PMFIAS-CA-Mains-2024-Art-and-Culture.pdf

Art & Culture Current Affairs Compilation for UPSC CSE Mains 2024 by PMF IAS® These are Mains Specific Compilations that cover Current Affairs from July 2023 to June 2024. Table of Contents Architectu...

Art & Culture Current Affairs Compilation for UPSC CSE Mains 2024 by PMF IAS® These are Mains Specific Compilations that cover Current Affairs from July 2023 to June 2024. Table of Contents Architecture........................................................................................................................................... 1 {Architecture} Hoysala temples........................................................................................................................ 1 {Architecture} Jagannath Temple..................................................................................................................... 2 {Architecture} Temple Architecture.................................................................................................................. 4 {Architecture} Virupaksha Temple.................................................................................................................... 9 Art Forms..............................................................................................................................................12 {Music} Gwalior Gharana...............................................................................................................................12 {Dances} Mohiniyattam..................................................................................................................................13 {Paintings} Restoration of Ajanta Paintings in Hyderabad................................................................................13 {Languages} Classical Languages....................................................................................................................14 {Literature} Kashi – Tamil Sangamam.............................................................................................................15 Diplomacy............................................................................................................................................16 {Diplomacy} India displaying Lord Buddha relics in Thailand............................................................................16 {Diplomacy} Significance of BAPS Temple construction....................................................................................17 {Dynasty} Chalukya Dynasty and its Contributions...........................................................................................18 Legislations and Schemes......................................................................................................................21 {Laws} AMASR Act, NMA and ASI....................................................................................................................21 {Schemes} National Mission for Manuscripts...................................................................................................22 Personalities.........................................................................................................................................24 i {Personalities} Adi Shankaracharya – Statue of Oneness..................................................................................24 PMF IAS CA (A&C) {Personalities} Rabindranath Tagore: A Visionary Poet and Nobel Laureate.....................................................27 {Personalities} Sant Ravidas...........................................................................................................................27 {Personalities} Srimanta Sankaradeva.............................................................................................................28 {Personalities} Thiruvalluvar...........................................................................................................................30 Religion................................................................................................................................................32  {Religion} Dharma Chakra Parivartan Divas....................................................................................................32 {Religion} Samvatsari.....................................................................................................................................33 Sites.....................................................................................................................................................36 {Sites} Ayodhya and its history........................................................................................................................36 {Sites} Geo Heritage Sites | Pandavula Gutta | Ramgarh Crater.......................................................................37 {Sites} Nalanda University..............................................................................................................................39 {Sites} Relation between Vedic people and Harappans....................................................................................40 ii PMF IAS CA (A&C)  Architecture {Architecture} Hoysala temples The Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysala: Hoysala temples of Belur, Halebid, and Somananthpura in Karnataka have been finalised as India’s nomination for UNESCO’s World Heritage for 2022-23. Hoysala architecture Hoysala architecture is the building style of Hindu temples developed under the Hoysala Empire between the 11th and 14th centuries in Karnataka. Hoysala architecture is influenced by the Western Chalukya architecture and is part of the Karnataka Dravida tradition of temple architecture in the Deccan. Detailed carvings on soapstone, which cover almost all the surfaces of the walls, pillars, and ceilings. Distinctive star-shaped plan, with multiple shrines arranged around a central hall or mantapa. The shrines have tower-like structures or vimanas on top, which are also decorated with carvings. Features sculptures of deities, mythological scenes, animals, birds, dancers, musicians, and floral motifs. Religious diversity: Sculptures include Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist themes. Most Notable Examples Of Hoysala Architecture Chennakesava Temple at Belur, Karnataka Belur ---> Chennakesava Temple Hoysaleshwer ---> Halebidu Keshava Temple ---> Somnathpura 1 PMF IAS CA (A&C) Built by King Vishnuvardhana in 1117 CE to commemorate his victory over the Cholas.  The temple is dedicated to Vishnu and has a magnificent image of him as Chennakesava. The temple is also famous for its bracket figures (madanikas) that adorn the pillars of the hall. Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, Karnataka Built by King Vishnuvardhana and his queen Shantala Devi in the 12th century CE. The temple is dedicated to Shiva and has two identical shrines facing each other. The temple is renowned for its extensive & intricate carvings that cover almost every inch of the walls. Kesava Temple at Somanathapura, Karnataka The Kesava Temple was built by King Narasimha III in 1268 CE. The temple is dedicated to Vishnu and has three shrines arranged in a trikuta (three-peaked) plan. Vishnu in a different form: Kesava, Janardana, and Venugopala. UNESCO World Heritage Sites UNESCO World Heritage Sites are landmarks or areas recognised for their cultural, historical, scientific, or other significant value. Selection criteria: Must be classified as landmarks & possess unique cultural or physical significance. The World Heritage Committee is responsible for selecting and monitoring World Heritage Sites, managing the World Heritage Fund, and providing financial assistance for their preservation. India is a member of the World Heritage Committee for the period 2021-2025, which plays a crucial role in the nomination and preservation of World Heritage Sites worldwide. {Architecture} Jagannath Temple Puri’s Jagannath Temple is a Vaishnavite temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Sri Krishna. The present temple was rebuilt from the 10th century onwards on the site of an earlier temple and begun by Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva, the first king of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. The Puri temple is famous for its annual Ratha Yatra, in which the three principal deities (Jagannath, Subhadra, and Balabhadra) are pulled on huge and elaborately decorated temple cars. Several prominent Vaishnava saints, including Ramanujacharya, Madhvacharya, Nimbarkacharya, Vallabhacharya, and Ramananda, were closely associated with the temple. The temple holds significance for the followers of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, as its founder, Chaitanya 2 Mahaprabhu, had a deep connection with the deity and lived in Puri for an extended period. PMF IAS CA (A&C) Ramanuja established the Emar Mutt near the temple, while Adi Shankaracharya established the Govardhan Math, one of the four seats near the temple. Architecture The temple resembles the sculptural richness and fluidity of the Oriya style of temple architecture.  It is surrounded by a high fortified wall known as Meghanada Pacheri. Another wall known as kurma bedha surrounds the main temple. Four distinct sectional structures: ❖ Deula, Vimana or Garbagriha (Sanctum sanctorum), where the triad deities are lodged on the Ratna Vedi (Throne of Pearls) in Rekha Deula style. ❖ Mukhashala (Frontal porch); ❖ Nata mandir/Natamandapa, which is also known as the Jagamohan (Audience Hall/Dancing Hall), ❖ Bhoga Mandapa (Offerings Hall). Kalingan Temple Architecture Style of Hindu architecture in the ancient Kalinga, previously known as Utkal and in present Odisha. Three distinct types of temples: Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula, and Khakhara Deula. The Rekha Deula and Khakhara Deula houses the sanctorum, while the Pidha Deula constitutes outer dancing and offering halls. Rekha Deula Style Rekha (means a straight line in Odia) is a tall building shaped like a Shikhara. It covers and protects the sanctum sanctorum (Garbhagriha). Deula is an architectural element in a Hindu temple in the Kalinga architecture style of the Odishan temples in Eastern India. Examples: ❖ Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar, ❖ Jagannath temple in Puri etc. 3 PMF IAS CA (A&C) Example: Konark Sun Temple Konark Sun Temple is a 13th-century CE Sun temple on the coastline of Puri district, Odisha. The temple is attributed to King Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga dynasty and was completed around 1250 CE. The temple is designed as a 100-foot-high chariot with immense wheels and horses carved from stone. The temple complex was once over 200 feet high and is now largely in ruins. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984 and remains a major pilgrimage site for Hindus, who gather here every year for the Chandrabhaga Mela around February. The Konark Sun Temple is depicted on the reverse side of the Indian currency note of 10 rupees. Konark temple was called the "Black Pagoda" in European sailor accounts as early as 1676 because it looked like a great tiered tower that appeared black. Similarly, the Jagannath Temple in Puri was called the "White Pagoda". Both temples served as important landmarks for sailors in the Bay of Bengal. 4 {Architecture} Temple Architecture PMF IAS CA (A&C) Nagara Style of Temple Architecture It began around the 5th century CE in northern India during the late Gupta period. It developed alongside the Dravida style, which originated in southern India during the same period.   Adam Hardy, in his book "The Temple Architecture of India" (2007), describes Nagara and Dravida styles as "the two great classical languages of Indian temple architecture." Nagara-style temples are often built on a raised stone platform with steps leading up to them. Nagara temples typically lack elaborate boundary walls or gateways. The main tower always houses the garbhagriha. Towering over the garbha griha is the shikhara, the most distinguishable aspect of the Nagara style. The term "shikhara" refers to man-made representations of the natural and cosmological order. The Amalaka or Kalash on the Shikhara is a distinctive feature. Nagara temples have subdivisions based on the shape of the shikhara. Elaborate murals and reliefs often decorate its walls. A Nagara-style temple typically includes a circumambulatory passage around the garbha griha and one or more mandapas (halls) on the same axis. Examples: Kandariya Mahadev Temple in Madhya Pradesh, the Sun Temple in Konark, the Sun Temple in Modhera, Gujarat, and the Ossian Temple in Gujarat. Classification of the Nagara Style of Temple Architecture 5 Adam Hardy classifies the Nagara style of temple architecture based on the style of Shikhara. PMF IAS CA (A&C) Valabhi They have barrel-vaulted roofs and are rectangular in design. An example of this style is the Teli Ka Mandir, a 9th-century temple in Gwalior.  Teli ka Mandir Phamsana These Nagara-style temples are shorter & broader structures. Multiple slabs rise upwards in a moderate slope on a straight incline like a pyramid, meeting at a single point above the building’s mid-point. An example of this style is the Jagmohan of Konark Temple. Jagmohan temple Rekha-Prasad or Latina It emerged from the previous styles ( Valabhi, phamsana ). These temples feature a basic Shikara, a slightly curved tower with four sides of equal length. It remained the most refereed style till the 10th century. For example: Sun Temple at Markhera in Madhya Pradesh (MP) and the Sri Jagannath Temple in Odisha. 6 PMF IAS CA (A&C) Sri Jagannath Temple Shekhari  Post 10th century, composite Latinas began to emerge, giving rise to Shekhari & Bhumija styles. It has a primary Rekha-Prasad Shikara and one or more rows of lesser steeples (a tower with a pointed top) on both sides of the centre spire. Mini Shikaras can also be found at the base and on the corners. The Kandariya Mahadev Temple in Khajuraho is a notable example of this style. Kandariya Mahadev Temple Bhumija It was developed in Malwa under the Paramara dynasty. It has miniature spires in horizontal and vertical rows all the way to the top, creating a grid-like effect on each face. The actual shikhara often approaches a pyramidal shape. The Udayeshwar Temple in Madhya Pradesh is an example of this architectural style. The Udayeshwar Temple Dravidian Temple Architecture Dravidian temple architecture is a Hindu temple architectural style that developed in South India. 7 PMF IAS CA (A&C) Salient Features of Dravidian Temple Architecture Panchayatan style: In Panchayatan style, a central shrine is surrounded by four subsidiary shrines. Compund wall: The Dravidian temple is enclosed within a compound wall (like Nagar Style temples). Gopurams: The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as a Gopuram. They often rise in multiple tiers. Vimana (Shikhara): The vimana is the central and tallest tower of the temple. It is pyramidal in shape and typically houses the main deity's sanctum. Mandapams: Mandapams are pillared assembly halls used for various ceremonial and religious purposes. Garbhagriha (Inner Sanctum): The innermost chamber of the temple is the garbhagriha (or sanctum sanctorum), where the main deity is enshrined. Its entrance is adorned with sculptures of Dwaarpal, Mithun, and Yakshas. Antarala: A small rectangular hall connects the assembly hall to the garbhagriha. Water Tanks: The presence of a water tank inside the temple enclosure is a distinguishing feature of Dravidian architecture. Sculptures and Carvings: Dravidian temples are renowned for their exquisite sculptures and carvings. These carvings depict deities, mythological scenes, dancers, animals, etc. Courtyards: Dravidian temples often have spacious courtyards. 8 Subdivisions of Dravidian Temples PMF IAS CA (A&C) The subdivisions of Dravidian Temples are basically of five different shapes: ❖ Kuta or Caturasra: Square ❖ Shala or Ayatasra: Rectangular ❖ Gajaprishta (elephant backed) or Vrittayata: Elliptical ❖ Vritta: Circular  ❖ Ashtasra: Octagonal Comparison of Nagar style and Dravida style Features Nagara Style Dravida Style Geographic Distribution Northern India Southern India Vimana Shape Curvilinear Pyramidal (Step-like) It is enclosed within a compound wall. Does not usually have elaborate The front wall has an entrance Boundary walls boundary walls or gateways. gateway known as a gopuram. Towers Multiple towers Always a single tower. Entrance Deities Ganga and Yamuna rivers are The entrance has Dwarapalas. depicted in personified form. Pedestals Are higher than the ground Are at ground level Crowing element It is referred as Shikara. It is referred as Kalash and Amalaka. Presence of a water tank Temple tanks or large water It is common to find a large water reservoir are generally not reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed enclosed with in the temple within the complex. complex Examples Kandariya Mahadeva Shore temple (Khajuraho), Jagannath Temple (Mahabalipuram), Brihadesvara (Puri), Dashavatara temple temple (Thanjavur), Meenakshi (Deogarh). Temple (Madurai) 9 {Architecture} Virupaksha Temple PMF IAS CA (A&C) About Virupaksha Temple (Also Pampapathi Temple) It dates back to the 7th century AD, built by early rulers of the Chalukya dynasty. The temple was expanded by Lakkan Dandesha, a chieftain under the rule of Deva Raya II (Prauda Deva Raya) of the Vijayanagara Empire. Later, during the reign of King Krishnadevaraya in early 16th century.  The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva, known here as Virupaksha/Pampa pathi (worshipped in the form of linga), as the consort of the local goddess Pampadevi, who is associated with the Tungabhadra River. Hampi, including the Virupaksha Temple, was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986. It is also part of the 'Adarsh Smarak Yojana'. Adarsh Smarak Scheme Launched in 2014 to provide improved visitor amenities, especially for the physically challenged. 100 Monuments are protected by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) under the Ministry of Culture. Architectural Features of Virupaksha Temple The builders utilised physics principles and concepts of maths to construct the temple, such as Rectilinear Light Theory, fractals, geometry and the Fibonacci number sequence. An interesting part of the structure is the inverted pinhole image of its tower present on the inner wall. Major Dravidian architectural features of the Virupaksha Temple Gopurams (Temple Towers) Main Gopuram: The eastern entrance of the temple features a monumental nine-story gopuram (tower) intricately decorated with sculptures depicting Hindu myths and deities. Smaller Gopurams: Other entrances are also marked by smaller but similarly elaborate gopurams. Mandapas (Pavilions) Ranga Mandapa: Added in 1510 by King Krishnadevaraya, this area features intricate pillars and carvings of mythical creatures and deities used for temple ceremonies and performances. Open Pillar Hall: This is a large hall with rows of intricately carved pillars depicting mythological scenes. Kalyana Mandapa: This area is used for celebrating the annual marriage festival of the deities, reflecting both architectural grandeur and cultural significance. Sanctum Sanctorum (Garbhagriha) Main Shrine: The innermost sanctum houses the sacred Linga of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva). Lesser Sanctums: Smaller shrines dedicated to other deities surround the main sanctum. Pillars and Sculptures Carved Pillars: The temple’s pillars are renowned for their detailed carvings, which depict scenes from 10 Hindu mythology, including episodes from epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Artistic Themes: The sculptures include divine figures, mythological animals, and scenes from daily life, PMF IAS CA (A&C) showcasing the craftsmanship and artistic sensibilities of the era. Water Structures Sacred Tank: A sacred water tank within the complex is used for religious rituals and ceremonies. Group of Monuments at Hampi  Group of monuments at Hampi (Karnataka) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Once the Vijayanagara Empire's capital, Hampi holds historical and archaeological significance. Craggy hills and the Tungabhadra river on the north provided a natural defence for the capital city. They have Vijayanagara architecture, a synthesis of the Dravidian style & Indo-Islamic influences. The Hampi ruins were uncovered in 1800 by Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian. Architectural Marvels The Vitthala Temple complex showcases intricately carved pillars and the iconic Stone Chariot. The Royal Enclosure with its majestic structures like the Lotus Mahal and Elephant Stables. The Hazara Rama Temple is known for its intricate stone carvings and sculpted panels. Notable Structures: Krishna temple complex, Narasimha, Ganesa, Hemakuta temples, Achyutaraya temple complex, Vitthala temple complex, Pattabhirama temple complex, and Lotus Mahal complex. Also, refer to the article on Lambani Community, which is related to Hampi. 11 PMF IAS CA (A&C)  Art Forms {Music} Gwalior Gharana The city of Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh was added to UNESCO’s Creative Cities Network (UCCN) for its “strong commitment to harnessing culture and creativity.” The Gwalior Gharana is the oldest musical gharana, having evolved under Mughal rule and is an essential part of Hindustani classical music. Gwalior hosted great musicians born in the city or came there to learn from the masters. Abul Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari mentions 36 imperial musicians, out of which fifteen were from Gwalior. Comparison of Hindustani and Carnatic music Hindustani classical music is the classical music of northern regions of the Indian subcontinent. The origin of Hindustani classical music can be traced back to the 12th century when it diverged from Carnatic classical music. It is played on instruments like the veena, sitar, and sarod. While Carnatic music essentially uses compositions produced in Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and sometimes in Malayalam, Hindustani music essentially uses compositions written in Hindi, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Urdu, and Braj Bhasha. Indian music was relatively uniform before the 13th century. Later, it bifurcated into: ❖ Carnatic: Confined to Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala. ❖ Hindustani: In the rest of the country. Mian Tansen He was a Hindustani classical musician and one of Gwalior’s early proteges (student). At the beginning of the 16th century, Tansen received training from Swami Haridas and was greatly influenced by the Sufi saint Muhammad Ghous. While learning from Ghous, Tansen perfected the Gwalior gharana style and served as a court musician for King Ram Chandra Singh of Rewa for many years. Akbar invited Tansen to join his court musicians in the Mughal court. As a Vaishnava musician, he initially 12 refused but eventually joined at the age of 60 after Ram Chandra insisted. Raja Man Singh Tomar PMF IAS CA (A&C) During the 15th century, Hindustani classical music flourished under Raja Man Singh Tomar's patronage. To popularise Indian music: ❖ He replaced Sanskrit songs with those in simple Hindi. ❖ He wrote Manakutuhala (Quest for Learning), the first Hindi treatise on music. {Dances} Mohiniyattam Kerala Kalamandalam, a renowned institution for arts and culture, has taken a historic step by allowing boys to learn Mohiniyattam, a classical dance form traditionally associated with females. Mohiniyattam is a traditional Indian dance form from Kerala. It is named after Mohini, the female avatar of Lord Vishnu. Like most other classical Indian dances, Mohiniyattam’s roots can be traced back to Bharata Muni’s Natya Shastra. It was initially performed by Devadasis (temple dancers) in Kerala during the reign of the Chera kings (9th to 12th centuries CE). Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma, the Maharaja of the Kingdom of Travancore, significantly contributed to its development and systematisation in the early 19th century. Mohiniyattam is primarily a solo dance performed by female artists. It is characterised by graceful, gentle, and feminine movements known as Lasya. It combines dancing and singing, often featuring Manipravala songs blending Sanskrit and Malayalam. Music for Mohiniyattam is typically Carnatic, with dancers or vocalists performing the recitation. The dance is known for its smooth and fluid body movements, avoiding abrupt jerks or leaps. It emphasises hand gestures and subtle facial expressions (Mukhabhinaya) over footwork, with 24 hand gestures derived from the 'Hastha Lakshana Deepika'. Costumes usually consist of plain white or ivory cream saris adorned with bright gold-laced brocade. 13 {Paintings} Restoration of Ajanta Paintings in Hyderabad The Ajanta Gallery of the Telangana State Museum in Hyderabad houses early 20th-century copies of PMF IAS CA (A&C) Ajanta Caves paintings created by artists like Christiana Herringham, Nandalal Bose, and Syed Ahmad. The project aims to use reversible and natural materials and herbs for conservation. Ajanta Caves  The Ajanta Caves, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, feature paintings and sculptures created during the Satavahana rule between 200 and 100 BCE. The Ajanta Caves, located in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, were discovered in the 19th century. Credits: Wikipedia These caves are built on a perpendicular cliff, so chaityas (4) are less compared to viharas (25). The paintings in these caves are outlined in red colour, followed by the application of other colours. The main themes are Jataka stories and mentions of Chinese travellers Fahien and Hiuen Tsang. Of the 30 Ajanta Caves, 5 are dedicated to Hinayana Buddhism and 25 to Mahayana Buddhism. The Ajanta Caves' fresco art involves applying pigments to fresh, damp lime plaster, allowing the colours to bond with the surface as it dries, creating vibrant and durable paintings. 14 Credits: Wikipedia {Languages} Classical Languages PMF IAS CA (A&C) As per scientific research by the State team, Bengali's origins 2,500 years ago. Bengali is 2nd most spoken language in India (after Hindi) and 7th most spoken language globally. Classical Language It is a language with original, independent literary tradition and a large body of ancient written literature.  Six classical languages: Tamil (declared in 2004), Sanskrit (2005), Kannada (2008), Telugu (2008), Malayalam (2013) and Odia (2014). All the Classical Languages are listed in the Eighth Schedule of the IC. Criteria for declaring a language as 'Classical' The Ministry of Culture provides guidelines regarding Classical languages. They are: ❖ High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over 1500-2000 years. ❖ A body of ancient literature/texts is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers. ❖ The literary tradition should be original and not borrowed from another speech community. ❖ Classical language and literature are distinct from modern, but there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or offshoots. Benefits of being a Classical Language The Ministry of Education provides specific benefits to promote the classical languages: ❖ Two major annual international awards for scholars of eminence in classical Indian languages. ❖ Centre of Excellence for Studies in Classical Languages. ❖ The University Grants Commission is requested to create several professional chairs for classical languages in the Central Universities. {Literature} Kashi – Tamil Sangamam The second edition of Kashi Tamil Sangamam 2023 was inaugurated in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. The first edition was organised in 2022 as part of the “Azadi ka Amrit Mahostsav” celebration. It celebrates the historical and civilisational connection between India’s North and South. Multi-language and braille translations of Thirukkural, Manimekalai, and other classic Tamil literature were also launched at the event. The Kanyakumari – Varanasi Tamil Sangamam train was also flagged off by the PM. Historical and Cultural Connection between North-South As per the Brahmanda Purana, King Dasharath of Ayodhya is believed to have visited Kanchipuram to seek blessings from Amba Kamakshi. 15 Story of King Parakrama Pandya of Madurai in the 15th century constructing the Shiva temple of Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu, links Kashi to the South. PMF IAS CA (A&C) Pandyas had built the Kasi Viswanathar Temple in Tenkasi in southwestern Tamil Nadu, also linked to a visit to Kashi. Trade links between the silk cities of Varanasi and Kanchipuram were also culturally significant for people-to-people contact.  Diplomacy {Diplomacy} India displaying Lord Buddha relics in Thailand India displayed four holy relics of Lord Buddha and relics of two disciples to Thailand. The relics are believed to contain Gautam Buddha’s remains and hold immense spiritual significance. This initiative is part of India’s efforts to develop and promote the Buddhist circuit and strengthen cultural ties with Thailand.  The ‘AA’ category denotes a special classification assigned to certain artefacts or relics based on their rarity and delicate nature. Portions of this sacred collection have been previously exhibited in countries such as Sri Lanka, Mongolia, Singapore, South Korea, and Thailand. Buddha’s Life and Enlightenment Lord Buddha, born as Siddhartha, renounced worldly pleasures at the age of 29 to seek salvation. Under the Bodhi tree, he attained enlightenment and became known as Gautama Buddha. For forty-five years, he travelled, taught his doctrine (Saddharma), and organised communities (Sangha). Distribution of the Sacred Relics When Buddha achieved Mahaparinirvana (passed away) at the age of 80 in Kushinagar, his body was cremated. Brahmin priest Dhona of Kushinagar collected the holy relics from the funeral pyre. These sacred relics were commemorated in eight different stupas. Two additional stupas containing the relics and the embers were built over the urn. These stupas, known as Saririka-stupas, are the earliest surviving Buddhist shrines. Emperor Ashoka (circa 272–232 BCE), a devoted Buddhist, opened seven of the eight stupas. What is the Buddhist Circuit? It is a route that follows in the footsteps of the Buddha from Lumbini in Nepal, where he was born, 16 through Bihar in India, where he attained enlightenment, to Sarnath and Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh in India, where he gave his first teachings and died. PMF IAS CA (A&C) The Buddhist Circuit project was announced by the central government in 2016. Under the Ministry of Tourism’s flagship Swadesh Darshan scheme, multiple projects have been undertaken in 21 states to make it India’s first trans-national tourist circuit. Swadesh Darshan Scheme  Launched by the Ministry of Tourism in 2014-15 to develop theme-based tourist circuits in the country. It is a 100% centrally funded scheme. It has provisions for leveraging voluntary funding under Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives. {Diplomacy} Significance of BAPS Temple construction During a two-day visit to UAE, the PM inaugurated the BAPS Swaminarayan temple in Abu Dhabi. The BAPS temple is the first Hindu temple in the UAE. It is located in the Abu Mureikha area, about 50 km from the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque. The land for the built temple complex was gifted by Sheikh Mohammed Bin Zayed Al Nahyan (President of the UAE) in 2015. Pramukh Swami Maharaj, spiritual leader of the BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha, first envisioned it in 1997. Built in the traditional Nagara style with seven shikhars. The shikhara is adorned with depictions of deities such as Venkateshwara, Swaminarayan, Jagannath, and Ayyappa. Significance of the Temple Shikhara represents cultural unity and cooperation. It symbolises mutual respect and cooperation between India and the UAE. Seven shikhara represent the seven Emirates of the UAE. A Wall of Harmony features a video showcasing critical milestones of the temple’s construction. The word ‘harmony’ has been written in 30 different ancient and modern languages. The temple was judged the Best Mechanical Project of the Year 2019 and the Best Interior Design 17 Concept of the Year 2020 at the MEP Middle East Awards. Value tales from Indian, Maya, Aztec, Egyptian, Arabic, European, Chinese, and African civilisations have PMF IAS CA (A&C) also been depicted. A symbol of communal Harmony: ❖ A Muslim king donated land, ❖ The lead architect is a Catholic Christian,  ❖ The project manager is a Sikh, ❖ The foundational designer is a Buddhist, ❖ The construction company is a Parsi group, and ❖ The director comes from the Jain tradition. About BAPS BAPS stands for Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (A Vaishnav sect of Hinduism), a Hindu denomination within the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. The organisation was founded in 1907 by Shastriji Maharaj. BAPS is a socio-spiritual Hindu faith with roots in the Vedas. Bhagwan Swaminarayan (1781-1830) revealed the faith in the late 18th century Notable Temples: It includes the Akshardham temples in New Delhi and Gandhinagar and Swaminarayan temples in London, Houston, Chicago, Atlanta, Toronto, Los Angeles, and Nairobi. {Dynasty} Chalukya Dynasty and its Contributions Chalukya Dynasty 18 PMF IAS CA (A&C) Chalukyas ruled over the central Indian plateau of the Deccan from the 6th and 12th centuries. It is mainly divided into 3 dynasties and ruled individually even though all were related to each other. ❖ Chalukya’s of Badami ❖ Chalukya’s of Vengi/ Eastern Chalukya’s ❖ Chalukya’s of Kalyani/ Western Chalukya’s Chalukyas of Badami Pulakesin I established the Chalukya dynasty in 550. He made Badami or Vatapi as his capital. He adopted the title Vallabheshvara and performed the Ashvamedha. He was succeeded by Kirtivarman I (566-597), who further extended the kingdom by defeating the Mauryas of North-Konkana, the Nalas of Nalavadi (Bellari) and the Kadambas of Banavasi. However, the Chalukya territory expanded greatly during the reign of Pulakesin II (609-42 CE). Pulakesin II faced his greatest northern adversary, Harsha of Kanauj, who was planning to attack the Deccan and won a decisive victory on the banks of the Narmada. Ravikirti’s Aihole inscription details Pulakesin II's victory over Harsha. After the victory, Pulakesin II assumed the title of Parameshvara (Supreme Lord). Hiuen-Tsang, a Chinese traveller, visited the court of Pulakesin II. Later, Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors with Pulakesin II. The Pallava King Narasimhavarman I (A.D. 630-668) occupied the Chalukya capital at Vatapi in about 642 A.D., when Pulakesin II was probably killed in fight against the Pallavas. Due to internal feuds, the Badami Chalukya dynasty briefly declined following Pulakesin II's death. The Chalukyan rule in Badami was replaced by the Rashtrakutas in about 750 CE when Rashtrakuta feudatory Dantidurga gave a final blow and defeated the Chalukyan king Kirtivarman II. Art & Architecture More than 150 monuments attributed to the Badami Chalukya, and built between 450 and 700, remain in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka. The rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Badami and Aihole constitute their most celebrated monuments. In Aihole, the Durga temple (sixth century), Ladh Khan temple (450), Meguti temple (634), Hucchimalli and Huccappayya temples (fifth century), Badami Cave Temples (600) provide examples of early Chalukyan art. Land Governance & Polity The empire was divided into Maharashtrakas (provinces), then into smaller Rashtrakas (Mandala), Vishaya (district), Bhoga (group of ten villages) similar to Dasagrama unit of Kadambas. 19 Many autonomous regions existed ruled by feudatories like Alupas, Gangas, Banas, and Sendrakas. Local assemblies looked after local issues. PMF IAS CA (A&C) Groups of mahajanas (learned brahmins), looked after agraharas (like Ghatika or place of higher learning) like the ones at Badami (2000 mahajans) and Aihole (500 mahajanas). Society The Hindu caste system appeared and the government recognized prostitution.  Sati may have been absent as widows like Vinayavathi and Vijayanka are mentioned in records. Women enjoyed political power in the administration. Queens Vijayanka, a noted Sanskrit poetess; Kumkumadevi, the younger sister of Vijayaditya; and Lokamahadevi, queen of Vikramaditya II who fought wars, stand as three examples. Religion They initially followed Vedic Hinduism, as seen in the various Hindu temples. Later, from the time of Vikramaditya I, the people took an inclination towards Shaivism and sects like Pashupata, Kapalikas, and Kalamukhas existed. They actively encouraged Jainism, attested to by one of the Badami cave temples and other Jain temples in the Aihole complex. Buddhism had begun a decline. Army The army consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephant corps and a powerful navy. Coinage The coins had Nagari and Kannada legends. They minted coins with symbols of temples, lion or boar facing right, and the lotus. The coins weighed four grams, called honnu in old Kannada and had fractions such as fana and the quarter fana, whose modern-day equivalent being hana (literally means, money). 20 PMF IAS CA (A&C)  Legislations and Schemes {Laws} AMASR Act, NMA and ASI The 359th report on the functioning of the Archaeological Survey of India was prepared by the department-related Parliamentary Standing Committee on Transport, Tourism & Culture. The committee observed that many of the 3,691 Centrally Protected Monuments (CPMs) are “minor” monuments with no national significance. The report calls for prioritising monuments with national significance, as minor structures (75 colonial- era graves of limited heritage value) receive the same protection as iconic sites like the Taj Mahal. Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Rules 1959 (AMASR Act) The AMASR Act prohibits construction within a 100-meter radius of protected monuments. An additional 200-meter radius beyond the prohibited area is considered regulated, where construction is allowed but only with the approval of the National Monuments Authority (NMA). Restrictions around monuments leading to public inconvenience In some cases, the entire village falls within a 300-meter radius of a monument, making house repairs difficult for residents. This rule has also been applied to infrastructural projects and real-estate development, as it applies equally to significant and insignificant monuments. Removal of Monument from Centrally Protected Monuments (CPM) list The AMASR Act governs the List of Protected Monuments, which safeguards structures and locations aged over 100 years, including temples, burial grounds, milestone markers, etc. To remove specific monuments from the CPM list, an amendment to the AMASR Act is required. AMASR (Amendment) Bill The government plans to bring the AMASR (Amendment) Bill with “an aim to redefine monuments and rationalise the use of the area around the protected monuments”. 21 The rules will be relaxed for smaller monuments such as statues, cannons, etc., but they will be retained for UNESCO World Heritage Sites nationwide. PMF IAS CA (A&C) Bifurcation of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) The committee highlighted that 14% of CPMs had faced encroachments, with only nine encroachments successfully removed since 2015 by ASI. It recommended bifurcating the ASI's responsibilities based on cerebral and managerial functions. The ASI would focus on core duties like exploration, excavation, and conservation.  While the India Heritage Development Corporation (IHDC) would manage revenue-related aspects, such as ticket collection and auctions. This bifurcation aims to enhance the management & efficiency of preserving India's cultural heritage. National Monuments Authority (NMA) The National Monuments Authority (NMA) is a statutory body (Ministry of Culture) that has been set up as per the AMASR (Amendment and Validation) Act, 2010. Several functions have been assigned to the NMA, including managing the prohibited and regulated areas around the CPMs and Monuments. One of the NMA's responsibilities is to consider granting permissions to applicants for construction- related activity in the prohibited and regulated area. It also recommends to the Central Government how to grade and classify protected monuments and protected areas declared to be of national importance. Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is a statutory body (Ministry of Culture) under the AMASR Act 1958 that conducts archaeological research and protects archaeological sites. It was founded in 1861 by Alexander Cunningham, who also became its first Director-General. It also regulates the Antiquities and Art Treasure Act 1972. Difference between NMA AND ASI Roles The NMA is primarily responsible for protecting and preserving monuments and sites, while the ASI is responsible for archaeological research, conservation, and preservation of monuments. {Schemes} National Mission for Manuscripts The National Mission for Manuscripts documented approx. 5.2 million manuscripts having ancient scripts. It was established in 2003 by the Ministry of Culture. Nodal body: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA). It is an autonomous institution under the Ministry of Culture. It was established in 1987 as a centre for research, academic pursuit and dissemination in the field of the arts. 22 Motto: ‘Conserving the past for the future’. Objective PMF IAS CA (A&C) ❖ Surveying, locating, and preserving Indian manuscripts. ❖ Creating a national database of all Indian manuscripts. ❖ Increasing access to and awareness of manuscripts for educational purposes. Manuscripts  A manuscript is a handwritten composition on paper, bark, cloth, metal, palm leaf or any other material dating back at least seventy-five years that has significant scientific, historical or aesthetic value. Lithographs and printed volumes are not manuscripts. Manuscripts are distinct from historical records such as epigraphs on rocks, firmans, revenue records which provide direct information on events or processes in history. 23 PMF IAS CA (A&C)  Personalities {Personalities} Adi Shankaracharya – Statue of Oneness The Statue of Oneness (108-feet-tall statue) depicts Shankaracharya as a 12-year-old child when he visited Omkareshwar, MP which has one of the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines. About Adi Shankaracharya 24 Adi Shankaracharya, also known as Shankara, was an ancient Indian philosopher and theologian who lived in the early 8th century CE. PMF IAS CA (A&C) Philosophical Contributions Shankaracharya is renowned for his pivotal role in developing and disseminating Advaita Vedanta, a non-dualistic school of Hindu philosophy. His most significant accomplishment was the synthesis of the six subsects known as 'Shanmata,' which signify the worship of six supreme deities.  The six sub-sects known as 'Shanmata' refer to worshipping six supreme deities of Hinduism. These deities are Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, Surya and Skanda. He explained their unity within one divine power, Brahman. He established the 'Dashanami Sampradaya,' advocating a monastic way of life. Despite his reverence for ancient Hinduism, Shankaracharya criticised the 'Mimamsa school of Hinduism,' which relied solely on ritual practices. Establishment of Four Mathas Shankaracharya founded four prominent monastic Centers associated with one of the cardinal directions: 1. Sringeri in the south 2. Dwarka in the west 3. Puri in the east 4. Badrinath in the north Commentaries and Writings He authored 18 commentaries on major religious scriptures, such as the Bhagavad Gita, Brahmasutras, and 12 major Upanishads. His commentary on the Brahma Sutra, known as 'Brahmasutrabhasya,' is the oldest surviving commentary on the subject. Shankaracharya composed 23 books expounding the principles of Advaita Vedanta, including works like Viveka Chudamani, AtmaBodha, Vakya Vritti, and Upadesa Sahasri. He also crafted 72 devotional hymns, such as Soundarya Lahari and Nirvana Shatakam. Passing and Legacy Adi Shankaracharya is believed to have attained Samadhi, a state of profound meditation or realisation, at the young age of 32 in Kedarnath in the Himalayas. Teachings and Philosophy Advaita Vedanta Advaita Vedanta is a non-dualistic school of Hindu philosophy, a subset of Vedanta, one of six orthodox 25 schools of Hindu thought. Its foundations are primarily derived from the Upanishads and were elaborated by eminent scholars like PMF IAS CA (A&C) Sri Adi Shankaracharya and Gaudapada. Non-Dualism (Advaita) The term "Dvaita" signifies duality, while "Advaita" denotes non-duality. Advaita Vedanta emphasises the fundamental oneness and non-duality of all existence. Ultimate Reality (Brahman)  Advaita Vedanta posits that the ultimate reality, known as Brahman, is the sole true, unchanging, and absolute reality. Everything else, including the individual self (Atman), the material world (Prakriti), and the gods, is ultimately an illusion (maya) or a temporary manifestation of Brahman. Jiva (Individual Soul) In Advaita Vedanta, the individual soul or jiva is perceived as an expression of Brahman temporarily confined by the limitations of the physical body and mind. Moksha (Liberation) Liberation (moksha) is the ultimate goal of Advaita Vedanta, achieved when the jiva realises its essential identity with Brahman. Moksha entails liberation from the cycle of birth and death and recognising one's true nature as Brahman. Self-realization (atma-jnana) and removing ignorance (avidya) are the means to attain moksha. Advaita Vedanta offers various paths to realisation, including: ❖ Jnana Yoga (the path of knowledge) ❖ Bhakti Yoga (the path of devotion) ❖ Karma Yoga (the path of selfless action) Despite its emphasis on the illusory nature of the world, Advaita Vedanta acknowledges the relative reality of the empirical world. It encourages individuals to fulfil their worldly duties (dharma) while seeking spiritual enlightenment. Maya Adi Shankara emphasised the concept of Maya, which is the illusion that the material world is separate from Brahman. He argued that realising the illusory nature of the world and recognising one's true identity as Atman is the key to spiritual liberation (moksha). Doctrine of Neti-Neti Shankara's philosophy employs the "neti-neti" (not this, not that) approach, where one negates all attributes and limitations to realise Brahman's attributeless and limitless nature. Neti-Neti meditation is a form of self-inquiry in which the practitioner searches for the location of the 26 self. With its aid, the Gyani negates identification with all things of this world, not the Atman. The doctrine of Neti-neti is also found to be significant in Buddhism. PMF IAS CA (A&C) Shankaracharyas Shankaracharya means ‘teacher of the way of Shankara’. It is a religious title used by the heads of the four cardinal mathas or peeths.  The Shankaracharya heads the four Hindu maths (monasteries) — in Dwarka (Gujarat), Joshimath (Uttarakhand), Puri (Odisha), and Sringeri (Karnataka). These Maths were founded by the 8th century religious scholar and philosopher Adi Shankara. These mathas comprise religious shrines, temples, libraries, and residences. The existence of these mathas before the 14th century CE is disputed, with evidence suggesting retrospective establishment to legitimise these centres of learning. The Vijayanagara kingdom began to patronise the Sringeri matha in the 14th Century. {Personalities} Rabindranath Tagore: A Visionary Poet and Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941), often referred to as Gurudev, was a multifaceted Indian polymath whose impact on literature, music, art, and social reform remains unparalleled. In 1915, he was awarded knighthood by the British King George V. In 1919, following the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre, he renounced his Knighthood. Literary Achievements Tagore authored a vast body of work, including poems, songs, short stories, plays, and essays. His collection of poems, "Gitanjali" (Song Offerings), earned him the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913, making him the first non-European to receive this honour. He is also remembered for his song ‘Ekla Chalo Re’. Nature's profound beauty and spirituality often served as a central theme in his writings. Educational Vision Tagore founded Visva-Bharati University in Shantiniketan, emphasising a holistic approach to education that combined the best of Indian and Western traditions. 27 His educational philosophy aimed to foster creativity, freedom, and the unity of knowledge. Legacy PMF IAS CA (A&C) Tagore's compositions, including the national anthems of India ("Jana Gana Mana") and Bangladesh ("Amar Shonar Bangla"), hold special significance. {Personalities} Sant Ravidas  Guru Ravidas was an Indian mystic poet-saint of the Bhakti movement and founder of the Ravidassia religion during the 15th to 16th century CE. Guru Ravidas Jayanti is celebrated yearly on Magh Purnima (full moon day of Magh month).  Magha is the eleventh month of the Hindu calendar, corresponding to January/February. Guru Ravidas was born in Varanasi into an untouchable leather-working Chamar caste. He was a vocal critic of caste discrimination and gender inequality. He valued the worship of a formless God, Nirguna sampradaya (sant parampara). The Sikh Holy Book, Guru Granth Sahib, compiled by Guru Arjan Dev, the fifth Guru of the Sikhs, contains 41 verses of Guru Ravidass. Guru Ravidas envisioned a society called “Begampura”, a city without grief or fear, where everyone is equal, and discrimination is not tolerated. He is considered a spiritual Guru of Meera Bai, who was the queen of Chittoor. Guru Ravidas's philosophy of life is reflected in India's constitutional values of social justice, freedom, equality and fraternity. {Personalities} Srimanta Sankaradeva Srimanta Sankaradeva Srimanta Sankardev was an Assamese polymath — a saint-scholar, poet, playwright, dancer, social- religious reformer, and figure of importance in Assam's cultural and religious history. 28  Polymath: A person who knows a lot about many different subjects. He is credited with building on past cultural relics and devising new forms of - Music (Borgeet), Theatrical PMF IAS CA (A&C) performance (Ankia Naat, Bhaona), Dance (Sattriya), Literary language (Brajavali). Social contribution He is considered to be the father of the modern Assamese race. He rescued the people of Assam from regressive medieval practices like human sacrifice.  He promoted equality and fraternity and advocated for a society free from Caste distinctions, Orthodox Brahmanical rituals, and Sacrifices. Religious contribution The Bhagavatic religious movement (Ekasarana Dharma) influenced two medieval kingdoms, the Koch and the Ahom kingdom. His teaching focused on prayer and chanting (naam) instead of idol worship. Sankardev inspired the Bhakti movement in Assam. Sankaradeva advocated ‘EKA DEVA, EKA SEVA, EKA BINEY NAHI KEWA’, which means one should worship only one God, Lord Krishna. It focussed on worship in the form of bhakti (devotion) to Lord Krishna through singing and congregational listening. EKA SARANA NAMA DHARMA Religion (Neo- Vaishnavite movement) His religion, EKA SARANA NAMA DHARMA, is straightforward. There is no unnecessary ritual in his order. Batadrava, or Bordowa, became the centre of his religious activities. Batadrava has been regarded as the Dvitiya Vaikuntha (second heaven). His dharma was based on the four components of: ❖ Deva (god), ❖ Naam (prayers), ❖ Bhaktas (devotees), and ❖ Guru (teacher). Thans/Sattras The assembly of devotees of the Neo-Vaishnavite movement evolved into monastic centres called Thans /Sattras. These were established as centres of religious, social and cultural reforms in 16th century. These are present in Assam and, to a lesser extent, in North Bengal. Batadrava Than was the first Than set for the propagation of EKA SARANA NAMA DHARMA. Other Thans founded by Sankaradeva are Gangmou, Belaguri, Patbausi, Kumarkuchi, Sunpora, and Madhupur. Later, his followers set up many Sattras all over the Brahmaputra valley. Its nucleus is a naamghar (worship hall) and is headed by an influential “Sattradhikar.” 29 Literary and Artistic contribution He has left an extensive literary work of trans-created scriptures (Bhagavat of Sankardev), poetry and PMF IAS CA (A&C) theological works written in Sanskrit, Assamese and Brajavali. He used to write scriptures sitting below one Shilikha (Myrobalan) tree. That tree is still alive even after five and half centuries, which is a wonder. He created a classical dance form known as both the Sankari dance and Satriya dance. The Sangeet Nâtak Akâdemi of India recognised it as a classical dance form in 2000 AD.  He also developed a school of classical music named after him. He created as many as 25 Râgas of his own. He was also the first playwright in all modern Indian languages. He was the first prose writer in the world. In 1468 AD, he introduced the drop-scene and elevated stage to the world of drama. He authored ten plays in his life. He initiated a new form of painting with his epoch-making drama festival Chihna-Yâtrâ, where he drew imaginary pictures of heaven to be used as backdrops. Sattriya Dance Sattriya originated in Sattra, a monastery, as a part of the neo-Vaishnavite movement in Assam. It includes Nritta, Nritya, and Natya components. Sattriya dances differ from other dance forms in their basic stance. For males, it is known as Purush Pak, while for females, it is Prakriti Pak. Sattriya dance (Unlike other Classical Dances) has been left untouched and has been same since its birth. It had its influences from folk dance forms like Ojapali, Devadasi, Bihu and Bodos, etc. Strictly laid-down principles govern the Sattriya dance tradition regarding Hasta mudras, Footwork, Aharyas, Music, etc. Traditionally, Sattriya was performed only by bhokots (male monks) in monasteries as their daily rituals. The dance is based on mythological themes. Primarily based on Krishna-Radha relations or sometimes on the stories of Ram-Sita. Today, Sattriya is also performed on stage by men and women who are not members of the sattras on themes that are not merely mythological. It has two distinctly separate streams – Bhaona-related repertoire and independent dance numbers. Sattriya Dance Costume The costume of Sattriya dance is primarily of two types: ❖ The male costume comprising the dhoti and chadar and the paguri (turban) and ❖ The female costume comprises the ghuri, chadar and kanchi (waist cloth). Pat Silk saree (also spelt “paat”) is the most popular kind of saree used in this dance. ❖ It represents the locality through its various colourful motifs and designs. Traditional Assamese jewellery is used in the Sattriya dance. The jewellery is made using a unique technique in Kesa Sun (raw gold). 30 {Personalities} Thiruvalluvar PMF IAS CA (A&C) Thiruvalluvar, also called Valluvar, was a Tamil poet-saint. His time and religious identity are debated. Some accounts place him in the 3rd or 4th century CE; others date him to around 500 years later, in the 8th or 9th century. He is thought to be linked to Jainism. However, Hindus have also claimed that Thiruvalluvar belonged to Hinduism.  Many communities, notably those in Mylapore and Tiruchuli, revere Valluvar as the 64th Nayanmar of the Shaivite tradition. Dravidian groups also count him as a saint, as he dismissed the caste system. Thiruvalluvar Day: Thiruvalluvar Day was first celebrated on May 17 and 18 in 1935. At present, it is usually observed on January 15 or 16 in Tamil Nadu and is part of the Pongal celebrations. Thiruvalluvar’s philosophy stresses the importance of ethics and emphasises self-discipline, honesty, and equality. Thirukkural Tirukkural (Tamil: “Sacred Couplets”), also called Kural, is a classic Tamil text written by Thiruvalluvar. It has had an immense influence on Tamil culture and life. It is a collection of 1,330 couplets (kurals) that offer timeless wisdom on various aspects of life, including ethics, governance, love, and spirituality. Thirukkural is divided into three main parts or books: Aram (Virtue), Porul (Wealth) and Inbam (Love). 31 PMF IAS CA (A&C)  Religion {Religion} Dharma Chakra Parivartan Divas During Dharma Chakra Pravartana Divas celebrations, the President of India emphasised the significance of Lord Buddha's Three Teachings: Sheel, Sadhachar, and Pragya. The Ministry of Culture celebrated Asadha Poornima as Dharma Chakra Day in partnership with the International Buddhist Confederation (IBC). According to the Indian sun calendar, the auspicious day of Asadha Poornima falls on the first full moon day of the month of Asadha. On this day, at Deer Park (Ṛiṣipatana) at Sarnath, near Varanasi, Buddha delivered his first teaching to his initial five ascetic disciples (pañcavargika) following his attainment of Enlightenment. This significant discourse, known as the Dhamma Cakka Pavattana Sutta (in Pali) or Dharma chakra Pravartana Sutra (in Sanskrit), is referred to as the First Turning of the Wheels of Dharma. It encompasses the profound teachings of the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. Coinciding with this day, the Rainy Season retreat (Varsha Vassa) for Monks and Nuns commences. It lasts for three lunar months, from July to October, during which practitioners remain in temples (Viharas/Chaityas) dedicated to deepening their practice through intensive meditation. Guru Purnima Guru Purnima is celebrated on a full moon day in the Hindu month of Ashadh. The festival is dedicated to Maharshi Veda Vyasa, who is revered for editing the sacred Hindu text, the Vedas, and composing scriptures like the 18 Puranas, Mahabharata, and Srimad Bhagavatam. Guru Purnima is also associated with the onset of the monsoon season. Four Aspects of Dukkha and the Noble Eightfold Path Dukkha (Suffering or Not Being at Ease) Dukkha is an inherent characteristic of existence in the realm of samsara (world). It can be understood as a state of unease or suffering. 32 Samudaya (Origin and Cause) Samudaya refers to the simultaneous arising of dukkha and taṇhā. PMF IAS CA (A&C) Taṇhā represents craving, desire, or attachment. Taṇhā is often interpreted as the cause of physical and emotional suffering. Nirodha (Cessation and Ending) Nirodha signifies the cessation or containment of dukkha.  Dukkha can be ended or confined through renouncement or letting go of taṇhā. Marga (Path: Noble Eightfold Path) The Noble Eightfold Path is a set of eight principles guiding individuals towards liberation from suffering (containment of taṇhā and dukkha). Right View: Understanding the nature of existence, the Four Noble Truths, and the law of cause and effect (karma). Right Intention: Cultivating wholesome intentions and attitudes, such as renunciation, goodwill, and harmlessness. Right Speech: Practicing truthful, kind, and beneficial speech while abstaining from false, harmful, or divisive speech. Right Action: Engaging in ethical behaviour by refraining from harming others, stealing, and engaging in sexual misconduct. Right Livelihood: Choosing an occupation or means of livelihood that is honest, non-exploitative, and aligned with the principles of Buddhism. Right Effort: Making diligent and persistent efforts to cultivate wholesome qualities, abandon unwholesome tendencies, and maintain a balanced state of mind. Right Mindfulness: Developing moment-to-moment awareness of one's body, feelings, thoughts, and phenomena with non-judgmental and non-reactive attention. Right Concentration: Cultivating an undistracted state of mind through meditation. {Religion} Samvatsari Samvatsari is an auspicious day for the Jain community. It is celebrated as the last day of the Paryushan festival. During this day, people say "Michami Dukkadam" and seek forgiveness from others. Paryushan festival is a festival for Jains during which they reflect on their lives and seek forgiveness from those they have wronged. ❖ Shwetambars celebrate it for eight days and Digambars for ten. ❖ It emphasises the protection of all living beings and encourages self-realisation and self-control. Pratikraman: It is a process during which Jains repent for their sins during their daily life and remind themselves not to repeat them. 33 ❖ The five types of Pratikaman include Devasi, Rayi, Pakhi, Chaumasi, and Samvatsari. PMF IAS CA (A&C) Jainism Jainism is an ancient religion based on 24 Tirthankaras (or great teachers) teachings. Rishabnath (or Adinath) was the first Tirthankara and Jainism's founder. Jainism came into prominence in the 6th century B.C. when Lord Mahavira propagated the religion. Lord Mahavira was the 24th and the last Tirthankara.  The word ‘Jain’ is derived from Jina or Jaina, meaning the ‘conqueror’. Vardhamana Mahavira Vardhamana was born in 540 B.C. in a village called Kundagram near Vaishali (Bihar). He was a Kshatriya prince, and his father, Siddhartha, was the head of the Jnatrika clan. His mother, Trishala, was Lichchhavi princess. She was the sister of Chetaka, the king of Vaishali. At the age of 30 years, he renounced his home and became an ascetic. After 12 years of austerity, he attained Kaivalya (perfect knowledge) at the age of 42 years on the banks of Rijupalika River. He passed away at the age of 72 years in 468 B.C. at Pavapuri in Bihar. Titles of Vardhamana: ❖ Mahavira, meaning the great hero ❖ Jaina or Jitendriya, meaning one who conquers all his senses ❖ Nirgrantha, meaning one who is free from all bonds Jain Philosophy Three Jewels or Triratna Jainism believes that salvation can be attained by following the three-fold path: ❖ Right Faith (Samyakdarshana) ❖ Right Knowledge (Samyakjnana) ❖ Right Action (Samyakcharita) One of the three cannot exist exclusive of the others, and all are required for spiritual liberation. Five Doctrines of Jainism ❖ Ahimsa (non-violence) ❖ Satya (truthfulness) ❖ Asteya (not stealing) ❖ Aparigraha (non-acquisition) ❖ Brahmacharya (chaste living) — propounded by Mahavira. Anekantavada and Syadvada 34 Anekantavada PMF IAS CA (A&C) It is the doctrine that the ultimate truth and reality are complex and have multiple aspects. It believes in non-absolutism or pluralism, which means no single, specific statement can describe the nature of existence and the absolute truth. Syadvada  It is the doctrine that all judgments are conditional, holding good only in certain conditions, circumstances, or senses. According to it, ways of looking at a thing (called naya) are infinite in number, so there will be infinite judgments. Hence, all judgments are relative. Sects of Jainism There are two major sects in Jainism: Digambaras (sky-clad) and Svetambaras (white-clad). Digambaras Svetambaras Believes in complete nudity, and males do not Monks wear simple white clothing and carry a wear clothes. Female monks wear unstitched begging bowl, a brush to remove insects from plain white sarees and are called Aryikas. their path, books and writing materials with them. Follow the preachings of Mahavira, i.e., they Follow the preachings of Parshvanatha, i.e., they believe in all five constraints (Ahimsa, Satya, believe in only four constraints (except Asteya, Aparigraha and Brahmacharya). Brahmacharya). Bhadrabahu was an exponent of the Digambara Sthulabhadra was an exponent of the Svetambara sect, and he moved to Karnataka along with his sect, and he and his disciples stayed in Magadha. disciples after predicting a long famine. Believe that women cannot be Tirthankaras and Believe Tirthankaras can be men or women, and say that Malli was a man. say that Malli began her life as a princess. Believe that Tirthankaras did not marry. Believe that the 23rd & 24th Tirthankara did marry. Monasticism rules are more rigid. Monasticism rules are less rigid. Sub-sects: Mula Sangh, Terapanthi, Taranpathi, Sub-sects: Sthanakavasi and Murtipujaka and Bispanthi 35 PMF IAS CA (A&C)  Sites {Sites} Ayodhya and its history History of Ayodhya Ancient History "Ayodhya" means "not to be fought." In Atharvaveda and Jain literature, the Adi Purana refers to it as the unconquerable city of gods. "Saketa" is the older name for the city as per the Sanskrit, Jain, Buddhist, Greek and Chinese sources. Ancient Indian Sanskrit-language epics, Ramayana and the Mahabharata, mention a legendary city called Ayodhya. Epics mention it as the capital of the Ikshvaku kings of Kosala, including Lord Ram. Ayodhya was the early capital of the kingdom of Kosala, which was later shifted to Shravasti. It is also mentioned in Kalidasa's Raghuvamsha. The Vayu Purana and the Brahmanda Purana attest that the early Gupta kings ruled Saketa. Still, no Gupta- era archaeological layers have been discovered except for many Gupta coins. Karamdanda (Karmdand) inscription of Kumaragupta I names it as capital of the Kosala province. The Hunas (Mihirakula) invasion in the 6th century is probably the cause of Ayodhya's decline. In the 11th-12th century, the Kanauj kingdom arose in Ayodhya (Oudh/Awadh). After the fall of Harsha's Kannauj empire, it was supposedly under Gurjara-Pratiharas kings. The Gahadavala dynasty came to power in the region (11th century) and promoted Vaishnavism. Buddhist connection It is identical to Saketa, where the Buddha is said to have resided for some time. Samyutta Nikaya and the Vinaya Pitaka mention the city of Saketa and a big river near it. The later Buddhist text Mahavastu describes Saketa as the seat of the Ikshvaku king Sujata. Chinese Buddhist monk Fa-Hian (5th century CE) mentioned multiple monasteries in Ayodhya. Ashoka is also believed to have constructed a stupa in Ayodhya. Jainism connection 36 Jain canonical text Jambudvipa-Pannati describes a city called Viniya (synonyms with Ayodhya) as the birthplace of Lord Rishabhdev (1st Tirthankar). PMF IAS CA (A&C) Medieval Period Ayodhya became part of the Delhi Sultanate, the Jaunpur Kingdom, and the Mughal Empire. Babri Mosque was built in 1528–29 by Mir Baqi, a commander of the Mughal emperor Babur.  After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 AD, the central Muslim rule weakened, and Awadh became virtually independent, with Ayodhya as its capital. British Period It became subordinate to the British East India Company in 1764. The first capital of Oudh/Awadh was Ayodhya, later Faizabad. Treaty of Allahabad (1765) after the Battle of Buxar resulted in the transfer of 50 lakhs by Nawab of Awadh to Britishers. Awadh Annexation (1856) by Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse was a factor in the 1857 revolution. Oudh was joined with the Agra Presidency in 1877 to form the North-Western Provinces and later the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, now Uttar Pradesh state. Post-independence Excavations at Ayodhya discovered a large brick wall (fortification wall) by archaeologist B. B. Lal. It has been the centre of the Ram Janambhoomi movement. Geography It is situated in the Indo-Gangetic Plain with a subtropical monsoon climate. It is located on the southern bank of the Saryu River. Saryu/Sarju River Origin: Nanda Kot mountain (Sarmaul, Bageshwar district, Uttarakhand) in Kumaon Himalayas. It is the largest tributary of the Mahakali (Sharda) River, meeting it at Pancheshwar at the India— Nepal border. Left Bank Tributaries: Ramganga, Punger Right Bank Tributaries: Gomati, Panar, Lahor It is also referred to as Lower Ghaghra, which flows through Ayodhya.  Fictionally, Sarayu is also the name of the river that flows by the fictional town of Malgudi, created by the Indian writer R. K. Narayan. {Sites} Geo Heritage Sites | Pandavula Gutta | Ramgarh Crater 37 What are Geo-Heritage Sites? PMF IAS CA (A&C) Geo-heritage refers to sites that offer insights into the evolution of the earth and can be used for research, reference, and awareness. These sites may have unique rock formations, fossils, or landscapes that are important for education, research, cultural significance, or visual appeal.  The Geological Survey of India (GSI) declares geo-heritage sites/national geological monuments for protection and maintenance. Objectives: ❖ Promote geotourism. ❖ Preserve unique geological formations. ❖ Enhance geological literacy among the public. Geological Survey of India GSI was set up in 1851 primarily to find coal deposits for the Railways. Headquartered in Kolkata, it has six regional offices located in Lucknow, Jaipur, Nagpur, Hyderabad, Shillong and Kolkata. It is an attached office of the Ministry of Mines. It creates and updates the national geoscientific information and mineral resource assessment. It also documents the surface and subsurface geological processes of India and its offshore areas. Pandavula Gutta, Telangana Pandavula Gutta, a geological marvel older than the Himalayan hills, has been officially recognised as the sole Geo-heritage site in Telangana. Pandavula Gutta is a hillock located about 50 km away from Warangal city. It is older than Himalayas. It was first discovered in the year 1990. It is rich in terms of number of paintings, rock shelters and its habitation, right from the Mesolithic to medieval times. These cave paintings offer a rare glimpse into the prehistoric man’s rock art identified on walls and ceilings of caves, rock shelters and isolated boulders. The rock art paintings depict wildlife like Bison, Antelope, Tiger, and Leopard, etc. 38 Other shapes like swastika symbol, circles and squares, weapons such as bows, arrows, sword and lancer and so on are present in these paintings. PMF IAS CA (A&C) The paintings also feature geometrical designs and impressions in green, red, yellow and white pigment colours. Ramgarh Crater, Rajasthan Ramgarh Crater has been named India’s first National Geo Heritage site by the Rajasthan Government.  The structure is 165 million years old and 3.5km across and is a culturally significant and spiritual site with a 10th century temple. It has been declared a Conservation Reserve, namely Ramgarh Conservation Reserve under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. The Pushkar Talab complex, located inside the crater, is a source of both saline and alkaline water. Bhand Deva Temple is constructed on the meteor impact crater. {Sites} Nalanda University Nalanda University was inaugurated in Rajgir near the ancient Nalanda monastery ruins. ‘Reviving’ Nalanda Then President APJ Abdul Kalam was the first to officially propose ‘reviving’ Nalanda in 2006 as a Bodhgaya Nalanda Indo-Asian Institute of Learning. It was endorsed at the 2007 East Asia Summit in Mandaue, the Philippines, and re-iterated at the 2009 East Asia Summit in Hua Hin, Thailand. The university was established through a joint effort of 17 countries other than India: Australia, Bangla- desh, Bhutan, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos, Mauritius, Myanmar, New Zealand, Portugal, Singapore, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. Parliament's Nalanda University Act 2010 accorded it “national importance” status and laid down rules regarding its governance. It started functioning in 2014 from a makeshift location, and the construction work started in 2017. Nobel Prize-winning economist Amartya Sen became the University’s first Chancellor, and then-President Pranab Mukherjee became the first Visitor. 39 Nalanda Mahavira Mahavira, in Sanskrit/Pali, means ‘great monastery’. Nalanda Mahavira was active from the fifth to the PMF IAS CA (A&C) thirteenth century CE. According to the early 7th century Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang or Xuanzang, the local tradition explains that the name Nalanda came from a nāga (serpent deity) whose name was Nalanda. Experts also point to the abundance of nālas (lotus stalks) in the area and believe that Nalanda would then represent the giver of lotus stalks.  A seal discovered at the site identifies a monarch named Shakraditya as its founder, which is the other name for Kumaragupta I of the Gupta dynasty. Post-Gupta period, Harsha (Siladitya) of the Kannuaj and Pala rulers were notable patrons. Credits: Wikipedia All Buddhist schools, as well as other faiths, were taught in Nalanda. Under Silabhadra, Nalanda also taught the Vedas, Hindu philosophy, logic, grammar and medicine. Candidates of other faiths who succeeded in passing a strict oral examination were admitted. A strict code of conduct, including daily meditation and study sessions, was mandatory for students. It was destroyed in 1193 by Turkish ruler Qutbuddin Aibak's general Bakhtiyar Khilji. Scottish surveyor Francis Buchanan-Hamilton rediscovered it in 1812. In 1861, Sir Alexander Cunningham identified it as an ancient university. It was recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2016. {Sites} Relation between Vedic people and Harappans Suggesting links Excavations at Rakhigarhi found evidence of ritual platforms and fire altars. Fire worship is also men- tioned in Rigvedic texts. Two sets of historians locate the origin of the Vedas in two different periods. One set dates it to between 1,500 BC and 2,000 BC, while another dates it farther back to 2,500 BC or 4,500 years ago. This would coincide with the age of the genetic evidence from the erstwhile Harappan woman’s bone 40 samples tested at the Rakhigarhi site. The Saraswati River is recorded at least 71 times in the Rigvedic text. The majority of Harappan settle- PMF IAS CA (A&C) ments were along its banks. Saraswati Currently, it is called the Ghagghar-Hakra river and flows only during the monsoon season. Originates from Shivaliks & flows through Punjab, Haryana & Rajasthan before entering Pakistan.  The Indian part of the river is named the Ghagghar, while the one in Pakistan is the Hakra. Also, Rigvedic texts do not mention the use of iron, which makes them different from 2,400-year-old settlements near the Ganga Basin and the Deccan region. A set of animal bones from the Surkotada region of Kutch, Gujarat, are debated to be either of a proper domesticated horse or of a wild ass. Those who believe that the Harappans and Rigvedic people are the same cite that the animal bones are that of a horse, as horses are mentioned in Rigvedic texts. However, those historians who date the Rigveda to after 2,000 BC believe that the animal bones were that of a wild ass as domesticated horses only came to India after 1,800 BC from central Asia. Researchers had extracted DNA from the well-preserved petrous bone remains of a female skeleton (excavated from Rakhigarhi) dated to 4,600 years ago. The skeleton was not comparable to the Steppe or Iranian population, leading to the hypothesis that Harappans were indigenous.  NCERT recently made a major addition to the Class 12 History textbook, Themes in Indian History Part 1 in the chapter, ‘Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation’, based on DNA evidence from the 4,600-year old remains of a woman, indicating that the Harappans were an indigenous people. Rakhigarhi Location: Hisar, Haryana, near Ghaggar river, in the Ghaggar-Hakra river plain. Dates back about 6500 BCE as part of the Indus Valley or Harappan Civilization. 41 PMF IAS CA (A&C) Credits: PLOS