Psychology PDF

BEHAVIOUR ->Behavioural psychology is the study of external behavior that is objective and observable. PAVLOV-> Russian physiologist who initially studied digestion. Used dogs to study saliva...

BEHAVIOUR ->Behavioural psychology is the study of external behavior that is objective and observable. PAVLOV-> Russian physiologist who initially studied digestion. Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were presented with meat powder Classical Conditioning-> When two events occur at the same time, we learn to associate them together. When there is a physiological response to one of those events. The physiological response starts to occur in response to the associated event. Classical conditioning can face “extinction”, where the learning is undone. This can happen naturally (the dog stops getting meat when the bell is sounded. Remember: Classical conditioning is more than forming an association–it is an involuntary, physiological response. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING ►Emotions- Watson and Rayner (1920) Phobias generalize to other similar situation A child approaches a dog (a) is frightened by it (b)Fear generalizes to other household pets (c) and later to virtually all furry animals (d). Most phobias are learned through classical conditioning (Conditioned Emotional Response) -Get stuck in lift →fear →fear of lifts →fear of small spaces EXAMPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Adverts on YouTube/ games Once we’ve heard the music a few times, we have learned to connect the music with the product/brand/shop. OPERANT CONDITIONING ->In operant conditioning a choice is made to perform a certain behavior because of reward or punishment, Involving influencing voluntary, everyday behaviors that are unlike automatic responses in CC.  Positive Reinforcement –You behave in a certain way that results in a reward, and as a result, you are more likely to repeat that behavior Negative Reinforcement –You behave in a certain way that results in the removal of something unpleasant, and as a result, you are more likely to repeat that behavior (ex: doing an assignment early) Punishment– A consequence that follows a behavior so that you do the behavior less often in the future IN A VARIABLE-RATIO SCHEDULE THE REINFORCEMENT OR REWARD IS DELIVERED AFTER AN UNPREDICTABLE NUMBER OF RESPONSES. BEHAVIOUR SHAPING First reinforce any response that in some way resembles the desired behaviour, then one that is closer etc. Once established, look for behaviour that is closer to the desired Until you have the desired behaviour. Recent studies on motivation: Praise decreases levels of motivation in the long term, because when praise is expected & not delivered, desired behavior will just decline. Intrinsic motivation is to be encouraged instead of extrinsic motivation & praise, reward Criticism of Behaviourism-> Studies where participants work on an interesting task (ex: puzzles) -the experimental group is given a reward when finished while the control group is not given a reward (e.g., Deci, 1972)After the initial period participants are given a choice between continuing to work on the task or switching to another activity. Typically, people who are not being paid continue to solve the puzzle Rewards can negatively affect intrinsic motivation BANDURA 1960s SOCIAL COGNITION THEORY Social learning theory: Proposed that we can learn social behavior such as aggression through observational learning BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT  i.e., through watching the behavior of others & noting the consequences Thoughts can regulate actions, people have agency & choices, and free will. Behaviourists disagreed with Bandura ACCORDING TO BANDURA… ►People are active manipulators of their own environment ►Unlike Skinner, Bandura (1995,1998) believes that individuals possess free will ►Our cognitive processes allow us control in selecting the situations in which we operate ►& allow us to transform situations ATTACHMENT -> The strong emotional bond formed with the principal caregiver(s) in infancy & usually remains lifelong. JOHN BOWLBY The infant and mother/caretaker instinctively form an attachment. Separation anxiety By age 7 months-12 months, Bowlby noted babies’ distress when separated from their mother Also becoming very aware of strangers Separation marked by Protest –anger & loud crying Despair –withdrawal & less vigorous crying Detachment –later... show of outwardly displayed cheerful behavior, but remained emotionally distant Change in policy in hospitals 1970s 1314 SECURE BASE: According to Bowlby (1961) attachment behaviors appearing the second half of the first year of an infant’s life and continue to develop during the second and third years of life- -Children tend to develop a close attachment to their mother figure, implying that they are content in her company and distressed in her absence. As the child moves from childhood through to adolescence and on into adulthood the length of time the individual moves away from the secure base increases, but the attachment figure remains an important source of security throughout the life cycle, Critical Sensitive Period for bonding between Mother and Baby, all mothers must be allowed to hold and spend time with their babies immediately after birth. If Mother and Baby are separated in this immediate post-partum period failure to bond and subsequent relationship problems between mother and child may occur. Children with a disorganized attachment style both seek out and avoid comfort from their caregiver. Children with a disorganized attachment style can be fearful of their caregivers but still desire love and affection. Caregivers of children with a disorganized attachment style often abuse or mistreat the children in their care; they are inconsistent in response to the child’s feelings of fear or distress. As the infant becomes older, attachment relations become less dependent on physical proximity and overt (visible) behavior  attachment strategies used in early childhood (avoidant and ambivalent attachment) will not necessarily be adaptive/beneficial/useful in later life Caring for individuals with insecure attachment & psychopathology Once the system is activated, individuals seek security & comfort from their attachment figures->Consistency Attention Responsiveness Empathy Support ATTACHMENT & INTIMATE PARTNER ABUSE->Preoccupied individuals may be torn between a need for love & support from others & the fear of not having that need gratified. They can become increasingly demanding & potentially aggressive when attachment needs are not fulfilled How children understand their world: Child development Development is.... A pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the life cycle and involves several processes, Biological Processes-Changes in our physical nature. Cognitive Processes-Changes in our thoughts, intelligence and language. Socioemotional Processes-Changes in our relationship with other people, in our emotions and in our personality How should we understand the Interaction between Nature and Nurture? Aspects of ‘nature’: our genetic blueprint, DNA; in psychological terms: temperament Aspects of ‘nurture’: impact of care, education, and the environment in general Interactions between Nature Nurture are complex and different at every stage of life, Have an impact on: Motor development Emotional development Social development (attachment) Cognitive development Personality development Moral development Spring in the brain -> Early explosion of growth of synapses and dendrites facilitates neural connectivity (‘blooming’), New neurons at a rate of 700 –1000 per second in early months Myelination of neurons speeds up processing Demyelination impacts: Energy used by cells Damages message transmission Damages neuronal function Damages structure & function of synapse Neural connections that aremost actively used are maintained, others are lost JEAN PIAGET: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (EARLY 1900) Qualitative difference in children's thinking Children actively construct their OWN cognitive worlds Children are not passive receivers of information Intellectual development occurs as a process in stages Key elements of Piaget’s theory -> Schema Is an internal cognitive framework that organizes incoming information, thoughts and actions It can be applied to objects, beliefs, and ideas (It is like a building structure that can hold and make sense of information that we receive from the world WE HAVE INNATE STRATEGIES FOR COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT LEADING TO ADAPTION Through assimilation & accommodation..... The Child experiences disequilibrium... then Rebalancein their thinking (equilibrium) SENSORIMOTOR STAGE 0-2 Babies take in the world by sensing, looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, grasping. Development of thought processes through sense Begin to understand means-end Learning to move Symbolic thought at about 18 months Object permanence PRE-OPERATIONAL 2-7 YEARS Egocentrism Language & storytelling Problems with classification Animism Parallel play and Symbolic play EGOCENTRISM-> occurs when a child is unable to distinguish between their own perspective and that of another person’s refers to young children's difficulty in seeing the world from another's viewpoint preoperational children stubbornly cling to their way not to be difficult, but because they do not comprehend that other people have diff. feelings and ideas THEORY OF MIND Although still ego-centric, Pre-schoolers are beginning to understand the mental states of other people Beginning to develop the theory of mind This is a commonly used test of the theory of mind Poor at expressing order of events, cannot reverse a series of events Stories may not form an integrated story, large parts omitted Use of pronouns without saying to what they refer Reasoningbased on hierarchical structure –not good  Animals e.g., all dogs are animals but not all animals are dogs use one level at a time based on what they see Using symbols is a huge advancement over sensorimotor thinking, but their thinking is still limited due to ANIMISM: a phenomenon where preoperational children sometimes credit inanimate objects with life and lifelike properties CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE 7 –12 YRS Higher order complex operations, Begin to understand complex rules about how things work in their world Conservationgives stability to the physical world; shows that they can carry out mental operations (other exs. Multiplying, dividing, ordering) Conservation tasks Combining Separating Ordering Greater insight into multiple viewpoints Able to reason about more than one level of a hierarchy of concepts Unable to reason about abstract issues FORMAL OPERATIONAL (Logical Thinking) 11-16yrs and onwards Cognitive changes play a critical role in helping adolescents deal with increasingly complex educational and vocational demands Ability expand from concrete thinking to abstract thinking Able to think & reason about abstract concepts Using imagined realities & symbols Can consider issues from different viewpoints ✓Capable of abstract thought and reasoning ✓Can easily conserve and think logically about a problem in their mind ✓Can use adult reasoning impressed with the power of thought, but underestimate practical problems connected to ‘ideal’ future ✓Egocentric, decreasing can reflect on own thinking & others’ thinking e.g., he thinks I think he’s thinking about her EVALUATION THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: VYGOTSKY Looked at the relationship between development and learning. Elementary mental functions (i.e. Attention, Sensation Perception, and Memory ) develop into higher mental functions through social interaction Vygotsky: Role of Proximal Development  To discover the actual relations of the developmental processes and learning capabilities we must determine two developmental levels: ZPD zone of proximal development ->The distance between what a child can do with and without help ZAD zone of achieved development Scaffolding Learning through ‘scaffolding’ Can learn to internalize teacher-scaffolded discussions Collaborationthrough prompts, clues, modeling, explanation, leading questions, discussion, joint participation, encouragement, child alternating role of questioner & respondent etc Strengths->Very influential in Health education e.g. peer mentoring programs Emphasis the importance of social experiences for learning. Weakness-> Vygotsky gave little attention to biological influences on cognitive development BRONFENBRENNER: ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS Looks at the person in context across time The child lives in & develops in a number of systems The particular environmental situations that a child experiences are fundamental to the understanding of their development COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY -> mind = information processor Focuses on mental processes & how these processes interact with behavior Emerged in the 1950s in reaction to the behaviorist's explanations of the mind Information Processor Analogy: Views the mind as an information processor; a sequence of events Stimulus ->Attention ->Perception -> Thought process -> decision -> Response COGNITIVE SCHEMA ->A cognitive structure that contains knowledge about a thing, it’s attributes & the relationships among it’s attributes. Types of schema ( person schemas, social schemas, self-schemas, event schemas) ​ Scripts: schema about events that guide us through performing tasks (e.g., driving car, performing exercises, sending texts) ​ Roleschemas: different roles & how people are likely to behave in that role (e.g., lecturer, student, friends, boss) ​ Self-schema: how we perceive ourselves & embody our self-concept IMPORTANT CAVEAT (LIMITATION) OF SCHEMAS This can lead to error; while they help guide us, they do not always represent reality Grounded in our past experiences (e.g., illness, family, parental divorce, grief/loss) They help explain how negative thought patterns, and the world we may have developed as children Negative schemas can lie dormant for years, & re-emerge following trauma or stressful events COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL THERAPY Combines cognition & behavior Mofìdifying or replacing negative or irrational beliefs Common treatment prescribed for depression & anxiety ALBERT ELLIS 1913-2007: RATIONAL-EMOTIVE BEHAVIOR THERAPY (1962) Ellis Proposed that we have a biological tendency to think irrationally as well as rationally our notion that we should be treated ‘fairly’ is evidence of our irrationality But.... individuals could lessen their emotional distress, ineffectual behaviour & unhappiness By learning to maximise rational thinking & minimise irrational thinking He noted that we often attribute our emotions to other people. For example, I feel angry because my friend said that. We talk about emotions as if we have no control over them However, according to Ellis, Our emotions are caused by what we think We have some control over them We can make choices, take responsibility, free will THE A ( activating) B (beliefs) C (consequence) MODEL OF REBT (ELLIS, 1979) Different people have different belief systems & this explains why we interpret situations differently If we can change our belief about a situation or event, then we can change the consequences The model of REBT Flatmate scenari- >Flatmate uses all the milk You get angry because– no milk for your breakfast Flatmate behaviour is A Your anger is C-> Our emotions result from what we tell ourselves at B-> Situation & mood According to REBT & Ellis, there are 3 main core beliefs that humans have: I must do well, be successful, win approval Others must do the right thing, treat me fairly, be nice Life must be easy, without discomfort & inconvenience It is these core beliefs that cause us problems Change the belief, and the corresponding emotion & response will also change How do we change our beliefs: Ellis uses several techniques to help the client gain insight into B Next stage of model: D for Disputation/disputing Next stage: Homework –E for education/ effective new behaviors, emotion Albert Ellis: rational thoughts & irrational thoughts Believed we create our perception of the world & we then assume our subjective view is factually accurate This is impacting how we respond emotionally Consider Clinical-> Health Anxiety When a person spends significant time worrying they're ill, or about to become ill, that it starts to take over their life. Frequent body checks Seeking reassurance from others that you’re not unwell Obsessive checking health information online Avoidance of medical related media  COGNITIVE THEORY OF EMOTIONS -​ JAMES LANGE THEORY OF EMOTION (a pre-cognitive psychology theory) James argued that environmental experiences give rise to visceral & muscular responses & these responses lead to emotional states STIMULUS-> PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE-> EXPERIENCE OF PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE-> EXPERIENCE OF EMOTION -​ RICHARD LAZARUS’ THEORY OF EMOTION THE TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF STRESS LAZARUS AND FOLKMAN (1987) Introduced the concept of appraisal to understand the Stress Response. Individuals experience Stress if and only if they appraise the event as Stressful Emotions act as moderators between how we think and respond Factors that May Influence Stressful appraisals Personal Characteristics Self-esteem-positive feeling of self worth Self-efficacy-confidence to perform a desired action Hardiness-feeling in control, accepting challenges, strong in commitment HUMANISTIC THEORIES ORIGINS-> Early 20thcentury: Remember the behaviourist approach & psychoanalytic approaches were dominant Carl Rogers Person centredapproach Developed an alternative view Abraham Maslow 1940s The Hierarchy of Need ABRAHAM MASLOW (1908-1970) New York, russian-jewish immigrant parent Malow’s theory -​ Hierarchy of needs -​ Ultimately aiming to achieve self-actualization TWO TYPES OF HUMAN MOTIVATIONS: -​ DEFICIENCY MOTIVES -​ GROWTH MOTIVES OR BEING MOTIVES (B MOTIVES) -​ DEFICIENCY motives are basic needs that we are driven to fulfill (e.g.hunger, thirst, safety, sex, and love) Characterised by a lack of something GROWTH motives are relatively independent of the environment and unique to the individual HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: -​ PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS (thirst, hunger, sleep, oxygen ecc. Once satisfied, no longer motivated by them) -​ SAFETY NEEDS (security, safe living circumstances, self-protection, law-abiding communities, and a sense of order, fear, and anxiety emerge & these motivate our behaviour) Absence of safety →impact on development Maslow proposed we all prefer to feel safe, stable, and not at risk When safety needs have been taken care of, our need for love & belongingness becomes more important We all need to feel needed & accepted Social beings Need to feel rooted in community, surrounded by loved ones 2 TYPES OF LOVE: D-LOVE & B-LOVE PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Healthy children actively seek to gain new skills, as they satisfy their ‘instinctoid’ needs Once the need is gratified, we move on to more complicated needs Socialisation can have a critical impact on personality development If children are given meaningful choices and not coerced, this will foster opportunities for learning and development  ​Individual variation in the order of needs ​Needs do not have to be totally met in order for an individual to progress to high-order needs ​Behaviors can be motivated by a variety of needs ​Self-actualisation is peculiar to humans (over animals) ​Universal although there may be cultural variation in the means through which needs are met ​Acknowledged the importance of unconscious motivation –but not in the same way as Freud PEAK EXPERIENCE Peak experiences are moments of self-actualization Studied diaries of famous people Few people experience it rare MASLOW’S THEORY TO MENTAL HEALTH ​ The primary cause of mental illness is the failure to gratify one’s fundamental needs ​ The lower the level at which needs have not been satisfied the greater the disturbance ​ Placed emphasis on the interpersonal determinants of psychopathology ​ Maslow was strongly against the medical model and diagnostic labeling ​ Believed that individuals should be assisted in satisfying needs & moving towards self-actualization to improve their health MASLOW’S THEORY TO HEALTH & NURSING Maslow–Individuals should be assisted in satisfying needs & moving towards self-actualisation to improve their health EVALUATION OF MASLOW’S THEORY Extremely positive view of human nature One of the first to emphasize the positive side of human development His ideas have been applied widely in work and healthcare settings and have had a strong influence on education Does not recognize biological vulnerabilities to mental illness The scientific approach lacked rigour As several concepts are difficult to define, they are hard to test empirically PEAK EXPERIENCE-> now knows as FLOW or being IN THE ZONE How to create flow-> Become aware of the situations in which you can experience: Focus, being engaged, absorbed Maybe even a little scared, stressed, nervous–positive & negative emotions Intrinsicallymotivated, loving what you’re doing Face a challenge, take it on High levels of preparation Rehearse, Mental practice/rehearsal  MOTIVATION -​ Intrinsic motivation -​ Extrinsic motivation -​ -​ THEORY OF SELF-DETERMINATION MOTIVATION -​ 3 basic needs -​ Relatedness -​ Competence -​ Autonomy FLOURISHING A state of being free from illness and distress & of being filled with vitality and functioning well in one’s personal and social life 3 core features Positive emotions Engagement Meaning LANGUISHING describes the absence of mental well-being rather than the presence of ill-being(Keyes, 2002). RESILIENCE->means the tendency to “rebound or recoil,” to “spring back is a term used to describe and explain the complexities of individual and group responses to adverse events and difficult situations. When in your resilient zone, able to handle the stresses of everyday work You can be annoyed or angry.... But don’t lose the head 3:1 positivity ratio (Fredrickson, 2009) -​ For every one negative experience or thought or event... we need to have 3 positive  HUMANISTIC THEORIES- CARL ROGERS (1902-1987) ​ Believed in the growth of the person ​ Self-actualisation, the fully-functioning person ​ Agreed with Maslow’s theory ​ Disagreed with Freud Set of conflicts to be resolved ​ FOR A PERSON TO GROW, THEY NEED AN ENVIRONMENT THAT PROVIDES ACCEPTANCE & EMPATHY ROGERS’ THEORY OF PERSONALITY Self-concept -​ Socially constructed, how we see ourselves -largely based on others’ evaluations -​ Set of beliefs we have about ourselves Optimal development and psychological well-being occurs where there is congruence between the self and the self-concept -​ Unconditional positive regard -​ Conditions of worth ROGERS’ THEORY : KEY FEATURES UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD: accepting someone for who they are and valuing them just for being...... According to Rogers, what we typically experience from others is ‘conditional’ positive regard Socialisation teaches us that some ways of being are valued more than others CONDITIONS OF WORTH: Others only give us what we need when we show our worth. We use conditions of worth to evaluate the impact that our behaviour is likely to have on other  CONDITIONS OF ROGERIAN COUNSELLING THAT WE CAN APPLY TO HEALTHCARE Show unconditional positive regard for the patient –no matter who they are or what their beliefs are Provide non-directive& client-centred care Provide the patient with access to a good relationship in a safe environment HUMANIST MODEL EMPHASISES ​ the importance of the person coming to an understanding of his /her problem as a precursor to change. ​ the positive aspects of human experience and views individuals as having an innate drive to fulfill their potential. ​ exploring and accepting the Self, and the needs and responsibilities that go with it.. ​ “The curious paradox is that when I accept myself just as I am, then I can change” Rogers (1961)6263