PR Reviewer PDF

RESEARCH 2-INTRODUCTION LESSON UNIT 1 - NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH Research – systematic investigation and study of materials and sources to establish facts and reach new conclusions – Commonly misunderstood – Indispensable component of academic and industry practices Qualitative researc...

RESEARCH 2-INTRODUCTION LESSON UNIT 1 - NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH Research – systematic investigation and study of materials and sources to establish facts and reach new conclusions – Commonly misunderstood – Indispensable component of academic and industry practices Qualitative research – exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribed to a social or human problem Quantitative research – testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables. Mixed approach – involves collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, and integrating the two forms of data Quanti vs Quali Quanti-hypothesized, analyzed using numbers, interpreted as relations Quali-concepts, analyzed using language, interpreted as themes The research process Conceptualization phase Topic is identified-not-too-broad but not-to-specific concept to allow flexibility and further exploration Literature review required for quantitative studies, optional in qualitative inquiries Objective framing dentifying the ‘Central Question’ for qualitative inquiry, the focus is understanding human experience using words Design phase Also known as the planning phase  Empirical phase – data gathering and collection – Interview and Focus Group Discussions (FGD) are commonly employed with the use of the interview guides or 'Aide Memoire. Analytical phase (Qualitative) preparation and assessment of the data through the use of tools and the researcher's own understanding. Analytical phase (Quantitative) Interview texts are being delimited to manageable statements and thematize Dissemination phase – Most valuable – results are advised to be shared to the general public if not on the specific Research - An introduction Qualities of a good inquirer Technical competency – ability to use available technologies Patience – within and outside the group Utility competency – ability to troubleshoot during unexpected scenario Service – willingness to serve others Effort – time and skill Guts and risk – considering options Care – distinct characteristics of a researcher Philosophical worldviews in research Post Positivist -philosophy, "we cannot be positive in our claims of knowledge when studying behavior and actions of humans' Main concept: everything should be quantified to produce meaningful concrete results Constructivist – philosophy "individuals develop subjective meaning of their experiences Main concept: experience expressed through words can paint a better picture of a certain phenomena Transformative – philosophy "research inquiry should be intertwined with politics and political change agenda" Main concept: research should be conducted to increase quality of life and produce better societes Pragmatic – we need to look to many possibilities for collecting and analysing data" Main concept: use of quantitative and qualitative data in expressing research findings Term, Question, Types Method – how data will be gathered/-historical, descriptive, experimental Technique – how data will be gathered? -eg. Survey, interview, doodling Approach – how data will be processed? - quantitative, qualitative or mixed The research manuscript Final output in written and/or soft copy file form Follows specific research content guidelines and format Traditional manuscripts: by-chapter Others adopt the Introduction-Method-results-discussion (IMRAD) format and content based on the American Psychological Association (APA, 6th Edition Standard LESSON 2-QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH What is quantitative research — statistical, mathematical or computational methods – expressions are in numerical forms, objectivity of data – aim is to find the relationship between one variable to another Characteristics of quantitative approach – clearly defined research question – generalized concepts more widely. predict future results, or investigate causal relationships – gathered using structured research instruments – researcher use tools, such as questionnaires Advantages and disadvantages of Quantitavie Research Advantages – can be used when larger quantities of data need to be collected – the results is usually (quantifiable) and hence considered more "objective" – the data is considered quantifiable measure o be used for grants and proposals Disadvantages – results need to be calculated and analyzed using Excel, Access, SPSS that may not be always available – the larger the sample, the more time it takes to analyze the data and analyze results – the larger the sample the more it takes to collect data – the quantitative data ignores a very important human element Characteristics of a true experiment, remember MR.C: M-anipulation, R-andomization, C-ontrol – the figure given below will also help you easily determined if your study is non-experimental or experimental Is there manipulation of variable? Quantitative research approach 1. Non-experimental – survey research, correlational research. comparative research 2. Experimental - quasi-experimental, true experimental Research design under Quantitative approach Non-experimental establishes – the association or connection between variables – without manipulation of variables Experimental research - establishes causality and often used when an intervention is being studies - with manipulation of variables Experimental research design 1. True experimental research – - true experimental is the most accurate type, and may simply be called experimental research – it manipulates a control group of RANDOMLY selected subjects and records the effect of this manipulation – aims to establish cause-and-effect relationship between an independent and dependent variable Control group: consists of participants who do not receive any experimental treatment Experiment group: also known as a treatment group. receives the treatment whose effect researchers wish to study 2. Quasi experimental research – it similar to true experiment research, but uses CAREFULLY SELECTED rather than randomized subjects – a useful tool in situations where rue experiments cannot be used for ethical or practical reasons Non-experimental research design 1. Survey research – most common method used for quantitative study and be in a form of questionnaire of interview Survey research – this type of research provides a quantitative of the numeric description of trends, attitudes or behavior from a sample drawn in a specific population Two types of survey research: 1. Cross-sectional study: a type of survey research that collects data from a population or subset population through observation or interview at a specific point in time 2. Longitudinal study: – a type of survey research that collects data through observation, survey or interview of the same subjects over a period up to several years. 2. Correlational research – determine the relationship between two variables Correlational research – a type of non-experimental research that is used to determine the relationship between two variables among a single group of people 3. Comparative research – comparisons are based on descriptive data, showing that a difference exists but does not imply causation Comparative research – a type of non-experimental research that examine difference between variables – a comparative study is a king of method that analyzes phenomena and then put them together to find the points of differentiation and similarity (Mokhtarian Pour, 2016) LESSON 3 - RESEARCH 3.0, METHODOLOGY – This chapter covers the methods of the research, the variety of procedures made, and the entire preparation of the study. Research methodology is written with 2 purposes in mind: 1.Replicate 2.Evaluate In this section, the researcher writes each sub-section concisely yet completely to provide enough detail for a competent reader to replicate the study and reproduce the results. Chapter 3.0 should include the following: 3.1 Research design – Discusses the approach (qualitative/quantitative) and design (phenomenology, experimental, descriptive, etc.) used in the study. 3.2 Research setting – Description of the geographical characteristic of the place of study – State the reasons why the specific locale was chosen 3.3 Research subjects – Description of the demographic characteristics of the participants in the study – Explanation of the population and sampling procedures should also be discussed: Number of respondents Profile of the respondents Sampling technique used Sampling  – process of selecting the sample or a portion of the population Population – consists of all the members of the group about which the researchers want to draw a conclusion. Sample – a portion or part of the population of interest selected for analysis; subset of the population elements REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE – one whose characteristics closely approximate those of the population Determining The Optimal Number Of Sample: Slovin's Formula - used to calculate the sample size given the population size Slovin's formula: where: n = sample size N = population size E = margin of error Margin of error - an amount (usually small) that is allowed for in case of miscalculation or change of circumstances Types of Non-Probability sampling: 1. Convenience sampling – selection of the samples based on the convenience of the researcher. – also called as the accidental sampling EX: Stopping people in the street to conduct an interview or to administer a survey questionnaire. 2. Purposive sampling – the selection of the sample is based on the selective judgment of the researcher. – also called as judgmental sampling – there is a criteria set by the researchers that is relevant to the topic under study – Disadvantage: researcher's judgment may be in error. EX: The HR director interviews only those qualified candidates (based on the initial interviewer's judgment) for the final interview 3. Quota sampling – the researcher identifies population sections or strata and decides how many participants are required from each section. – usually, the stratification is based on variables relevant to the study. EX: A researcher conducts a study about the academic performance of SHS students. He uses quota sampling technique to make sure there is equal number of students coming from all academic strands. 4. Snowball sampling – a technique wherein initial sample members are asked to refer other people who meet the criteria required by the researcher. – based on the assumption that people who share the same traits or experiences know each other. – useful for subjects who are hard to find EX: A researcher asks his first participant to refer other businessman who also earns at least 3 million per year. Types of Probability sampling: TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING: 1. Simple random sampling – most basic probability sampling technique. – selection of sample is purely based on chance and each member of the population has equal chance of being selected as a sample. EX: Fishbowl technique 2. Systematic sampling – a process of selecting the kth element in the population until the desired number of samples is attained. – the size of the population is known (N): then through dividing N by n, the sampling interval width (k) is determined. 3. SAMPLING INTERVAL – standard distance between element chosen for the sample. EX: The researcher sets 100 as the sample size from a population of 2,000 students found on the student directory: K=2,000+ 100 K=20 In other words, every 20th student from the list would be sampled. 4. Stratified sampling – the population is divided into subgroups or strata. After the stratification, an appropriate number of elements are selected from each stratum randomly. EX: Supposed that you are studying about the self-confidence of Grade 11 students from all of the academic strands in OLFU-QC and you want to obtain a total number of 300 as samples.