Psychology Textbook PDF

 Psychology Fifth edition Global edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli Gulf Coast State College J. Noland White...

 Psychology Fifth edition Global edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli Gulf Coast State College J. Noland White Georgia College & State University Harlow, England London New York Boston San Francisco Toronto Sydney Dubai Singapore Hong Kong Tokyo Seoul Taipei New Delhi Cape Town Sao Paulo Mexico City Madrid Amsterdam Munich Paris Milan Portfolio Manager: Erin Mitchell Product Marketer: Margaret Waples Content Producer: Pamela Weldin Content Producer Manager: Amber Mackey Project Manager, Global Edition: Sudipto Roy Content Development Manager: Sharon Geary Senior Acquisitions Editor, Global Edition: Sandhya Ghoshal Associate Director of Design: Blair Brown Senior Project Editor, Global Edition: Daniel Luiz Design Lead: Kathryn Foot Project Editor, Global Edition: Rahul Arora Technical Manager: Caroline Fenton Manager, Media Production, Global Edition: M. Vikram Kumar Digital Producer: Lindsay Verge Senior Manufacturing Controller, Production, Full-Service Project Manager: Melissa Sacco, Global Edition: Trudy Kimber Lumina Datamatics, Inc. Content Developer: Julie Swasey, Jennifer Stevenson Compositor: Lumina Datamatics, Inc. Portfolio Manager Assistant: Stephany Harrington Cover Image: PouPou/Shutterstock Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page of appearance. Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsonglobaleditions.com © Pearson Education Limited 2018 The rights of Saundra K. Ciccarelli and J. Noland White to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Psychology, 5th edition, ISBN 978-0-13-447796-1, by Saundra K. Ciccarelli and J. Noland White, published by Pearson Education © 2017. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, withouteither the prior written permission of the publisher or a license permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners.The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners. ISBN 10:     1-292-15971-5 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-15971-3 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 14 13 12 11 10 Typeset in Palatino LT Pro Roman by Lumina Datamatics, Inc. Printed and bound by Vivar, Malaysia. Brief Contents Psychology in Action Secrets for Surviving College and Improving Your Grades 22 1 The Science of Psychology 42 2 The Biological Perspective 84 3 Sensation and Perception 132 4 Consciousness 176 5 Learning 216 6 Memory 262 7 Cognition: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language 306 8 Development across the Life Span 350 9 Motivation and Emotion 394 10 Sexuality and Gender 430 11 Stress and Health 460 12 Social Psychology 498 13 Theories of Personality 544 14 Psychological Disorders 582 15 Psychological Therapies 626 Appendix A Statistics in Psychology 669 Appendix B Applied Psychology and Psychology Careers 683 3 Contents Teaching and Learning Package 11 Generating the Message within the Neuron: Acknowledgments17 The Neural Impulse 88 Neurotransmission 90 About the Authors 20 An Overview of the Nervous System 95 Psychology in Action Secrets for Surviving The Central Nervous System: The “Central Processing Unit” 96 College and Improving Your Grades22 The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves on the Edge 99 Study Skills 24 Distant Connections: The Endocrine Glands 103 Managing Time 25 The Pituitary: Master of the Hormonal Universe 104 Reading the Text: Textbooks Are Not Meatloaf 27 Other Endocrine Glands 105 Getting the Most Out of Lectures 30 Looking Inside the Living Brain 107 Studying for Exams: Cramming Is Not an Option 31 Methods for Studying Specific Regions of the Brain 107 Improving Your Memory 35 Neuroimaging Techniques 108 Writing Papers 37 From the Bottom Up: The Structures of the Brain 113 Your Ethical Responsibility as a Student 39 The Hindbrain 113 Structures Under the Cortex: The Limbic System 115 Psychology in Action Summary 40 The Cortex 117 Test Yourself 41 The Association Areas of the Cortex 120 1 The Science of Psychology 42 Classic Studies in Psychology: Through the Looking Glass—Spatial Neglect121 The History of Psychology 44 The Cerebral Hemispheres: Are You in Your In the Beginning: Wundt, Titchener, and James 45 Right Mind? 122 Three Influential Approaches: Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking: Behaviorism 47 ­Phineas Gage and Neuroplasticity125 The Field of Psychology Today 51 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Paying Attention to Modern Perspectives 51 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder127 Psychological Professionals and Areas of Chapter Summary128 Specialization 55 Scientific Research 58 Test Yourself 131 The Scientific Approach Descriptive Methods 58 63 3 Sensation and Perception 132 Correlations: Finding Relationships 66 The ABCs of Sensation 134 The Experiment 68 Transduction 134 Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects 71 Sensory Thresholds 134 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Habituation and Sensory Adaptation 136 A Sample Experiment74 The Science of Seeing 137 Ethics of Psychological Research 75 Light and the Eye 137 The Guidelines for Doing Research with People 75 The Visual Pathway 141 Animal Research 77 Perception of Color 142 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically The Hearing Sense: Can You Hear Me Now? 147 About Critical Thinking78 Sound Waves and the Ear 147 Chapter Summary81 Perceiving Pitch 149 Test Yourself 82 Types of Hearing Impairments 150 Chemical Senses: It Tastes Good and Smells Even Better 151 2 The Biological Perspective 84 Gustation: How We Taste the World 152 The Sense of Scents: Olfaction 154 Neurons and Nerves: Building the Network 86 Structure of the Neuron: The Nervous The Other Senses: What the Body Knows 156 System’s Building Block 86 Somesthetic Senses 156 5 6  Contents Body Movement and Position 158 The Role of Punishment in Operant Conditioning 236 The ABCs of Perception 160 Other Aspects of Operant Conditioning 240 How We Organize Our Perceptions 160 Applications of Operant Conditioning: Shaping Depth Perception 163 and Behavior Modification 241 Perceptual Illusions 165 Classic Studies in Psychology: Biological Constraints on ­Operant Conditioning242 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: ­Perceptual Influences on Metacognition170 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Spare the Rod, Spoil the Child?247 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Beyond “Smoke and Mirrors”—The Psychological Science and Neuroscience Cognitive Learning Theory 248 of Magic171 Tolman’s Maze-Running Rats: Latent Learning 248 Chapter Summary172 Köhler’s Smart Chimp: Insight Learning 249 Test Yourself 174 Seligman’s Depressed Dogs: Learned Helplessness 250 Observational Learning 253 4 Consciousness 176 Bandura and the Bobo Doll 253 The Four Elements of Observational Learning 255 What Is Consciousness? 178 Definition of Consciousness 178 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Can You Really ­Toilet Train Your Cat?256 Altered States of Consciousness 178 Chapter Summary258 Sleep 180 The Biology of Sleep 180 Test Yourself 260 Why We Sleep The Stages of Sleep 182 185 6 Memory 262 Sleep Disorders 188 What Is Memory? 264 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Three Processes of Memory 264 Weight Gain and Sleep193 Models of Memory 264 Dreams 194 The Information-Processing Model: Three Memory Why Do We Dream? 194 Systems 267 What Do People Dream About? 196 Sensory Memory: Why Do People Do Double Takes? 267 Hypnosis 198 Classic Studies in Psychology: Sperling’s Iconic How Hypnosis Works 198 Memory Test268 Theories of Hypnosis 199 Short-Term Memory 270 The Influence of Psychoactive Drugs 201 Long-Term Memory 273 Dependence 201 Getting It Out: Retrieval of Long-Term Memories 279 Stimulants: Up, Up, and Away 203 Retrieval Cues 279 Down in the Valley: Depressants 206 Recall and Recognition 281 Hallucinogens: Higher and Higher 208 Classic Studies in Psychology: Elizabeth Loftus and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically ­Eyewitnesses284 About Ghosts, Aliens, and Other Things That Go Bump in Automatic Encoding: Flashbulb Memories 284 the Night212 The Reconstructive Nature of Long-Term Chapter Summary213 Memory Retrieval: How Reliable Are Memories? 285 Test Yourself 214 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Effects of Supplements on Memory289 5 Learning 216 What Were We Talking About? Forgetting 291 Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve 292 Definition of Learning 218 Reasons We Forget 293 It Makes Your Mouth Water: Classical Conditioning 218 Neuroscience of Memory 295 Pavlov and the Salivating Dogs 218 The Biological Bases of Memory 295 Classical Conditioning Applied to Human Behavior 224 When Memory Fails: Organic Amnesia 297 What’s In It for Me? Operant Conditioning 228 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Health The Contributions of Thorndike and Skinner 228 and Memory300 The Concept of Reinforcement 229 Chapter Summary 302 Schedules of Reinforcement: Why the One-Armed Bandit Is So Seductive 232 Test Yourself 303  Contents  7 7 Cognition: Thinking, Intelligence, and Cognitive Development Psychosocial Development 384 384 Language 306 Theories of Physical and Psychological Aging 386 How People Think 308 Stages of Death and Dying 387 Mental Imagery 308 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Cross-Cultural Concepts and Prototypes 309 Views on Death389 Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Strategies 311 Chapter Summary390 Problems with Problem Solving and Decision Making 314 Test Yourself 393 Creativity 315 Intelligence 318 9 Motivation and Emotion 394 Theories of Intelligence 318 Approaches to Understanding Motivation 396 Measuring Intelligence 322 Defining Motivation 396 Test Construction: Good Test, Bad Test? 324 Early Approaches to Understanding Motivation 397 Individual Differences in Intelligence 328 Different Strokes for Different Folks: Psychological Classic Studies in Psychology: Terman’s “Termites”331 Needs 399 The Nature/Nurture Issue Regarding Intelligence 333 Arousal and Incentive Approaches 400 Language 338 Humanistic Approaches 403 The Levels of Language Analysis 338 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Development of Language 339 Thinking: Cultural Differences in the Use of Praise The Relationship between Language and Thought 340 as a Motivator407 Animal Studies in Language 342 What, Hungry Again? Why People Eat 408 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Physiological and Social Components of Hunger 408 A Cognitive Advantage for Bilingual Individuals?344 Obesity 411 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Mental and Emotion 413 ­Physical Exercises for Better Cognitive Health345 The Three Elements of Emotion 413 Chapter Summary347 Early Theories of Emotion 418 Test Yourself 348 Cognitive Theories of Emotion 421 Classic Studies in Psychology: The Angry/Happy Man421 8 Development across the Life Span 350 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: When Motiva- Studying Human Development 352 tion Is Not Enough426 Research Designs 352 Chapter Summary427 Nature and Nurture 352 Test Yourself 429 The Basic Building Blocks of Development 354 Prenatal Development 358 10 Sexuality and Gender 430 Fertilization 358 The Physical Side of Human Sexuality 432 Three Stages of Development 359 The Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics 432 Infancy and Childhood Development 362 The Development of Sex Characteristics 433 Physical Development 362 The Psychological Side of Human Sexuality: Gender 435 Classic Studies in Psychology: The Visual Cliff365 Gender Identity 435 Cognitive Development 366 Gender-Role Development 439 Psychosocial Development 371 Gender Differences 442 Classic Studies in Psychology: Harlow and Contact Human Sexual Behavior 444 Comfort373 Sexual Response 444 APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking: Classic Studies in Psychology: Masters and The Facts About Immunizations377 Johnson’s ­Observational Study of the Human Adolescence 378 Sexual Response445 Physical Development 378 Different Types of Sexual Behavior 446 Cognitive Development 379 Sexual Orientation 449 Psychosocial Development 380 APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking453 Adulthood and Aging 382 Sexual Health 454 Physical Development: Use It or Lose It 382 Sexually Transmitted Infections 454 8  Contents Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: The AIDS Aggression 530 ­Epidemic in Russia457 Prosocial Behavior 534 Chapter Summary457 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Peeking Inside the Test Yourself 459 Social Brain539 Chapter Summary540 11 Stress and Health 460 Test Yourself 542 Stress and Stressors 462 The Relationship between Stress and Stressors 462 13 Theories of Personality 544 Environmental Stressors: Life’s Ups and Downs 463 Psychodynamic Perspectives 546 Psychological Stressors: What, Me Worry? 467 Freud’s Conception of Personality 546 Physiological Factors: Stress and Health 472 Stages of Personality Development 549 The General Adaptation Syndrome 472 The Neo-Freudians 551 The Immune System and Stress 473 Current Thoughts on Freud and the Health Psychology 477 Psychodynamic Perspective 552 Cognitive Factors in Stress 478 The Behavioral and Social Cognitive View of Personality 555 Personality Factors in Stress 480 Learning Theories 555 Social and Cultural Factors in Stress: People Current Thoughts on the Behavioral and Who Need People 483 Social Cognitive Learning Views 557 APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking: The Third Force: Humanism and Personality 558 Homeopathy: An Illusion of Healing487 Carl Rogers and the Humanistic Perspective 558 Coping with Stress 488 Current Thoughts on the Humanistic View of Personality 560 Coping Strategies 488 Trait Theories: Who Are You? 561 How Social Support Affects Coping 491 Allport and Cattell: Early Attempts to List How Culture Affects Coping 492 and Describe Traits 561 How Religion Affects Coping 492 Modern Trait Theories: The Big Five 563 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Coping with Stress Current Thoughts on the Trait Perspective 564 Through Mindfulness Meditation494 Personality: Genetics and Culture 566 Chapter Summary 495 The Biology of Personality: Behavioral Genetics 566 Test Yourself 496 Current Findings on the Heritability of Personality 568 Classic Studies in Psychology: Geert Hofstede’s Four 12 Social Psychology 498 ­Dimensions of Cultural Personality568 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Social Influence 500 Personality, Family, and Culture570 Conformity 500 Assessment of Personality 571 Group Behavior 502 Interviews, Behavioral Assessments, and Compliance 504 Personality Inventories 571 Obedience 506 Projective Tests 575 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Cults Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Biological Bases and the Failure of Critical Thinking510 of Personality577 Social Cognition 511 Chapter Summary579 Attitudes 511 Test Yourself 581 Attitude Change: The Art of Persuasion 514 Cognitive Dissonance: When Attitudes and Behavior Clash Impression Formation 515 517 14 Psychological Disorders 582 Attribution 518 What Is Abnormality? 584 Social Interaction 522 Changing Conceptions of Abnormality 584 Prejudice and Discrimination 522 Models of Abnormality 586 How People Learn and Overcome Prejudice 524 Diagnosing and Classifying Disorders 588 Classic Studies in Psychology: Brown Eyes, Blue Eyes524 Disorders of Anxiety, Trauma, and Stress: What, Me Worry? 593 Interpersonal Attraction 527 Anxiety Disorders 593 Love Is a Triangle—Robert Sternberg’s Other Disorders Related to Anxiety 595 Triangular Theory of Love 529 Causes of Anxiety, Trauma, and Stress Disorders 597  Contents  9 Dissociative Disorders: Altered Identities 600 Behavior Therapies: Learning One’s Way Types of Dissociative Disorders 600 To Better Behavior 636 Causes of Dissociative Disorders 601 Cognitive Therapies: Thinking Is Believing 641 Disorders of Mood: The Effect of Affect 603 Group Therapies: Not Just for the Shy 645 Major Depressive Disorder and Bipolar Disorders 603 Types of Group Therapies 645 Causes of Disordered Mood 605 Evaluation of Group Therapy 646 Eating Disorders and Sexual Dysfunction 607 Does Psychotherapy Really Work? 647 Eating Disorders 607 Studies of Effectiveness 648 Sexual Dysfunctions and Problems 610 Characteristics of Effective Therapy 649 Schizophrenia: Altered Reality 612 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Symptoms of Schizophrenia 612 Does It Work? Psychological Treatment653 Causes of Schizophrenia 614 Biomedical Therapies 655 Personality Disorders: I’m Okay, It’s Everyone Psychopharmacology 655 Else Who’s Weird 617 Ect and Psychosurgery 659 Categories of Personality Disorders 617 Emerging Techniques 661 Causes of Personality Disorders 618 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Virtual APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Reality Therapies663 Learning More: Psychological Disorders619 Chapter Summary664 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Taking the Test Yourself 666 Worry Out of Exams620 Chapter Summary622 Appendix A Statistics in Psychology 669 Test Yourself 624 Appendix B Applied Psychology 15 Psychological Therapies 626 and Psychology Careers 683 Treatment of Psychological Disorders: Past to Present 628 Glossary697 Insight Therapies: Psychodynamic and References713 Humanistic Approaches 630 Credits763 Psychotherapy Begins: Freud’s Psychoanalysis 630 Humanistic Therapy: To Err Is Human 632 Name Index 767 Action Therapies: Behavior Therapies and Subject Index 783 Cognitive Therapies 636 This page intentionally left blank Teaching and Learning Package INTEGRATION AND FEEDBACK It is increasingly true today that as valuable as a good textbook is, it is still only one element of a comprehensive learning package. The teaching and learning package that accompanies Psychology, 5e, is the most comprehensive and integrated on the market. We have made every effort to provide high-quality instructor resources that will save you preparation time and will enhance the time you spend in the classroom. MYPSYCHLAB MyPsychLab is an online homework, tutorial, and assessment program that truly engages students in learning. It helps students better prepare for class, quizzes, and exams—resulting in better performance in the course—and provides educators with a dynamic set of tools for gauging individual and class progress. MyPsychLab comes from Pearson, your partner in providing the best digital learning experience. LEARNING CATALYTICS Learning Catalytics is a “bring your own device” student engagement, assessment, and classroom intelligence system. It allows instructors to engage students in class with real-time diagnostics. Students can use any modern, web-enabled device (smartphone, tablet, or laptop) to access it. WRITING SPACE Better writers make great learners—who perform better in their courses. To help you develop and assess concept mastery and critical thinking through writing, we created the Writing Space in MyPsychLab. It’s a single place to create, track, and grade writing assignments, provide writing resources, and exchange meaningful, personalized feedback with students, quickly and easily, including autoscoring for prac- tice writing prompts. Plus, Writing Space has integrated access to Turnitin, the global leader in plagiarism prevention. CC 11 12  Teaching and Learning Package Presentation and Teaching Resources The Instructor’s Resource Center (www.pearsonglobaleditions.com/ciccarelli) provides information on the following supplements and downloadable files: Interactive PowerPoint Slides bring the Ciccarelli/White design into the classroom, drawing students into the lecture and providing appealing interactive activities, visu- als, and videos. The slides are built around the text’s learning objectives and offer many direct links to interactive exercises, simulations, and activities. Standard Lecture PowerPoint Slides These ADA PowerPoint slides provide an active format for presenting concepts from each chapter and feature relevant figures and tables from the text. Art PowerPoint Slides These slides contain only the photos, figures, and line art from the textbook. Instructor’s Resource Manual, prepared by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University, offers detailed chapter lecture outlines, chapter summaries, learning objectives, activities, exercises, assignments, handouts, and demonstrations for in-class use, as well as useful guidelines for integrating the many Pearson media resources into your classroom and syllabus. Test Item File prepared by Jason Spiegelman, Community College of Baltimore County, contains more than 3,200 questions categorized by learning objective and question type (factual, conceptual, or applied). Rationales for each correct answer and the key dis- tracter in the multiple-choice questions help instructors evaluate questions and provide more feedback to students. APA Assessment Bank Available within MyPsychLab, a unique bank of assessment items allows instructors to assess student progress against the American Psychological Association’s Learning Goals and Outcomes. Accessing All Resources For a list of all student resources available with Ciccarelli/White, Psychology, 5e, go to www.pearsonglobaleditions.com/ciccarelli. For access to all instructor resources for Ciccarelli/White, Psychology, 5e, simply go to www.pearsonglobaleditions.com/ciccarelli. For technical support for any of your Pearson products, you and your students can ­contact https://support.pearson.com/getsupport.  Teaching and Learning Package   13 Learning Outcomes and Assessment LEARNING OBJECTIVES Based on APA recommendations, each chapter is structured around detailed learning objectives. All of the instructor and student resources are also organized around these objectives, making the text and resources a fully integrated system of study. The flexibil- ity of these resources allows instructors to choose which learning objectives are import- ant in their courses as well as which content they want their students to focus on. Learning Objectives 5.1 Define the term learning. 5.9 Describe how operant conditioning is used to change animal and human 5.2 Identify the key elements of classical behavior. conditioning as demonstrated in Pavlov’s classic experiment. 5.10 Explain the concept of latent learning. 5.3 Apply classical conditioning to examples of phobias, taste aversions, 5.11 Explain how Köhler’s studies and drug dependency. demonstrated that animals can learn by insight. 5.4 Identify the contributions of Thorndike and Skinner to the 5.12 Summarize Seligman’s studies on concept of operant conditioning. learned helplessness. 5.5 Differentiate between primary and 5.13 Describe the process of observational secondary reinforcers and positive learning. and negative reinforcement. 5.14 List the four elements of 5.6 Identify the four schedules of observational learning. reinforcement. 5.15 Describe an example of conditioning 5.7 Identify the effect that punishment in the real world. has on behavior. 5.8 Explain the concepts of discriminant stimuli, extinction, generalization, and spontaneous recovery as they relate to operant conditioning. GOALS AND STANDARDS In recent years, many psychology departments have been focusing on core competen- cies and how methods of assessment can better enhance students’ learning. In response, the American Psychological Association (APA) established recommended goals for the undergraduate psychology major beginning in 2008 with a set of 10 goals, and revised again in 2013 with a new set of 5 goals. Specific learning outcomes were established for each of the goals, and suggestions were made on how best to tie assessment practices to these goals. In writing this text, we have used the APA goals and assessment recommen- dations as guidelines for structuring content and integrating the teaching and homework materials. For details on the APA learning goals and assessment guidelines, please see www.apa.org/. 217 14  Teaching and Learning Package APA LEARNING OBJECTIVES CICCARELLI/WHITE TEXT LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1 Knowledge Base in Psychology Students should demonstrate fundamental knowledge and comprehension of the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, historical trends, and empirical findings to discuss how psychological principles apply to behavioral phenomena. Foundation students should demonstrate breadth in their knowledge and applications of psychological ideas to simple problems; baccalaureate students should show depth in their knowledge and application of psychological con- cepts and frameworks to problems of greater complexity. 1.1 Describe key concepts, principles, and Intro: PIA.1 overarching themes in psychology. Ch 1: 1.1–1.5, 1.10 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking 1.2 Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s Ch 2: 2.1–2.13 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Paying Attention to Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder content domains. Ch 3: 3.1–3.11, 3.13–3.14 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Beyond “Smoke and Mirrors”—The 1.3 Describe applications of psychology. Psychological Science and Neuroscience of Magic Ch 4: 4.1–4.10 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically About Ghosts, Aliens, and Other Things that Go Bump in the Night Ch 5: 5.1–5.8, 5.9–5.14 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Can You Really Toilet Train Your Cat? Ch 6: 6.1–6.13 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Health and Memory Ch 7: 7.1–7.4, 7.6–7.10 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Mental and Physical Exercises Combine for Better Cognitive Health Ch 8: 8.2–8.5, 8.7–8.11 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Cross-Cultural Views on Death Ch 9: 9.1–9.10 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: When Motivation is Not Enough Ch 10: 10.1–10.9 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: The AIDS Epidemic in Russia Ch 11: 11.1–11.10 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Coping with Stress Through Mindfulness Meditation Ch 12: 12.1–12.15 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Peeking Inside the Social Brain Ch 13: 13.1–13.15 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Biological Bases of Personality Ch 14: 14.1–14.15 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Taking the Worry Out of Exams Ch 15: 15.1–15.11 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Virtual Reality Therapies Major concepts are reinforced with learning tools: Writing Space, Experiment Simulations, MyPsychLab Video Series, Operation ARA, Visual Brain, and instructor’s teaching and assessment package. 2 Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking The skills in this domain involve the development of scientific reasoning and problem solving, including effective research methods. Foundation students should learn basic skills and concepts in interpreting behavior, studying research, and applying research design principles to drawing conclusions about behavior; baccalaureate students should focus on theory use as well as designing and executing research plans. 2.1 Use scientific reasoning to interpret Ch 1: 1.6–1.12; APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: A Sample Experiment; Applying Psychology to psychological phenomena. Everyday Life: Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking 2.2 Demonstrate psychology information literacy. Ch 2: 2.4, 2.8, 2.14; APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking: Phineas Gage and Neuroplasticity; Classic Studies in Psychology: Through the Looking Glass—Spatial Neglect 2.3 Engage in innovative and integrative thinking and problem solving. Ch 3: Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Beyond “Smoke and Mirrors”—The Psychological Science and Neuroscience of Magic; APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Perceptual Influences on Metacognition 2.4 Interpret, design, and conduct basic Ch 4: 4.10; Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically About Ghosts, Aliens, and Other Things That psychological research. Go Bump in the Night; APA Goal 2: Weight Gain and Sleep 2.5 Incorporate sociocultural factors in scientific Ch 5: 5.2–5.14 and Classic Studies in Psychology: Biological Constraints of Operant Conditioning; APA Goal 2: inquiry. Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Spare the Rod, Spoil the Child? Ch 6: Classic Studies in Psychology: Sperling’s Iconic Memory Test; Classic Studies in Psychology: Elizabeth Loftus and Eyewitnesses; APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Effects of Supplements on Memory; Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Health and Memory Ch 7: 7.2–7.5; APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: A Cognitive Advantage for Bilingual Individuals? Classic Studies in Psychology: Terman’s Termites; Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Mental and Physical Exercises for Better Cognitive Health Ch 8: 8.1, 8.7, 8.10; Classic Studies in Psychology: The Visual Cliff; Classic Studies in Psychology: Harlow and Contact Comfort; APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking: The Facts About Immunizations Ch 9: Classic Studies in Psychology: The Angry/Happy Man; APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Cultural Differences in the Use of Praise as a Motivator Ch 10: 10.7; Classic Studies in Psychology: Masters and Johnson’s Observational Study of the Human Sexual Response; APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking Ch 12: 12.16; Classic Studies in Psychology: Brown Eyes, Blue Eyes; APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Cults and the Failure of Critical Thinking Ch 13: 13.9 and Classic Studies in Psychology: Geert Hofstede’s Four Dimensions of Cultural Personality; APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Personality, Family, and Culture Ch 14: APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Learning More: Psychological Disorders Ch 15: APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Does It Work? Psychological Treatment Appendix A: Statistics in Psychology Scientific methods are reinforced with learning tools: Writing Space, Experiment Simulations, MyPsychLab Video Series, Operation  Teaching and Learning Package   15 APA UNDERGRADUATE LEARNING GOALS AND OUTCOMES CICCARELLI/WHITE, 5E CONTENT 3 Ethical and Social Responsibility The skills in this domain involve the development of ethically and socially responsible behaviors for professional and personal settings. Foundation students should become familiar with the formal regulations that govern professional ethics in psychology and begin to embrace the values that will contribute to positive outcomes in work settings and in society. Baccalaureate students should have more direct opportunities to demonstrate adherence to professional values that will help them optimize their contributions. 3.1 Apply ethical standards to Ch 1: 1.10; Shared Writing: The Science of Psychology psychological science and Ch 2: Shared Writing: The Biological Perspective practice. Ch 3: Shared Writing: Sensation and Perception 3.2 Build and enhance Ch 4: Shared Writing: Consciousness interpersonal relationships. Ch 5: 5.3; Shared Writing: Learning 3.3 Adopt values that build Ch 6: Shared Writing: Memory community at local, national, Ch 7: 7.9, 7.10; Classic Studies in Psychology: Terman’s “Termites”; Shared Writing: Cognition: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language and global levels. Ch 8: 8.4, 8.11; Shared Writing: Development Across the Life Span Ch 9: 9.3, 9.5, 9.10; Classic Studies in Psychology: The Angry/Happy Man; Shared Writing: Motivation and Emotion Ch 10: 10.5; Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: The AIDS Epidemic in Russia; Shared Writing: Sexuality and Gender Ch 11: 11.6, 11.9; Shared Writing: Stress and Health Ch 12: 12.4; Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Cults and the Failure of Critical Thinking; Classic Studies in Psychology: Brown Eyes, Blue Eyes; Applying Psychology in Everyday Life: Peeking Inside the Social Brain Ch 13: 13.12; Shared Writing: Theories of Personality Ch 14: Shared Writing: Psychological Disorders Ch 15: Shared Writing: Psychological Therapies Ethics and values are reinforced with learning tools: Writing Space, Experiment Simulations, MyPsychLab Video Series, Operation ARA, Visual Brain, and instructor’s teaching and assessment package. 4 Communication Students should demonstrate competence in written, oral, and interpersonal communication skills. Foundation students should be able to write a cogent scien- tific argument, present information using a scientific approach, engage in discussion of psychological concepts, explain the ideas of others, and express their own ideas with clarity. Baccalaureate students should produce a research study or other psychological project, explain scientific results, and present informa- tion to a professional audience. They should also develop flexible interpersonal approaches that optimize information exchange and relationship development. 4.1 Demonstrate effective writing Intro: PIA.6 in multiple formats. Ch 7: 7.11 4.2 Exhibit effective presentation Ch 8: 8.8 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Cross-Cultural Views on Death skills in multiple formats. Ch 9: 9.3 4.3 Interact effectively with Ch 10: 10.5 others. Ch 12: 12.2–12.3, 12.8–12.9, 12.12 and Psychology in the News: Facing Facebook—The Social Nature of Online Networking; Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Peeking Inside the Social Brain Communication skills are reinforced with learning tools: Writing Space, Experiment Simulations, MyPsychLab Video Series, Operation ARA, Visual Brain, and instructor’s teaching and assessment package. 5 Professional Development The skills in this domain refer to abilities that sharpen student readiness for post-baccalaureate employment, graduate school, or professional school. The emphasis in the domain involves application of psychology-specific content and skills, effective self-reflection, project management skills, teamwork skills, and career preparation. These skills can be developed and refined both in traditional academic settings and extracurricular involvement. In addition, career profes- sionals can be enlisted to support occupational planning and pursuit. 5.1 Apply psychological content Intro: PIA.1-PIA.7 and skills to professional work. Ch 1: 1.4, 1.12 5.2 Exhibit self-efficacy and Ch 7: Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Mental and Physical Exercises for Better Cognitive Health self-regulation. Ch 9: 9.1, 9.3–9.4, 9.10 and Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: When Motivation Is Not Enough 5.3 Refine project management Ch 10: 10.5 skills. Ch 11: 11.7–11.10 5.4 Enhance teamwork capacity. Ch 12: 12.1–12.3, 12.8–12.9 5.5 Develop meaningful Appendix B: Applied Psychology and Psychology Careers professional direction for life Professional development opportunities are reinforced with learning tools: Writing Space, Experiment Simulations, MyPsychLab after graduation. Video Series, Operation ARA, Visual Brain, and instructor’s teaching and assessment package. This page intentionally left blank Acknowledgments I have to thank my husband, Joe Ciccarelli, for his love and support while I spent many long hours writing and editing this textbook. My children, Al and Liz, also put up with my odd working hours and frequent trips and deserve my thanks as well. There are so many people to thank for their support! Erin Mitchell and Dickson Mus- slewhite, of the editorial team supported and advised me—thank you all so much. Special thanks to Maggie Waples, Debi Doyle, and Kate Stewart for a fantastic marketing campaign. The design is the collaborative work of Lumina, Blair Brown, and Kathryn Foot. New videos were the efforts of Kim Norbuta, Rebecca Green, and a variety of new con- tributors appearing on camera. New bio art and animations made possible by our phe- nomenal content producer Pamela Weldin. Thanks also to Ben Ferini and Liz Kincaid for their permissions work and Tom Scalzo, Caroline Fenton, and Diane Lombardo for their work on REVEL and MyPsychLab. A big, heartfelt thank you to Diana Murphy, supple- ment manager, and my supplement authors Jason Spiegelman, Alan Swinkels, and Edi- tors, Inc. You are fantastic! We are grateful to all of the instructors and students who have contributed to the devel- opment of this text and package over the last five editions. We thank the hundreds of folks who have reviewed content, participated in focus groups, evaluated learning tools, appeared in videos, and offered their feedback and assistance in numerous other ways. We thank you. Special thanks to Julie Swasey, our development editor, who fits us like a glove and made the whole process of editing this edition so much easier. We love you, Julie! We know you are moving on to a new position and wish you all the best, and we’ll miss you. Thanks also to Jennifer Stevenson, who took over Julie’s chores at the “back end” of the editing process and did a great job! And, of course, I can’t forget Noland White, my coauthor, pal, and Grand High Expert. His expertise in neuropsychology and clinical psychology is a valuable resource, and his revisions of half of the chapters and all of the chapter maps have once again made this edition a real standout. Thank you from the bottom of my heart, buddy! And give my foster “grands” a hug from Nana Sandy. Sandy Ciccarelli Gulf Coast State College Panama City, Florida [email protected] 17 18  Acknowledgments I would like to personally thank: My wife and best friend, Leah, and our wonderful children, Sierra, Alexis, and Landon, thank you for your love and patience through the long hours and many absences. I would not be able to do any of this without you; My lead author and collaborator, Sandy Ciccarelli, for making all of this possible— and for your friendship, support, assistance, advice, and continuing to be the most amaz- ing mentor and writing partner I could ever hope to work with! My students, for your inspiration, encouragement, and for all of the things you continue to teach me; The student and faculty users and reviewers of this text, for your support and ever-helpful comments and suggestions; My friends and colleagues in the Department of Psychological Science at G ­ eorgia College, for your encouragement, frequent discussions, and feedback, with special thanks to Lee Gillis, John Lindsay, and Greg Jarvie for your input and support along the way. And to Walt Isaac, Kristina Dandy, and Diana Young, thank you for your contribu- tions and willingness to be “on call” reviewers! Julie Swasey and Erin Mitchell, for your guidance, creativity, collaboration, and for being so awesome! Jen Stevenson, for tagging in and doing such an amazing job! Pamela Weldin, Caroline Fenton, Melissa Sacco, Maggie Waples, Debi Doyle, Kate Stewart, Dickson Musslewhite, Stephany Harrington, and all of the other Pearson and asso- ciated staff, for your contributions and for continuing to make this such a great experience! Noland White Georgia College & State University Milledgeville, Georgia [email protected] Global Edition Acknowledgments For their contribution to the content of this Global Edition, Pearson would like to thank Bobby K. Cheon, Nanyang Technological University; Albert Lee Kai Chung, Nanyang Technological University; Hongfei Du, University of Macau; Ashum Gupta, writer; Alizeh Batra Merchant, New York University Abu Dhabi; Pooja Thakur, writer; and ­Manchong L ­ imlunthang Zou, North Eastern Police Academy, Government of India. 19  About the Authors SAUNDRA K. CICCARELLI is a professor emeritus of psychology at Gulf Coast State College in Panama City, Florida. She received her Ph.D. in developmental psychology from George Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennes- see. She is a member of the American Psychological Association and the Association for Psychological Science. Originally interested in a career as a researcher in the develop- ment of language and intelligence in developmentally delayed children and adolescents, Dr. Ciccarelli had publications in the American Journal of Mental Deficiency while still at Peabody. However, she discovered a love of teaching early on in her career. This led her to the position at Gulf Coast State College, where she taught Introductory Psychology and Human Development for more than 30 years. Her students loved her enthusiasm for the field of psychology and the many anecdotes and examples she used to bring psychol- ogy to life for them. Before writing this text, Dr. Ciccarelli authored numerous ancillary materials for several introductory psychology and human development texts. J. NOLAND WHITE is a professor of psychology at Georgia College & State University (Georgia College), Georgia’s Public Liberal Arts University, located in Milled- geville. He received his A.A. in psychology from Macon State College and both his B.S. and M.S. in psychology from Georgia College. After receiving his Ph.D. in counseling psychology from the University of Tennessee, he joined the faculty of Georgia College in 2001. He teaches Introductory Psychology, Psychology of Adjustment, Behavioral Neuroscience, Advanced Behavioral Neuroscience, Counseling and Clinical Psychology, Senior Seminar, and a section of Advanced Research Methods focusing on psychophys- iology. He has an active lab and, with his students, is investigating the psychophysio- logical characteristics and neuropsychological performance of adults with and without ADHD. Outside of the lab, Dr. White is engaged in collaborative research examining the effectiveness of incorporating various technologies in and out of the college classroom to facilitate student learning. He also serves as a mentor for other faculty wanting to expand their use of technology with their classes. In April 2008, he was a recipient of the Georgia College Excellence in Teaching Award. Dr. White is also a licensed psychologist and has worked with adolescents and adults in a variety of clinical and community settings. 20 Psychology Fifth edition Global edition  Psychology in Action Secrets for Surviving College and Improving Your Grades Thinking Critically Based on what you know now, what advice would you share with a student just starting out in college? CC Watch the Video on MyPsychLab Why Study How to Study? Many students entering college have developed a system of taking notes, reading the textbook, and reviewing for exams that may have worked pretty well in the past; but what worked in grade school and high school may not work in college, where the expectations from teachers are higher and the workload is far greater. Students should develop skills in the following areas in order to do their absolute best in any college course: study methods, time management, effective reading of course materi- als, active listening and note taking, studying for exams, memory strategies, and writing papers. One final aspect of being a ­successful student involves being an ethical student—exactly how can you use the materials you find for your research paper, for ­example, without committing the sin of plagiarism (claiming the work of someone else as your own)? 22  This introduction presents various techniques and information aimed at maximizing knowledge and skills in each of these eight areas. In addition, brief videos are available on each of these topics. These topics address aspects of the American Psychological Association’s (APA) undergraduate learning goals. APA Goal 2 (Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking) is addressed in Chapter One and is the basis of a feature in every chapter. Learning Objectives PIA.1 Identify four methods of studying. PIA.6 Explain how using mnemonics can help you improve your memory for PIA.2 Describe some strategies for time facts and concepts. management. PIA.7 Describe the key steps in writing PIA.3 Describe how to read a textbook so papers for college. that you get the most out of your reading efforts. PIA.8 Identify some of the key ethical considerations that you’ll face as a PIA.4 Identify the best methods for taking student. notes and listening in class. PIA.5 Describe how to approach studying for exams. 23 24  introduction Study Skills PIA.1 Identify four methods of studying. I want to make better grades, but sometimes it seems that no matter how hard I study, the test questions turn out to be hard and confusing and I end up not doing very well. Is there some trick to getting good grades? Many students would probably say that their grades are not what they want them to be. They may make the effort, but they still don’t seem to be able to achieve the higher grades that they wish they could earn. A big part of the problem is that despite many dif- ferent educational experiences, students are rarely taught how to study. We learn many different kinds of things during our lives, and using only one method of learning probably isn’t going to work for everyone. Students may have preferences for a particular study method or may find it useful to use a combination of different methods. Verbal study methods involve the use of words, expressed either through writing or speak- ing. For instance, after you read about a topic, you might put it into your own words, or Some students find it helpful to hear the you might write out longer, more detailed versions of the notes you took in class. Visual content in addition to reading it. This learning methods involve the use of pictures or images. Students using these methods may is especially true when learning a new look at or create charts, diagrams, and figures to master the content. There are also those language. This woman is listening to an audio who prefer to learn by hearing the information (auditory learning methods). Listening to a recording from her textbook as she follows recording of a lecture is a good example. Finally, there are people who use the motion of along and looks at the figures and photos. their own bodies to help them remember key information (action learning methods). For instance, you might construct a three-dimensional model to gain a better understanding of a topic. Thinking Critically Describe some other ways in which the various study methods can be put to use. Table PIA.1 lists just some of the ways in which you can study. All of the methods listed in this table are good for students who wish to improve both their understanding of a subject and their grades on tests. Watch the Video Study Methods on MyPsychLab Table PIA.1 Multiple Study Methods VERBAL METHODS VISUAL METHODS AUDITORY METHODS ACTION METHODS (involve speaking or writing) (involve pictures, images) (involve listening) (involve physical activity) Use flash cards to identify Make flash cards with Join or form a study group or find a study Sit near the front of the classroom. If online, give main points or key terms. pictures or diagrams to aid partner so that you can discuss concepts yourself room to walk around while studying. Write out or recite key recall of key concepts. and ideas. Take notes by making pictures or charts to help information in whole sentences Make charts and diagrams While studying, speak out loud or into a you remember key terms and ideas. or phrases in your own words. and sum up information in digital recorder that you can play back later. Read out loud while walking around. When looking at diagrams, tables. Make speeches. Study with a friend. write out a description. Use different colors of Record the lectures (with permission). Take While exercising, listen to recordings of important Use “sticky” notes to remind highlighter for different notes on the lecture sparingly, using the information. yourself of key terms and sections of information in text, recording to fill in parts that you might have Write out key concepts on a large board or poster. information, and put them in e-text, or notes. missed. Make your own flash cards, using different colors the notebook text or e-text Visualize charts, diagrams, Read notes or text material into a digital and diagrams, and lay them out in order on a large or on a mirror that you use and figures. recorder or get study materials recorded and surface. frequently. Trace letters and words to play back while exercising or doing chores. Make a three-dimensional model. Practice spelling words remember key facts. When learning something new, state or or repeating facts to be Spend extra time in the lab. Redraw things from memory. explain the information in your own words out remembered. loud or to a study partner. Go to off-campus areas such as a museum or Rewrite things from memory. historical site to gain information. Use musical rhythms as memory aids, or put information to a rhyme or a tune.  Psychology in Action   25 Concept Map L.O. PIA.1 verbal study methods rewrite or recite key information in your own words use written and spoken language draw diagrams and summary tables of information from memory visual learning methods use use different colors of highlighter for different ideas in your notes pictures or images study with a partner and discuss concepts and ideas listen while doing chores talk out loud while studying or into Study Skills auditory methods listen while exercising an audio recorder so you can listen use your hearing to the material later make audio recordings of lectures (with your instructor's permission) walk around while reading out loud use exercise and from your materials movement while write out and diagram key concepts action methods studying on a poster or white board use body movement create your own models or go on your own "field trips" to gather related information Practice Quiz How much do you remember? Pick the best answer. 1. In an episode of a popular television program, a detective recon- 2. Gilbert has been advised by a learning expert to study using structs a crime scene by using various foods from his dinner table. ­techniques like using flash cards, writing out important points He uses ears of corn to represent the cars, mashed potatoes to in his own words and then reciting them, using sticky notes to form the sides of the road, and so on. What method of learning best emphasize important points, and creating descriptions of figures fits the method this character seems to be using to think about the and images. Gilbert’s tutor is recommending the use of ________ events of the crime? study methods. a. verbal c. auditory a. auditory c. visual b. visual d. action b. action d. verbal Managing Time PIA.2 Describe some strategies for time management. One of the biggest failings of college students (and many others) is managing the time for all the tasks involved. Procrastination, the tendency to put off tasks until some later time that often does not arrive, is the enemy of time management. There are some strategies to defeating procrastination (The College Board, 2011): Make a map of your long-term goals. If you are starting here, what are the paths you need to take to get to your ultimate goal? Use a calendar to keep track of class times, time devoted to studying, time for writ- ing papers, work times, social engagements, everything! Use the calendar app on your phone, tablet, or computer—or all three. Before you go to bed, plan your next day, starting with when you get up and prior- itizing your tasks for that day. Mark tasks off as you do them. 26  introduction Go to bed. Getting enough sleep is a necessary step in managing your tasks. Eating right and walking or stretching between tasks is a good idea, too. If you have big tasks, break them down into smaller, more manageable pieces. For example, if you have to write a paper, divide the task into smaller ones, such as making an outline or writing the introductory paragraph. How do you eat an ele- phant? One bite at a time. Do small tasks, like taking a practice quiz or writing the first paragraph of a paper, in those bits of time you might otherwise dismiss: riding the bus to school or work, waiting in a doctor’s office, and so on. Build in some play time—all work and no play pretty much ensures that you will fail at keeping your schedule. Use play time as a reward for getting tasks done. If your schedule falls apart, don’t panic—just start again the next day. Even the best time managers have days when things don’t go as planned. Another problem that often interferes with time management is the enduring myth that we can effectively multitask. In today’s world of technological interconnectedness, people tend to believe that they can learn to do more than one task at a time. The fact, however, is that the human mind is not meant to multitask, and trying to do so not only can lead to car wrecks and other disasters but also may result in changes in how individ- uals process different types of information, and not for the better. One study challenged college students to perform experiments that involved task switching, selective attention, and working memory (Ophir et al., 2009). The expectation was that students who were experienced at multitasking would outperform those who were not, but the results were just the opposite: the “chronic multitaskers” failed miserably at all three tasks. The results seemed to indicate that frequent multitaskers use their brains less effectively, even when focusing on a single task. Yet another study found that the grade point averages of stu- dents who multitasked while studying were negatively affected (Junco & Cotton, 2012). Researchers also have found that people who think they are good at multitasking are actually not (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013), while still another study indicates that video gamers, who often feel that their success at gaming is training them to be good multitask- ers in other areas of life such as texting or talking while driving, are just as unsuccessful at multitasking as nongamers (Donohue et al., 2012). In short, it’s better to focus on one task and only one task for a short period of time before moving on to another than to try Watch the Video Managing Time on to do two things at once. MyPsychLab  Psychology in Action   27 Concept Map L.O. PIA.2 calendar keep track of all goals, short- and long-term; record all commitments and assignments task list break larger projects into smaller, plan and prioritize your tasks more manageable tasks use periods of free/nonstructured time to complete minor tasks Managing Time adequate sleep daily exercise take care of yourself healthy diet regularly schedule some play or "me" time don't try to multitask! focus on one task for a brief period before moving on to the next Practice Quiz How much do you remember? Pick the best answer. 1. Which of the following is not a question that students should ask b. Try to focus only on short-term goals, since looking at long-term themselves in order to maximize their studying effectiveness? goals can be defeating and upsetting. a. How can I most effectively highlight while I am reading my c. Build in some play time, using it as a reward for getting tasks done. textbook? d. If your schedule falls apart, make sure to panic immediately! b. How should I improve my memory for facts and concepts? 3. What does the research show in regard to multitasking? c. How can I best manage my time and avoid procrastination? a. Chronic multitaskers have developed strategies that allow them d. How can I write good term papers? to use their brains more effectively. 2. Which of the following is a suggestion to help you with time b. Chronic multitasking may be related to less effective ways of ­management skills? processing different types of information. a. When you have a big project to complete, try to complete it all at c. Multitasking is effective, but only if you limit the number of tasks once rather than breaking it down into smaller pieces so that you to 5 or fewer. don’t put it off until later. d. Video gamers are better at multitasking in all areas of life. Reading the Text: Textbooks Are Not Meatloaf PIA.3 Describe how to read a textbook so that you get the most out of your reading efforts. No matter what the study method, students must read the textbook or other assigned course materials to be successful in the course. (While that might seem obvious to some, many students today seem to think that just taking notes on lectures or slide presenta- tions will be enough.) This section deals with how to read textbooks—whether in print or online—for understanding rather than just to “get through” the material. Students make two common mistakes in regard to reading a textbook. The first mis- take is simple: Many students don’t bother to read the textbook before watching the lecture that will cover that material. Trying to get anything out of a lecture without having read the material first is like trying to find a new, unfamiliar place without using a GPS or any kind of directions. It’s easy to get lost. This is especially true because of the assumption that most instructors make when planning their lectures: They take for granted that the 28  introduction students have already read the assignment. The instructors then use the lecture to go into detail about the information the students supposedly got from the reading. If the students have not done the reading, the instructor’s lecture isn’t going to make a whole lot of sense. The second mistake that most students make when reading textbook material is to try to read it the same way they would read a novel: They start at the beginning and read continuously. With a novel, it’s easy to do this because the plot is usually interesting and people want to know what happens next, so they keep reading. It isn’t necessary to remember every little detail—all they need to remember are the main plot points. One could say that a novel is like meatloaf—some meaty parts with lots of filler. Meatloaf can be eaten quickly, without even chewing for very long. With a textbook, the material may be interesting but not in the same way that a novel is interesting. A textbook is a big, thick steak—all meat, no filler. Just as a steak has to be chewed to be enjoyed and to be useful to the body, textbook material has to be “chewed” with the mind. You have to read slowly, paying attention to every morsel of meaning. So how do you do that? Probably one of the best-known reading methods is called SQ3R, first used by F. P. Robinson in a 1946 book called Effective Study. The letters ­S-Q-R-R-R stand for: Survey Look at the chapter you’ve been assigned to read. Read the outline, learning objectives, or other opening materials. Then scan the chapter and read the headings of sections, and look at tables and figures. Quickly read through the chapter summary if one is provided. It might sound like it takes too much time to do this, but you should just be skim- ming at this point—a couple of minutes is all it should take. Why do this at all? Survey- ing the chapter, or “previewing” it, as some experts call it, helps you form a framework in your head around which you can organize the information in the chapter when you read it in detail. Organization is one of the main ways to improve your memory for infor- mation. to Learning Objective 6.5. Question After previewing the chapter, read the heading for the first section. Just the first section! Try to think of a question based on this heading that the section should answer as you read. For example, in Chapter One there’s a section titled “Pavlov, Wat- son, and the Dawn of Behaviorism.” You could ask yourself, “What did Pavlov and Watson do for psychology?” or “What is behaviorism?” In this text, we’ve presented a list of learning objectives for the key concepts in the chapter that can be used with the SQ3R method. There are also student questions highlighted throughout the chapters that can serve the same purpose. Now when you read the section, you aren’t just read- Before reading any chapter in a text, survey ing—you’re reading to find an answer. That makes the material much easier to remem- the chapter by reading the outline and the section headings. ber later on. Read Now read the section, looking for the answers to your questions. As you read, take notes by making an outline of the main points and terms in the section. This is another area where some students make a big mistake. They assume that highlighting words and phrases is as good as writing notes. One of the author’s former students conducted research on the difference between highlighting and note taking, and her findings were clear: Students who wrote their own notes during the reading of a text or while listening to a lecture scored significantly higher on their exam grades than stu- dents who merely highlighted the text (Boyd & Peeler, 2004). Highlighting requires no real mental effort (no “chewing,” in other words), but writing the words down yourself requires you to read the words in depth and to understand them. When we study mem- ory, you’ll learn more about the value of processing information in depth. to As you read, take notes. Write down key Learning Objective 6.2. terms and try to summarize the main points of each paragraph and section in the chapter. Recite It may sound silly, but reciting out loud what you can remember from the sec- These notes will be useful when you later tion you’ve just read is another good way to process the information more deeply and review the chapter material. completely. How many times have you thought you understood something, only to  Psychology in Action   29 find that when you tried to explain it to someone, you didn’t understand it at all? Rec- itation forces you to put the information in your own words—just as writing it in notes does. Writing it down accesses your visual memory; saying it out loud gives you an auditory memory for the same information. If you have ever learned something well by teaching it to someone else, you already know the value of recitation. If you feel self-conscious about talking to yourself, talk into a digital recorder—and it’s a great way to review later. Now repeat the Question, Read, and Recite instructions for each section, taking a few minutes’ break after every two or three sections. Why take a break? There’s a process that has to take place in your brain when you are trying to form a permanent mem- ory for information, and that process takes a little time. When you take a break every 10 to 20 minutes, you are giving your brain the time to accomplish this process. A break will help you avoid a common problem in reading texts—finding yourself reading the same sentence over and over again because your brain is too overloaded from trying to remember what you just read. After reading a chapter section, Recall/Review Finally, you’ve finished reading the entire chapter. If you’ve used the take time to reflect on what the guidelines listed previously, you’ll only have to read the chapter as thoroughly this one information means and how it might relate to real-world situations. time instead of having to read it over and over throughout the semester and just before exams. Once you’ve read the chapter, take a few minutes to try to remember as much of what you learned while reading it as you can. A good way to do this is to take any prac- tice quizzes that might be available. For this text, we offer both practice quizzes within the print text and online quizzes and study materials in the e-text. If there are no quiz- zes, read the chapter summary in detail, making sure that you understand everything in it. If there’s anything that’s confusing, go back to that section in t