ Research usually incorporates both situational manipulations together with individual difference measures ★ They each concern the science of how we think, feel and relate to one another ○ E.g measuring rejection sensitivities, social ostracism (left out in an experiment) Criticism Social & Personality research describes the obvious 1. When it comes to interpersonal attraction “Opposites attract” - similarity is more attractive. Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 2. Lottery winners are happy: Their new wealth allows them to satisfy more levels in Maslow’s needs hierarchy- after the stint of happiness they return to the set point of happiness 3. Olympic silver medalists take more joy in their achievement than do bronze medalist: 2nd is a greater reward than 3rd- silver medalists are more unhappy, regret 4. Sad people are less accurate than happy people: Pessimists are always thinking of the worst 5. We tend to underestimate the extent to which other people share our opinions & attitudes: we think we are unique/special 6. Sad people are less likely to offer help 7. People are less likely to be aggressive if they are first given the opportunity to lash out. 8. “Putting on a happy face” doesn't make you feel happy 9. Physically attractive people are usually seen as less intelligent than physically unattractive people 10. “Birds of a feather flock together” People are generally attracted to those similar to themselves. Common Sense vs Science We all have common sense views of personality and social psychology ○ Based on personal experience ○ But commonsense is sometimes right & sometimes wrong Hindsight bias: I knew it all along ○ Opposite Proverbs We often don't have any insight into why we act the way we do Unlike common sense, the scientific method has a built-in ‘rubbish’ safeguard Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 ○ Scientific theories are falsifiable because they can be tested by publicly verifiable observations INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Why bother with research? Common sense seems to serve us pretty well But many situations contain surprises or pitfalls leading to errors in judgement ○ We overly rely on shortcuts (heuristics) in making judgements (e.g stereotyping) ○ Our insight into the reasons for our own behaviour and that of others is often limited Our intuitions are not adequate in explaining such phenomena. We need theory and research to provide us with the answers ○ Hindsight bias Insufficient justification & dissonance Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) ○ Boring task, then either paid from $1-$20 to tell the next person that it was interesting. ○ Surveyed after the task and found it enjoyable Where do research questions come from? Testing a theory ○ A general principle or set of principles that accounts for a group of empirical findings ○ Different levels of complexity (e.g TMT- drive to survive, terror of death vs lie detection) Court judge experiment - prostitute breaking the law = world view threat, manipulated half of judges to write about mortality and other half didn't (control), mortality = 9x higher. Conservative judges had worldview theory, punished the prostitute and set bail higher to protect themselves from existential mortality ○ Used to derive predictions (e.g TMT: MS - bolstering world view) Curiosity ○ E.g what % of people would obey an order to administer a lethal shock? Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Testing techniques ○ Social ostracism effects on tasks ○ 2 confederates, 1 naive: 3 would wait quietly, passed ball around Cyberball vs ball toss Demonstrating a phenomenon ○ E.g Williams and Bargh (2008): Can experiences of physical warmth increase feelings of interpersonal warmth? ○ S given a coffee cup vs iced coffee/hot vs cold ice pack Rated target person as having a warmer personality (study 1) Chose a gift for a friend instead of self (study 2) STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS 1. Research Q 2. Generalise hypotheses (specific, directional predictions) 3. Operationalise a. Measure: What?How? (e.g., how would you operationalise superstition) Who? (representative sample, generalisation) 4. Design experiment/correlation study 5. Collect data 6. Analyse data 7. Draw appropriate conclusions (overinterpreting; probs. With methods) Example 1: Between-subjects experiment Washing away your sins: Threatened morality & physical cleansing (Zhong) Background ○ Link between physical cleansing and moral purification is explicit in many religions ○ The words clean and pure are commonly used in everyday language to describe physical and moral states ○ The emotion of disgust is experienced in both physical and moral domains Research Q Is there a link between moral purity and physical cleansing? Hypothesis Threat to moral purity activates the need for physical cleansing Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Operationalise Measure what? Preference for a free cleansing gift (either pencil or antiseptic cleansing wipe-this is the DV) NB pilot test showed that preference for the gifts were about equal (pencil 53%; wipe 47%) Manipulate moral purity: write about deed from your past Measure who? Ordinary individuals (undergrads) Design experiment Randomly assign people to either the control or treatment group Treatment group described as unethical from their past Control group described an ethical deed from their past Collect data Have S write about event Offer them free gift (either pencil or antiseptic cleansing wipe) at the end of the study Analyse data and look at the results Appropriate conclusion Accept hypothesis Note that for between subjects design ○ Participants are randomly allocated to separate groups ○ What is the relevance of random allocation? Why not just rely on our intuitions regarding the link between morality and physical cleaning? Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Example 2: Within-Subjects Experiment The biasing effect of topic importance Background ○ Social scientists now tackle many problems with important implications for society ○ The importance of the topic can bias our evaluations of flawed studies Research Q Why do published studies of important topics often contain elementary methodological errors? (e.g correlation-causality; non-random assignment; no control group) Hypothesis importance of the research topic increases the chance it will be published Operationalise What was measured? Reviewers decisions How was it measured? Publishability (DV: 9-point scale); People who had experience in reviewing journal articles Design experiment Every participant serves in a control and in a treatment condition Every participant recieved 6 flawed brief descriptions of studies; ○ 3 on important topics (treatment e.g., Heart disease) ○ 3 unimportant topics (control eg., heartburn) This is the IV Counterbalanced order of presentation Collect data Post 6 reports Rate publishability Returned rated scales Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Analyse data and look at the results Appropriate conclusion Accept hypothesis: importance of the research topic increases the chance it will be published Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 WEEK 2 INTRO TO RESEARCH CONTINUED Example 3: Factorial Design Background: Portion size and consumption (Wansink & Kim 2005) ○ People overeat food that they like ○ But does portion size influence consumption? Research Q Does container size have the same effect on consumption of palatable and less palatable food? Hypothesis Larger container size will increase intake of both fresh and stale popcorn compared to small container size Operationalise Actual consumption (weight) of fresh and stale (Measure what/how?) popcorn Movie goers Design experiment Randomly assign participants to receive free popcorn on entry to a cinema Old or fresh popcorn medium /large Collect data Free popcorn at entry Weight written on bottom of container Both containers were large enough so that all the popcorn would be consumed Collect-up containers from moviegoers at end of movie and weigh Also ratings of popcorn quality (stale was rated as stale) Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Analyse data and look at the results Medium container at less than large (main effect) Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Combined information When the container is larger regardless of the palatability of the popcorn, people ate more Appropriate conclusion Size does matter ○ Larger container increased consumption of both fresh and stale popcorn; ○ Implications for increasing consumption of less preferred healthy food (e.g children eating carrot sticks) Advantages ○ Effects of IV’s alone/together Factorial Design Factorial designs typically involve 2+ categorical IVc These can be ○ Between-subjects factors (treatment vs control) ○ Within-subjects factors (the same participants are tested on 2 or more occasions) Experimental Designs Key points Experimental designs typically involve a comparison of a treatment and a control group Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Experimental designs generally allow us to impute causality Common types of experimental design are: ○ Between subjects design (random allocation) ○ Within subjects design ○ Factorial designs ○ Also quasi- experimental designs Example 2:Quasi- Experiment designs Stress and Magical Thinking (Keinan, 1994) Background: Magical thinking and superstition are a common feature of human cognition’ Stress affects cognitive functioning and might also increase magical thinking Research Q Is there a relationship between magical thinking and stress? Hypothesis Those who are exposed to high stress will exhibit higher levels of magical thinking. Operationalise Magical thinking using a questionnaire Residents of israel cities during the gulf war ○ Some cities were frequently bombed ○ Others were never attacked Design experiment High stress: Those residing in cities that were frequently bombed were in the high stress condition Low stress: those residing in cities that were never attacked Collect data Interviewers knocked on doors; participants filled out the questionnaire Analyse data and look at the Higher rating = more stressed results Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Appropriate conclusion Stress results in magical thinking? Advantages and disadvantages of quasi experimental designs ○ Investigate naturally occurring characteristics that could not be induced in the lab (e.g., depression, extreme stress) ○ No random assignment, so it is difficult to impute causality (correlation not causation) Example 3: Correlation designs Pathogens, personality and culture Background: There are cross cultural differences in personality, but the origins of these differences are unknown Regional differences in the prevalence of infectious disease might account from some of these cultural personality differences Research Q Is regional disease prevalence correlated with personality? Hypothesis Were infectious disease is prevelant, personality styles that reduce sexual and social contact are functional Specifically, there will be a negative relationship b/w regional disease prevelance Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 and ○ Unrestricted sexual style (many casual partners) ○ Extraversion ○ Openness to Experience Operationalise Measure - what ○ Regional disease prevelance ○ Regional personality differences Measure - how? ○ Old medical atlas data of relative prevelance of infectious disease in 71 regions throughout the world ○ 9 different infectious diseases throughout the world ○ Cross cultural studies of big 5 personality factors and socio-sexual orientation (SOI) Measure - who? ○ (varied) Design experiment Design study (notice no GROUPS, so no treatment and control conditions) ○ Devise reliable coding scheme (e.g 0= disease absent) Collect data Collate the data ○ Tabulate all the findings of these many cross-cultural studies using the Big 5 and SOI Analyse data and look at the Disease prevelance was negatively correlated results with ○ A promiscuous sexual style ( r= -.02, in women, -.27 in men) ○ Openness to experience (r=.59) ○ Extraversion (r =.59) Appropriate conclusion Can we conclude that infectious disease prevelance caused differences in personality? (a) Is there a relationship (correlation) between infectious disease prevelance and personality? YES (b) Is the relationship between infectious disease prevelance and personality spurious (false)? Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 (i) Don't know - have no random allocation, controlled for life expectancy, economic development climate, individualism/collectivism)- still obtains (c) Does the ‘cause’ (infectious disease prevalence) precede the ‘effect’ (personality differences) (i) Usually not in correlation, but current day personality was strongly correlated with 1940s historical disease data, but onlu weakly with contemporary disease data. Correlation designs - Key points Correlation designs have no random allocation to treatment and control groups With correlation design it is difficult to impute causality (i. Relationship, ii. Non-spurious; iii. Order) Advantage Allows us to explore questions that would be difficult or impossible with experimental designs Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 LECTURE 2: INTRO TO PERSONALITY Personality “Everyone, it seems, knows what personality is, but no one can precisely describe it: hundreds of definitions are available” - Alport, 1961 ‘Persona’: Mask; Character - Latin (1) “Personality is the distinctive & relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling & acting that characterise a person’s responses to life situations” - mask, outer aspects (2) “Personality refers to psychological systems that contribute to an individual's enduring & distinctive patterns of experience & behaviour” - character/contributors beneath Personality & Individual differences Human universals (maslow's hierarchy) Group differences (gender differences) Individual differences Personality theories tend to address both: Human nature (common features) Individuality (specific factors) Idiographic Nomothetic Focus on the individual and Attempts to establish laws & recognition of uniqueness generalisation about people Private, subjective and conscious Objective knowledge through experiences scientific methods Investigation gain written Investigations gain numerical data information unique to individual or data can be categorised being studied Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Personality & Social Psychology HISTORICALLY Personality theories: behaviour typically caused by internal factors rather than environmental ones. Social psychology: how each person’s individual behaviour is influenced by the social environment ○ Person or situation debate Historical Timeline: 1930s: personality as the main determinant of behaviour 1950s-1960s: situation determines behaviour 1980s: Person x situation interaction 2000s: complex interaction b/w person & situation Personality: stable or changing? Does personality change across the lifespan? Does personality change according to situations? ○ Personality paradox: personality is generally stable over time (consistency) but behaviour varies according to situation (change) Influence of traumatic experiences have strong impacts on the development of personality. Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 LECTURE 2: COMPREHENSIVE THEORIES Comprehensive theories Personality theories aim to understand the ‘whole’ person rather than simply the ‘parts’ ‘Personality’ as an attempted synthesis of other areas of psychology ○ E.g perception, neuroscience etc Persons within situations “The scientific study of the feelings, thoughts,& behaviours of individuals in social situations” Personality & Psychopathology Psycho: psychological, pathos’; disease/suffering Personality research emerged out of ‘Abnormal psychology Understanding how our personalities can break down (e.g personality disorders) Theory & implications for therapy Personality and Wellbeing Helping us understand ‘normal’ & healthy functioning Helping us to understand what is necessary for mental health & wellbeing (e.g needs) Personality development Nature vs Nurture ○ Nature Genetics Biological needs Temperament ○ Nurture Social and cultural environments ○ Questions Personality differences? Violence & aggression Psychopathology - diathesis-stress model, vulnerability and pre disposition ○ Complexity Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 There is a blur where nature and nurture begin & end (epigenetics) Personality Research & Science Critical appraisal ○ Subjecting beliefs/theories to criticism ○ Two kinds of criticism; logical & empirical Logical: testing logical coherence of theories theoretical/conceptual analysis → try to determine whether what we are talking about makes sense. Identifying contradictions, hidden assumptions, vagueness, ambiguity Empiricism: Observation is essential to science Do our observations support the theory Replication an essential feature of science Methods of assessment: Case Studies Early & present personality research ○ In Depth study of a single person ○ E.g Phineas Gage (1840s) → profound emotional changes after in his personality lasted for 3 years, catalyst of frontal lobe Rare cases Research (subjective) bias? Self-report Questionnaires ○ True/false; Likert response ○ Allows fairly fast & easy data collection ○ Deception, lack of insight, biases Projective tests ○ Ambiguous stimuli; individual interpretations reveal aspects of their personality ○ Problems with interpretation ○ Rorschach 'inkblots Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 ○ Thematic apperception test - what's happening in the image? Physiological measures ○ E.g brain research (PET, fMRI) ○ Problem: we need to know what ‘personality’ is before we can say how brain factors & genetics relate to it Internet research & Big Data ○ Self-presentation/identity management on social media & online contexts ○ Dark niches & the web (e.g trolling) ○ Remote behaviour sampling Some further considerations Ethnocentrism→ are our theories universal or reflections of specific cultures Individual vs collectivist cultures/contexts Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 WEEK 3 LECTURE 1: PSYCHODYNAMIC RESEARCH TODAY Current psychodynamic theories Uncosncious mental processes: Mental processes & events that we are unaware of Defense mechanisms Unconscious processes that protect us from negative affect (e.g anxiety, self-esteem threats) TYPES OF PERSONALITY DESCRIPTION THEORIES 1. Psychoanalytic Personality: Id (instincts) , ego (mediates) & superego Theory (moral) Unconscious & conscious mind Defense mechanisms Psychosexuality- controversy 2. Unconscious History: Theories of unconscious processes developed in processes 19th C. Most associated with Freud’s psychoanalysis & theory of defense mechanisms ‘The new unconscious’: automatic processes, nonconscious processes, implicit processes ○ Unconscious processes are now generally accepted Some examples Blindsight: seeing without awareness of seeing Subliminal perception studies ○ Effects from presenting stimuli so quickly that they cannot be consciously identified E.g tachistoscopic ○ Mere exposure effect: Mere repeated exposure to a stimulus increases attractiveness Subliminal exposure (1ms) to abstract polygons Ss then shown old/new pairs & asked to choose preferred polygon Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Ss significantly preferred subliminally presented stimuli (old>new; pBlunters Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 LECTURE 3: NEUROPSYCHOANALYSIS & DREAMS Freud's Background Freud trained in neurology Nerve cells: lesions & aphasia Project for a Scientific Psychology ○ Neural mechanisms underlying psychodynamic concepts Freud (1938/1940): pharmacological therapy for psychological disorders? The interpretation of dreams “Royal road to the Unconscious” Drives & motivational states (desires) Desires, walking fantasy & sleeping fantasy Undisguised wish-fulfilment Regression to primary process Biological frustration & dreams Salty foods cause dehydration Dehydration cases a ‘desire’ (or wish) to drink during sleep Dream of drinking is an imaginary (hallucinatory) satisfaction Guardian of sleep ○ Minnesota Starvation Experiment (1944-5)] Men who refused to fight in the war volunteered to participate in experiment Hunger made the men obsessed with food. They would dream & fantasize about food Nightmares? Physical conflict: the dreamer fighting against his own wishes is to be compared with a summation of 2 separate, though in some way intimately connect → dreams are the repression of our conscious mind Repression, censorship & ‘disguise’ Dream Bizarreness Latent content → desires as they would normally appear, go through primary process which turns the desire into a physical element Censorship Primary process Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Manifest content → dream itself Dream & REM sleep Aserinksy & Kleinman (1953) 4 stages of non-REM sleep 1. Rapid-eye movement (REM0 sleep) ❏ Occurs in 90-100 minute cycles ❏ REM associated with brainstem activation (pons) ❏ Paradoxical sleep; highly active brain (as if awake) Non- REM sleep: 5-10% dreaming reports Dreams are often impoverished (less vivid/non-visual) compared to REM dreams Mammals & REM srares REM in utero Allan Hobson & Robert McCarley (1977) ○ Activation-synthesis model of dreams/AIM model Dreams occur due to chaotic brain stem activity associated with REM sleep Motivationally neutral Dreams are meaningless: random images & illogical thinking REM= Dreams: Problems? Random images & coherent dream plots? Dreaming can occur independently of REM sleep: (i) vivid dreaming can occur prior to REM sleep (ii) Brain-stem lesions which eliminate REM sleep do not eliminate dreaming Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Loss of dreaming associated with other areas Dreams & psychosis 1940-1975: Schizophrenia & lobotomies (prefrontal lobotomy) to reduce psychotic symptoms Surgical damage to dopamine pathway Result: Cessation of dreaming & impoverished fantasy & curiosity in waking life Neuropsychoanalysis of dreams Mesolimbic-mesocortical dopamine pathway : important for dreaming Damage to pathway: REM unaffected, but dreaming ceases. Antipsychotics which block dopamine inhibit dreaming Chemical DA stimulation: increase in frequency & vividness of dreams The role of Dopamine (DA) Dopamine: motivation & reward Dopamine pathway motivates “the subject to seek out & engage with external objects which can satisfy inner biological needs Damage to dopamine pathway associated with reduction of motivated behaviour Dreaming & dopamine suggest dreams are linked with desires Affective Neuroscience Primary emotional systems ○ Jaak Panksepp : 7 subcortical ‘basic emotional command systems’ SEEKING (appetitive foraging); mesolimbic-mesocortical dopamine pathway LUST, FEAR (freezing & flight), RAGE, CARE, PANIC/GRIEF (separation distress), /7 PLAY Evidence/; within/cross-species neural circuitry Reward Pathway in the Brain Common in addiction Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Drug dreams & Freudian Theory Biological drive frustration paradigm Drugs of addiction hijack the brain’s natural reward system Test of Freudian Theory: drug addicts should dream of taking drugs when undergoing withdrawal Drug dreams with substances and gambling The emergence of Neuropsychoanalysis A link between all of psychoanalysis & the neurosciences Subjective data alone do not provide a solid foundation for a science of psychoanalysis Study of instinctual-emotional brain networks Clinical neuroscience Modifying psychoanalysis based on neuroscience Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 WEEK 4 LECTURE 1: TRAIT APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY Trait Approaches Gordon Allport (1897-1967) FOunded Personality psychology at Harvard Uni Introduced idiographic vs nomothetic distinction Interested in unique individual & traits ○ Cardinal (Major- altruism), Central, Secondary traits (peripheral - characterised you but not major) Personality Traits Traits: Disposition or tendency to act in meaningfully consistent ways across time & situations Traits are stable Nature over nurture (but interaction) Nomothetic approach Traits are dimensions Quantitative approach Application of trait research (e.g Organisational psych) Identifying traits Lexical hypothesis: Traits can be identified through language ○ Factor analysis PERSONALITY THEORIES 1. Eysenck’s 3 Factor Psychoticism Account Extraversion/introversion Neuroticism/normality Biological basis of traits Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Ascending Reticular activation system (ARAS) : responsible for wakefulness Cortical excitation & inhibition High ARAS arousal predisposes to introversion Limbic system (visceral brain) & neuroticism 2. Five Factor Based on lexical hypothesis Model/Theory O-peness C-onsciousness (McCrae & Costa) E- xtraversion A- greeableness N- neuroticism (emotional stability) Traits: enduring tendencies to think, feel & behave in consistent ways Highly heritable: “relatively untouched by life experience Accessible via self-report NEO-PI-R; 240 items; 5 traits/30 facets Useful for job selection/screening tool ○ Black (2000); NEO-PI-R useful in police selection; used as screening measure in NZ Five Factor Theory Limited impact of the environment on personality traits Experience shapes expression of trait FFM as biologically based human universals Traits are stable but universal age-changes At age 30: N,E, O down; A, C up Universal ○ Replicable in over 50 societies across 6 continents ○ More western/industrialised/demographic Case example: Gurven et al (2013) FFM tested with indigeous Tsimane people in central lowland Bolivia ○ Self and spouse report ○ Found the 5 factor model wasnt applicable ○ Two big personality dimensions: Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Prosociality & industriousness Traits shape culture McCrae (2004): personality shapes society & culture ○ Eg. A society of introverts will be different Challenges Generational/cohort effects ○ Increases in N & E over lasy 50 years ○ No similar change in population genetics Acculturation studies ○ Recent immigrants from HK to Canada score similar to Canadians on E,O & A. 3. Personality disorders & DSM-5 (2013); Personality disorders are.. traits a. Enduring patterns of thinking/feeling/acting/relating b. Culturally deviant c. Pervasive & inflexible d. Lead to distress or social impairment Personality disorders types Cluster A: Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal individual s with these disorders often appear odd or eccentric Cluster B: Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, Narcissistic Individuals with these disorders often appear dramatic, emotional, or erratic Cluster C: Avoidant, Dependent, Obsessive-compulsive Individuals with these disorders often appear anxious or fearful DSM-5: Personality disorders Categorical model: qualitatively distinct clinical syndromes Disease model & PD categories Failure of the categorical model a. Extensive co-occurence of PDs b. Extreme heterogeneity (e.g 256 different ways to diagnose BPD) Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 c. PD NOS most common diagnosis d. Poor inter-rater reliability Alternative DSM-5 model Dimensional model Personality disorders represent maladaptive variants of personality traits that merge imperceptibly into normality & into one another Maladaptive personality traits Negative affectivity (neuroticism) Detachment (extraversion) Psychoticism (Openness) Antagonism (Agreeableness) Disinhibition (Conscientiousness) FFM & Clinical implications Widiger (2017): FFM potentially better for treatment options (greater uniformity) ○ Ext/Agr: interpersonal goals ○ Neur: emotional stability goals ○ Consc: work-related goals ○ Open: cognitive goals Psychotherapy & pharmacotherapy ○ Recent development of FFM PD assessment Clinical utility still unclear Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 LECTURE 5: PERSONALITY AND PHYSICAL HEALTH Introduction Leading underlying causes of death in Australia ○ Coronary heart disease ○ Dementia ○ Strokes ○ Cancers Does personality predict and explain physical health Personality & Health Risk & resilience ○ Diathesis-stress ○ Predisposition ○ Environmental stress Personality & ○ Behaviour ○ appraisals & coping ○ Physiology Personality & Health: some considerations 1. Prediction & explanation 2. Necessary & sufficient conditions 3. Methodological issues? Methodological heterogeneity /diverse samples, methods) Correlations & causal interpretation Time frame (e.g fast/slow growing cancers Personality & Health 1850s: Psychosomatic illnesses 1895: Freud & hysteria 1950s: Type A personality & coronary heart disease (CHD) ○ Highly competitive ○ Ambitious ○ Work-driven Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 ○ Time-conscious ○ Stressed ○ aggressive Type A Type D Theory: High blood pressure + Type D personality: distressed high levels of stress hormones personality lead to CHD Negative affectivity ○ Contrada (1989): 68 male Socially inhibited undergrad ○ Examined TA TB, systolic & Mechanisms diastolic blood pressure & Psychophysiological stress heart rate while ss Type D associated with unhealthy performed a difficult mirror lifestyle: smoking, alcohol, not tracing task exercising ○ Type A assessment: Pessimism & poorer Structured interview & treatment-adherence Jenkins Activity Survey O’Dell et al (JAS) ○ Type A interviews associated with significantly enhanced SBP & DBP elevations but not JAS ○ Type B-high showed the least DBP reactivity Kuper (2002) = inconsistent evidence between Type A & CHD No association in subsequent studies across different world regions Cancer prone personality? Kissen & Eysenck (1962) Comparing cancer patients with controls Neuroticism (N) negative correlation Extraversion (E) positive correlation Kissen: repression of emotion Eysenck: absence of emotional reaction Anxiety and neuroticism might protect against cancer (limbic/endocrine systems) ○ Difficulties Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Correlation & causation; retrospective studies ○ Swedish prospective twin study Results: no association between N/E & cancer ○ swedish/finnish epidemiological study 30 year old follow-up 59,548 swedish/finnish ss Type C personality Cancer-prone personality ○ Cooperative ○ Unassertive ○ Suppresses negative emotions (particularly anger) ○ accepts/compiles with external authorities has attitude of helpness or hopelessness Theory: Ongoing state of heightened arousal reduces immune system functioning Price et al (2001) Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 LECTURE 5: REPRESSIVE DEFENSIVE & PHYSICAL HEALTH Repressive defensive & physical health Repressive coping: diverting attention from threatening stimuli Repressors: low trait anxiety/ High defensiveness Low levels of distress/anxiety BUT high physiological arousal Reaction to physical health Repressive coping Large body of evidence linking repressive coping with poor physical health Increased prevalence of repressive coping in chronic illness populations McKenna et al (1999): meta-analysis of psychosocial factors & breast cancer Significant effect sizes found for denial/repressive coping (& separation/loss experiences & stressful life events Repressive coping & coronary heart disease Denollet et al (2008): longitudinal study followed up 731 CHD patients at five & 10 years Over 20% patients were classified as repressors Findings: after controlling for other variables, repressors at increased risk for death & myocardial infarction (MI) Repressive coping associated with a two-fold increased risk of death, MI & other cardiac events Repressors are likely to report stress Possible Mechanisms ○ Underestimation of the effect of stress on the heart ○ Non-compliance?’ ○ Physiological stress? Montreal Heart Attack Readjustment trial ○ High-contact psychosocial support intervention ○ 5 year follow up ○ High anxious men: improved survival outcomes ○ Repressors (M/F): poorer survival outcomes Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 ○ Information-overload & over-arousal Repressive defensive & physical health Mund & Mitte (2012): Meta-analysis of association b/w repressive coping & cancer, CVD, asthma & diabetes 22 studies; 6, 755 Ss Significant associations between repressive coping and CVD (hypertension) Repressive coping as a consequence of cancer diagnosis Personality & Dementia Dementias: a syndrome of thinking & social symptoms that interferes with daily functioning DSM-5: Neurocognitive disorders ○ Frequently present features include personality change E.g disinhibition, apathy, suspiciousness, aggression FFM & dementia Neuroticism & lower Conscientiousness as predictors of dementia ○ Protective: Openness & Agreeableness ○ Individuals with high N low C tend to be more physically inactive Tend to be more likely to be obese or smoke Are more likely to achieve lower education Are at greater risk for depression Have a worse health profile Personality & Neuroticism Aschwanden et al (2020): 2 longitudinal studies English longitudinal study of Ageing (follow up 6 years) Household, income and labour dynamics in Australia Findings: higher Neuroticism was associated with increased dementia risk in both samples Lower Conscientiousness non-sig but in predicted direction Dementia & Personality change? Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Balsis et al (2005) longitudinal study ○ Annually assessed personality change with 1088 non-demented Ss between 1979-2001 ○ 82/108 developed dementia ○ Findings: 47% demented Ss reported personality change prior to dementia, diagnosis ○ Most commonly: increased rigidity, egocentricity, impaired emotional control ○ 23% personality change in non-demented Ss Summary: dementia & personality Cipriani et al (2015): Review of published research since 1980 Main findings: increase in neuroticism: substantial impact on increasing dementia Openness? Possibly protective Personality change commonly found Personality change sometimes precedes other early symptoms (e.g cognitive impairment) Personality & longevity Conscientiousness a consistent predictor of longevity Impulse control, responsibility, task & goal-directed, to be planful, delaying gratification Bogg & Roberts (2004): Meta-analysis Conscientiousness-related traits Negatively related to all risky health-related behaviours Positively related to all beneficial health-related behaviours Defensive & adaptive personality functioning Malone et al (2013) 70 year longitudinal study (N=90 males) Defenses coded from clinical interviews & qualitative written responses Mature; neurotic, immature defences Physical health from objective medical records Social support Findings; adaptive defences predicted better late-life health outcomes Social support appears to mediate relation Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 WEEK 5 LECTURE 1: PERSONALITY & ADDICTION Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Types of Addictions Substance and behavioural addictions ○ Addiction as a disorder of the brain reward system ○ Tobacco & alcohol most common Substance Addiction DSM-5: substance use disorders Cluster of cognitive, behavioural, & physiological symptoms indicating that the individual continues using the substance despite the significant substance-related problems ○ E.g alcohol, opioids, stimulants Behavioural Addictions The compulsion to continually engage in an activity or behaviour despite the negative impact on the person's ability to remain mentally &/or physically healthy & functional ○ Gambling disorder Action & Denial Impaired insight & addiction ○ Rinn et al (2002): denial a common feature of addiction (addiction denial) ○ Denial of addiction or need for treatment ○ Defense or cognitive deficit? ○ Addiction associated with cognitive deficits Is there an ‘addictive personality’ An addictive personality is a person that is more likely to become addicted to something, whether a behaviour or substance A specific personality configuration acting as a vulnerability/predisposing factor ○ Increase developing multiple addiction, difficulty with withdrawal, turning to substitute addictions Early research on substance addiction 1950-1960: addiction-prone personality & psychological weaknesses Comparing addicts vs non-addicts Methodological issues (e.g projective tests) ○ Gendreu & Gendreu (1970) Investigated addiction prone personality & narcotics Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Found no difference b/w addicts and non-addicts on personality, SES, life history Basic finding: there is no single set of personality characteristics that account for all addictions Problems with the concept ○ Homogenising - simplistic ○ False categorising & hopelessness ○ False assurance Personality & Substance use Terracciano & Costa (2004); FFM & smoking ○ cross -sectional study; self-report ○ Compared never, former, current smokers ○ Correlation with neuroticism Nicotine use & alcohol consumption ○ Malouff et al (2006); meta-analysis Personality & smoking High neuroticism Low agreeableness Low conscientiousness Modest relationships Personality & Addiction Zilberman et al (2018): examining personality profiles of substance/behavioural addictions ○ Drugs, alcohol gambling & sex Alcohol: high on neuroticism & impulsivity; low on extraversion, Agreeableness, Openness Drug use & compulsive sexual behaviour: high on neuroticism & impulsivity; lowest on agreeableness and conscientiousness Gambling: High on neuroticism & impulsivity BUt socioeconomic factors also relevant ( higher income) High Neuroticism and impulsivity common factors Dash et al (2019): examining personality profiles of substance/behavioural addictions Alcohol, nicotine, cannabis , gambling disorder Twins and siblings Assessed bug 5: psychiatric interviews 54% met criteria for at least 1 diagnosis Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 High co/multi-morbidity Results: high neuroticism, low agreeableness and conscientiousness ○ Nicotine and cannabis: low extraversion ○ Cannabis: high in openness LECTURE 2: PERSONALITY AND ADDICTION CONTINUED Does personality predict addiction? Most studies are cross sectional Elkins et al (2006) ○ Personality & substance use disorders ○ Minnesota twin family study ○ Same-sex twin sample ○ Assessed personality around 17 ○ Multidimensional personality Questionnaire ○ 3 year follow-up: Nicotine, alcohol etc NE: Negative emotionality: easily upset, (stress, alienation, aggression) CN: Low constraint: impulsivity, high risk taking (self-control & harm avoidance) ○ Findings: Nicotine dependence: increased NE, low CN. Alcohol/drug dependence: high NE & low CN (& being male) Slutske et al (2005): longitudinal population based study ○ Complete birth cohort ○ Dunedin ○ Assessed personality around 18 Gambing: increase neuroticism, low conscientiousness Alcohol, Nicotine, Cannabis dependence: high NE & low CN Can addiction change personality? Can personality change as a consequence of the addiction process? Addiction & brain changes Drug addiction “causes a relentless destruction of character & releases criminal tendencies ‘Addictive personality’ the effect of addiction? Dishonestly, aggression/anger? Risk-taking, depression/anxiety? Paranoia, criminal activity? Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Brain Changes & addiction Chronic substance abuse linked to dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) PFC: planning, attention, emotional regulation & self-control Addiction: increase impulsivity, stress reactivity, decreased impaired self-monitoring, emotional regulation Dopamine pathways & enhanced craving Addiction & personality change? Ostland et al (2007): prospective longitudinal study ○ Women & alcohol in Getborg study ○ FInding: for women who developed alcohol dependence/abuse Personality generally stable ○ Increase impulsiveness ○ Increase verbal aggression (getting into arguments) ○ Recovery: decrease in irritability, monotony avoidance (novelty seeking - out of boredom) Littlefield et al (2009/10): changes in impulsivity & neuroticism b/w 18-35 associated with decrease alcohol use Quinn et al (2011): prospective study ○ High school/ uni students assessed at 18 years; followed up at 3 & 4 years ○ Assessed personality, alcohol usage Time 1: increase sensation seeking & impulsivity predicted increase alcohol consumption Follow up: heavier drinking at uni predicted later increases in both traits BUT…… Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Kroenoke et al (2020): prospective study Nicotine, alcohol, sedatives, ecstasy Findings: increase neuroticism, decrease consc were more likely to consume drugs But little evidence of personality change after substance abuse To be continued…… LECTURE 3: PERSONALITY & CRIME PT 1 Introduction: types of crime Crimes against persons vs property Sexual crime Violent crime Cyber crime Drug-related crime White collar crime Is there a ‘born-criminal’ Cesare Lombroso ○ Italian physician & criminologist ○ Crime & biological determinism ○ Criminals born with physiological & psychological abnormalities ○ Predisposed to crime ○ Criminals “are born with evil intensions” Criminal types? Sir francis galton ○ Father of eugenics ○ Criminal types Important ethical issues Self-fulfilling prophecy: “The process by which one persons expectations about another become a reality by eliciting behaviours that confirm those expectations Profiling: false suspects, excluding variable suspects Rehabilitation? Non-personality crime risk factors Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Age/Crime relation - 15-22 Gender ○ Females lower arrest rates for all crimes except prostitution (universal, throughout history) ○ Males > violence Concentrated disadvantage: poverty, family disruption Murray et al (2010): prospective longitudinal ○ Assessed conduct disorder at age 10, criminal conviction at ages 30-34 ○ Early psychosocial risk factors were strong predictors of later crime eg ○ Maternal smoking in pregnancy, low cognitive stimulation, hyperactivity, poor visual-motor skills, internalising problems (i.e not sharing or talking about problems) Personality & Crime Eysenck (1977): Comparing prisoners vs non-prisoners The criminal personality is high is PEN due to underlying biology Problem: sample-bias & under-representation (e.g prisoner samples) ‘Hidden criminals’: offenders who commit crimes but are not caught Control samples may include hidden criminals Caspi et al (1994): 2 samples: NZ birth cohort at 18; pittsburgh; ethnically diverse 12-13 yr old boys Assess personality (MPQ) & delinquency ○ Increased delinquent participation: increased negative emotionality (NE) & Constraint (poorer impulse control) Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 ○ Delinquency same across countries, age cohorts, gender groups, ethnic groups ○ Negative emotions possibly translated more easily to antisocial acts Traits & Antisocial behaviour(ASB) Miller & lynam (2001): meta-analysis 60 studies Assessed various tests of personality ASB: violence, crime delinquency, aggression Main finding: ASB associated with Low A (hostility) & low C (poor impulse control) Personality & Sexual assault Sexual assault: sexual violence involving any physical contact, or intent of contact, of a sexual nature againsts a persons will, using physical force, intimidation or coercion Voller & Long (2010) ○ Compared rape perpetrators, sexual-assault perpertators & nonperpertrators on FFM ○ Ss = 493 US male uni students ○ Sexual experiences survey ○ 38 men (7.29%) reported perpertrating rape ○ 31 men (5.95%) reported perpertating sexual assault but not rape ○ Findings: sexual assault perpertrators were more similar to non perpetrators than to rape perpertrators Rape perpertators < A & C compared to both sexual-assault perpetrators & non-perpertrators Introduction to the dark personality traits Psychopathy ○ Shallow affect, callousness, lack of remorse, lack of empathy, gibness, superficial charm, manipulativeness, irresponsibility Narcissism ○ Exaggerated sense of self-importance, sense of entitlement, intense need for admiration, exploitative, deficient empathy, arrogance Personality & Sexual assault Mouilso & Calhoun (2012) Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 ○ 235 uni Ss ○ Assesed FFM & self-reported narcissism, psychopathy & sexual assault perpetration ○ Findings 18.3% reported perpetrating sexual assault 4.7% reported commiting an act meeting the legal definition of rape ○ A & C; perpetrators < non perpetrators ○ Narcissism & psychopathology best distinguished perpetrators from non-perpetrators Personality & White collar crime White collar crime: non-violent crime for financial gain committed by means of deception Push & Holtfreter (2021): Meta Analysis ○ Examined age, education, gender, ethnicity & personality ○ Findings: strongest predictors Negative relation with personality traits such as honesty & agreeableness Positive relation with personality traits such as psychopathy & narcissism Corporate psychopaths Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) DSM-5: individuals who engage in repetitive, irresponsible, delinquent, & criminal behaviour “...a pervasive pattern of disregard for, & violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence & continues into adulthood Most consistently diagnosed PD DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria for Antisocial Personality Disorder At least 18 Have to be early evidence of conduct disorder Conduct disorder: aggression to Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 people/animals, property destruction, deceitfulness ASPD Prevalence ○ General population: Approx 3% men, 1% women ○ Prison samples: 47% men; 21% women 80-85% of individuals with ASPD also meet criteria for a substance use disorder (SUD) ASPD commonly found with males & alcohol abuse disorder (>70%) Moeller & Dougherty (2001) ○ Control: no disorder ○ Given alcohol and placebo ○ Random sample ○ Engaged in game - press a button = money, another button if pressed it subtracts points from opponent Delisi et al (2019) ○ ASPD in prisoners ○ Offenders with no evidence of ASPD had the least severe criminal careers followed by those with symptoms and those with formal diagnostic history Antisocial Personality Disorder: causes Both genetic & environmental component DSM-5: APSD associated with: ○ Child abuse/neglect ○ unstable/eratic parenting ○ Inconsistent parental discipline ○ Poverty ○ Childhood physical/sexual abuse ○ ASPD becomes less evident after age 30 ○ ASPD more likely to die prematurely by violent means (e.g suicide, accidents, homicides) APSD: treatment APSD individuals unlikely to seek help Common belief that APSD is untreatable Little evidence that treatment reduces recidivism (reoffending) Gibbon et al (2020): Systematic review: “No intervention reported compelling evidence of change in antisocial behaviour” WEEK 6 Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 LECTURE 1: PSYCHOPATHY Introduction Stereotypes of psychopaths ○ Hervey cleckley: ‘Mask of Sanity’ 15 case studies ○ Business people, scientists ○ Doctors, psychiatrists Lasting influence on our understanding of psychopathy Psychopathy Psychopathy: personality pathology which includes: ○ Predatory behaviour ○ Emotional detachment ○ Callousness ○ Impulsivity ○ Persistent antisocial behaviour ○ Behaviour Robert Hare’s Psychology Checklist ASPD & psychopathy: DSM-5 Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Psychopathy : subset of antisocial personality disorder Primary psychopathy: ○ Low anxiety; narcissism ○ Genetics (?) Secondary Psychopathy: ○ High anxiety Acquired Psychopathy assessment Gold standard: Psychopathy Checklist-revisited ○ Semi-structured interview & interdependent data (e.g case reports, prison files) Assesses four dimensions of psychopathy ○ Interpersonal (e.g conning, pathological lying) ○ Affective functioning (e.g callousness, failure to accept responsibility) ○ Lifestyle (e.g impulsive, parasitic, irresponsible) ○ Antisocial tendencies (poor behavioural controls, persistent rule-breaking behaviour) Psychopathy & Crime Psychopaths mostly studied via prisons Debate whether committing crime central to psychopathy Organisational psychopaths Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Psychopathy & antisocial behaviour Leistico et al (2008): meta-analysis 95 studies, N=15,826 PCL & antisocial conduct Findings: ‘Social deviance’ factor predicted antisocial conduct Psychopathy generally predicts recidivism Psychopathy & Sadism Sadism; hurting others simply for pleasure DSM-III-R: Sadistic personality disorder Consistent psychopathy-sadism link O’Connell & Marcus (2019): meta-analysis Forensic samples; N= 5,161 Positive correlation b/w psychopathy & sadism LECTURE 2: PSYCHOPATHY CAUSES Psychopathy: causes Secondary psychopathy: adverse childhood experiences Primary psychopathy ○ Low fearfulness ○ Low fearfulness leads to poor moral socialisation ○ Blair (2006): neurodevelopmental personality disorder involving emotional impairment & decreased empathy; genetic causes Primary psychopathy & diminished emotional experiences Diminished emotionality ○ Deficits in empathy & conscience Emotional intelligence: the ability to perceive, use, understand, & regulate emotions in one’s self & others ○ Megias et al (2018): meta-analysis ○ Assessed psychopathic traits & EI ○ Finding: higher psychopathic trait scores are related to lower levels of EI levels. Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Cognitive vs emotional empathy Psychopathy & effects of emotional deficits Poor conditioning: low fear & failing to learn from negative consequences Emotional detachment: absence of fear, empathy, guilt & remorse does not inhibit the acting out of violent impulses Emotional deficiency: general under-arousal leading to sensation seeking Fearless dominance Psychopathy: causes Biological basis? ○ Genetics stronger than social factors ○ Genetics & emotional dysfunction Blair et al (2006) : Amygdala dysfunction ○ Thinking/feeling disconnected Problem with studies: cross-sectional & correlational Role of aversive childhood experiences (ACEs) A defining feature of psychopathy os the reduction, not elevation, in the individuals responsiveness to threat Child sexual/physical abuse should elevate emotional responsiveness, not lead to the specific form of reduced responsiveness seen in psychopathy Psychopathy: some findings Reduced arousal to aversive primes Normal: increased arousal/anxiety to threat stimuli (higher galvanic skin response-GSR) Psychopaths: No increased arousal; Threat stimuli & Startle response Psychopaths: no increased startle response Kozhuharova et al (2019) Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 ‘Cold-blooded’ crimes Psychopaths primarily use instrumental aggression (aggression used to achieve goal( Psychopath homicides: primarily premeditated, motivated by external goal 93% of psychopath homicides are instrumental 48% of non-psychopath homicides are instrumental Psychopathy: treatment? Is psychopathy untreatable? Does treatment make psychopathy worse? ○ Psychopaths more likely to exhibit inpatient aggression ○ Greater disruption during therapy Mixed findings ○ Too few studies to tell if therapy makes psychopathy worse ○ Hecht et al (2018): review: “successful treatment has not been demonstrated” Chakhssi et al (2010): Prospective study Maximum security hospital for mentally disordered Psychopaths vs non-psychopaths Treatment: weekly CBT for up to 19 months Did not make the majority of psychopaths worse But: some psychopaths became more aggressive ○ (22%); no change in aggression for non-psychopathic Ss Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 LECTURE 3: THE DARK TRIAD AND TETRAD Dark triad Personality constellation of psychopathy, narcissism & Machiavellianism The “new kid” on the (personality psychology) block, rival to the big 5 (a) Psychopathy Predatory, antisocial behaviour Emotional detachment Callous & insensitive Impulsive Lacks empathy Narcissism (b) Narcissism Grandiose self view: inflated self-importance ○ Excessive need for admiration ○ Lack of empathy & intimacy ○ Sense of entitlement ○ self -enhancing regulation strategies Overt/covert narcissists Both types self-absorbed & arrogant Overt: grandiosity/exhibitionism Covert: hypersensitivity/vulnerability © Machiavellianism Niccolo Machievelli Political philosophy & cynical approach to life Ends justify means; utilitarian attitude Maximising self-interests via deception & disregard for others Manipulating others to get own way Placing low value on community & family Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Are the dark triad traits equivalent? Paulhus & Williams (2002); N= 245 ○ Mach-IV, NPI, SRP-III, Big 5 ○ Assessed intelligence & self perceptions of intelligence ○ Males > Females on all Dark Triad traits “Males score higher on the dark triad Furnham et al (2013): follow-up review & meta-analysis: All DT correlations positive & significant Muris et al (2017): meta- analysis ○ Narcissism, Machiavellianism, & psychopathy, although originally developed as distinct traits, can be considered as “evil allies of personality” & that it makes sense to study them simultaneously within the context of transgressive behaviour Dark Triad Core Narcissism, Psychopathy, Machiavellianism Common element ○ All three entail a socially malevolent character with behaviour tendencies toward self-promotion, emotional coldness, duplicity & aggressiveness Jonason et al. (2009): dark triad reflects a specific exploitative social orientation Social parasites All 3 traits have a callous core but: Narcissism: major motivation is ego-reinforcement Aggression after ego threats Mach/Psychopaths: major motivation is instrumental/material gain Machs: long term focus ( strategic calculation) Lying to manipulate Psychopaths: short term focus (impulsive) Psychopathy & bullying Dark Triad & deception Dark Triad distinctions Narcissism & Machiavellianism items are other oriented ○ “ i tend to want others to admire me, I tend to manipulate others to get my way” Psychopathy items are self-oriented Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 ○ Predominantly describing personal characteristics (“I tend to lack remorse”) The dark triad & psychosocial factors Muris et al (2017): 22 studies Psychopathy is the dark triad contributing to psychosocial factors Interpersonal difficulties in common throughout Antisocial behaviour & aggression primary associated with psychopathy LECTURE 4: DARK TRIAD CONTINUED Assessing the Dark Triad traits NOTE: mostly self-report; WEIRD convenience samples Dirty Dozen Short Dark Triad; 27 likert terms Mach: Make sure your plans benefit yourself, not others Narcissism; I know that I am special because everyone keeps telling me so Psychopathy: People who mess with me always regret it Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Problem with self report & dark triad The dark tetrad Is there a 4th dark dimension? Everyday Sadism: disposition to enjoy cruelty & suffering Varieties of sadistic experience scale (“ I enjoy hurting people”) Buckets et al (2013): two studies Examining dark tetrad & sadism Behavioural measures of sadism ○ ‘Personality & tolerance for challenging jobs’ Assessed sadism, dark triad, ‘job choice’ Clean toilets (sanitation worker) Enduring pain (cold environment worker) Killing bugs (exterminator) Exterminator’s assistance For those who chose exterminator, exterminator assistance: ○ Bug grinding (deception) ○ Greater sadism reported greater pleasure ○ Dark triad not predictive Buckels et al (2013): study 2 White-noise paradigm & unprovoked aggression DV: Noise blast strength & duration No-work, work (boring task) conditions Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Is there a light triad? Kaufmann et al (2019) Aim: develop a light triad scale Identify items that are conceptually opposite to narcissism, Machiavellianism psychopathy Assessed normal personlaity ○ Light triad items ○ Kantianism: Treating people as ends unto themselves ○ When i talk to people, i am rarely thinking about what i want from them Humanism: valuing the dignity & worth of each individual ○ I enjoy listening to people from all walks of life Faith in humanity: believing in the fundamental goodness of humans ○ I think people are mostly good Light vs Dark personalities Balance scores ○ LT-DT scores ○ “ the average person is tipped more toward the Light Triad relative to the Dark Triad” Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 WEEK 8 LECTURE 1: PERSONALITY & WELLBEING Introduction Humanistic: “Third Force” - psychoanalysis & behaviourism ○ Focus on humanity & ‘higher’ end of human experience ○ Carl rogers: Fully functioning person ○ Abraham Maslow: Self-actualisation Criticisms ○ Poor scientific methodology ○ Encouraged self-centredness Positive Psychology A science of positive subjective experience Focus on strengths & rather than simply weaknesses Focus on increasing wellbeing Subjective well-being: what people think & feel about their lives Types of Well-being Hedonic approach ○ Focus on feeling happy ○ Pleasure attainment & pain avoidance Eudaimonic approach ○ Focus on meaning & fulfillment ○ Degree to which a person is fully functioning ○ Human flourishing Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Subjective well being (SWB): life satisfaction, +/- affect (Deiner, 1984) Positive Psychology & Subjective well being (SWB) Seligman (2011): SWB involves PERMS ○ Positive Emotion ○ Engagement ○ Relationships ○ Meaning ○ Accomplishment Subjective wellbeing & the importance of meaning Jebb et al. (2020): Survey across 166 nations b/w 2005-2016 Positive predictions of SWB ○ Marriage ○ Employment ○ Prosociality (Altruism) ‘Purpose or meaning in life; strong, consistent association with SWB across all regions & ages Hierarchical model of SWB Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Assessing SWB Subjective test Self-determination Theory Arose out of psychoanalytic ego-psychology Critical of classical motivation theory Classical model of motivation: external reward & punishment (eg. Skinner) Extrinsic motivation: done to attain consequences (eg. to get reward) Intrinsic motivation: doing activities for satisfaction, interest, curiosity, core values Done for the inherent satisfaction of activity Enjoyable & valued activities ○ E.g. childrens play Continues across the lifespan but influenced by many factors Related to satisfying basic psychological needs Warneken & Tomasello (2014) Drop the pen in front of child to see reaction ○ Naturally pick it up - altruism 3 different conditions: neutral (pick it up- no consequence), praise condition - confederate would praise and reward condition - confederate would give the child a reward Findings: reward led to fewer helping in subsequent trials Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Basic psychological needs Satisfaction of psychological needs essential for psychological growth, integrity & wellbeing Psychological needs are; ○ Natural rather than acquired ○ Universal rather than culturally specific ○ Not necessarily When satisfied, well-being & social development are optimised 1. Need for competence (‘work’) a. Sense of mastery 2. Need for belongingness (‘love’) a. Feeling cared for; sense of belongingness; able to contribute 3. Need for autonomy (‘choice’) a. Self-endorsed actions; behaviour in accord with values Self determination workplace items Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Within-Country Correlations of Basic Need satisfaction within subjective well-being Study: Diener et al (2010): Survey of 132 nations Cross cultural factors of wellbeing When psychological needs are met = better life, positive experiences and fewer amount of negative experiences Is autonomy a universal need? Possible cultural differences or biases? Non-western cultures Yu et al. (2018): meta-analysis Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 US, East Asian samples Moderate correlation b/w autonomy & subjective well-being No sig difference between studies conducted in the East & West Dominguez et al (2013) Pretesting with children to choose vegetables they didn't object too 3 conditions: DCC (discrete choice condition) CDCD - case several vegetable, NC - children were given vegetable Findings: providing choices increases children’s vegetable intake LECTURE 2: PERSONALITY & WELL-BEING CONTINUED Conditions that facilitate and undermine intrinsic motivation Wellbeing, motivation & performance SDT & Education, Organisational & human performance, psychotherapy/healthcare & adherence, Exercise & Physical activity motivation Meta-analysis: school, work , sport studies Intrinsic motivation medium to strong predictor of performance Intrinsic motivation predicts quality of performance Extrinsic predicts quantity of performance Other personality variables & subjective wellbeing DeNeve & Cooper (1998): meta-analysis; 137 personality traits Findings: most important predictions of SWB FFM: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Agreeableness Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 ○ Guiterrez et al (2005): E, N & O ○ Anglim et al. (2020): E, N & C Most important personality predictors: ○ Repressive defensiveness ○ Control ○ Trust ○ Emotional stability Personality & SWB Repressive defensiveness & SWB Pauls (2007): Mixed-findings; e.g repressors report highest scores in life satisfaction Erskine et al (2015): repressors are happier than non repressers Repressive defensiveness & SWB Denial of negative emotions & Self report? Person X situation interaction? Inconsistent findings due to physical health status, culture, SES, other personality factors? Short/long term effects? Repressive coping “may be temporarily advantageous, but may result in lasting negative effects on one’s physical & mental health” Personality & adapting to situations Diener et al (2006): personality predisposes people to use different coping strategies Individual differ in their responses to life challenges Personality X coping strategies X situations ○ Ferguson (2002): neuroticism/introversion linked to denial & ineffective coping ○ Boag et al. (2020): neuroticism X avoidant coping & increased stress Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 LECTURE 3: PERSONALITY & ASSESSMENT THEORY Introduction Why assess personality? Organisational : eg. personnel selection Counselling: eg. career choice Clinical; eg. DSM 5 & personality disorders Personality assessment Basics Psychometric components Reliability & validity A good personality assessment tool is both reliable & valid Not always easy to determine Reliability: consistency Internal consistency: consistency among different components of the test Inter-rater reliability: consistency in information found by different test users ○ E.g similar outcomes across different scorers Test-retest reliability: consistency over testing occasions Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Validity Construct validity Does a test assess what it intends to assess? ○ Eg. a test of ‘self-esteem’ should not be assessing ‘arrogance’ Convergent/divergent/discriminant validity Predictive/criterion The significance of theory When assessing X it helps to have some idea of what X is What is ‘personality’? Types of tools 200 + constructs Differing approaches (eg. humanistic, psychodynamic, trait) Assessment determined by one’s understanding of personality McAdams personality triad McAdams Personality structure/hierarchy 1. Dispositional traits 2. Characteristic adaptations 3. Narrative identity as ‘life story’ Dispositional traits Dimensions of personality Eysenck’s PEN FFM: OCEAN Dispositions, tendencies Nomothetic dimensions Personality stability Limit of trait psychology; psychology of the stranger, not interpersonal and sense of identity, more broad Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Characteristic Personal goals & motives adaptations Defence mechanisms & coping strategies Values & beliefs Attachment & relationship styles Domain-specific skills & interests Includes psychoanalytic, social-learning, dynamic, humanistic, evolutionary components, personal constructs etc. Limitation: still not getting a unique understanding of the person Identity as life story Stories central to identity throughout life Through our stories we define ourselves & achieve a sense of identity Identity provides a sense of unity & purpose Possibility of personality change Idiographic & Humanistic Self-report inventories Traits typically assessed via self-report personality inventories Personality dimensions Quantification & measurement Assessing scale reliability & aspects of validity International Personality Item Pool ○ 200+ constructs assessing various personality components Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Close ended questions ○ Advantages: easier to score; males comparison b/w Ss easier Response formats True/False Likert scales Adult attachment assessment Eg. Experiences in Close Relationships I rarely worry about my partner leaving me Defense mechanisms self-report scales Defense Style Questionnaire I work more things out in my daydreams than in my real life Personality inventories Advantages Disadvantages Self report allows gathering large Limits of behavioural observation amounts of information fairly easily Biases eg. social desirability, acquiescence Faking good & faking bad Memory errors & limits of insight (e.g kids) Online information & test cheating Forced choice formats Choosing between multiple stimuli May limit social desirability May limit acquiescence (eg. performance ratings) Example: ○ Choose which alternative in the following pair is most likely like you a. Conscientious and hard working b. Mentally healthy & well-adjusted Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 LECTURE 4: PERFORMANCE BASED ASSESSMENT CONTIN. Performance-based assessment Indirect personality assessment Involves inference & interpretation Not reliant on insight & self-reflection Linked to assessing unconscious processes ○ E.g dream analysis Projective tests Rorschach inkblot test Thematic apperception test Inferences made from content of responses Some evidence of predictive/discriminant validity ○ Advantage: difficult to cheat ○ Disadvantages General problems of reliability & validity E.g poor inter-rater reliability However; standardised scoring & interpretation has improved reliability, but it is time consuming and difficult to score Implicit Association test (IAT) Greenwald et al Designed to assess implicit/unconscious attitudes Pairs concepts & assesses reaction time Faster responses = stronger association Implicit self-esteem, implicit racism, implicit sexism, implicit homophobia Advantage; reaction times & difficulty faking Disadvantage; ongoing question about validity ○ Mixed evidence concerning relation b/w implicit & explicit attitudes ○ Poor predictive validity ○ General problems with indirect assessment Downloaded by Sophi Tarran ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|41366523 Interviews ‘Humanistic’ approach; idiographic Qualitative research Interviews & open ended questions Respondents formulate their own answers Unstructured (‘free-form’) Structured (specific topics) Semi-structured (specific topics but flexibility; eg. the interviewer can ask follow-up questions for clarification: ‘When you say X, what do you mean?’ McAdams Life Story Interview Advantages Disadvantages Multiple sources of information Interviewer effect ○ E.g non-verbal signs ○ Interviewers body language, Possible to explore in-depth age, sex, etc may elicit Flexibility different responses & thus Qualitative information compromise reliability Interviewer & interviewee can both Qualitative analysis; time readily ask for clarification consuming & potential for subjective bias/interpretation Unstructured interviews: & poor