Philosophy Study Notes PDF

Introduction to philo 21 November 2024 10:30 Philosophy Study Notes What is Philosophy? Greek origin: Philein (to love) + Sophia (wisdom); "Love of Wisdom." Begins with wonder, doubt, and experience. Addresses life’s fundamental questions: ○ What is life? ○ Who am I?...

Introduction to philo 21 November 2024 10:30 Philosophy Study Notes What is Philosophy? Greek origin: Philein (to love) + Sophia (wisdom); "Love of Wisdom." Begins with wonder, doubt, and experience. Addresses life’s fundamental questions: ○ What is life? ○ Who am I? ○ Does free will exist? Purpose & Importance Explores critical questions other sciences overlook. Adds meaning to ordinary experiences. Promotes questioning and critical thinking. Philosophy in Everyday Life Grounded in experience, wonder, and doubt. Begins when familiar experiences lose self-evidence or evoke deeper inquiry. Key Concepts 1. Thinking and Consciousness ○ Thinking organizes the world into logical concepts. ○ Humans interpret reality through thoughts, not direct experience. 2. Philosophy vs. Science & Religion Science: Studies measurable, empirical reality. Philosophy Investigates ultimate questions (e.g., why is there something rather than ○ : nothing?). Religion: Rooted in faith; philosophy challenges it with reason. Origins of Philosophical Inquiry Experience, wonder, and doubt spark philosophical thought. Core Areas of Philosophy 1. Epistemology: What can we know? 2. Ethics: What should we do? → 3. Ontology: What is reality? 4. Anthropology: What is man? Philosophy’s Triad (Platonic Structure) God: Philosophy of mind. Self: Transcendental philosophy. World: Ontology and epistemology. Philosophy Page 1  World: Ontology and epistemology. Summary Philosophy begins when everyday understanding is disrupted. Seeks fundamental knowledge and meaning in uncertainty. Helps answer life’s critical questions and enriches our worldview. Philosophy Page 2 Epistomology 21 November 2024 10:41 Epistemology Study Cards 1. Aristotle’s Concept of Knowledge ○ Knowledge: Understanding causes (why things happen). ○ True Knowledge: Knowing the first cause (ultimate explanation). ○ Definition: True, justified belief aligned with reality. 2. Knowledge Explained ○ Belief: Conviction in something. ○ True: Belief matches reality. ○ Justified: Supported by evidence. ○ Knowledge = True, Justified Belief. 3. Skepticism & Limits of Knowledge ○ Skeptics: Doubt knowledge due to unreliable senses. ○ Questions: Can senses be trusted? Are dreams indistinguishable from reality? Could an evil force deceive us? 4. Skeptical Arguments ○ Illusion: Senses can deceive (e.g., colors, vision). ○ Dream: Dreams can feel real (e.g., Inception). ○ Evil Demon: Reality could be manipulated (e.g., The Matrix). 5. Problem of Correspondence ○ Question: Do mental representations match reality? ○ Skepticism: We only know the world through sensory interpretations. 6. Overcoming Skepticism ○ Metaphysical: A creator ensures reliable cognition. ○ Realism: Trust empirical science and cognitive reliability. ○ Anti-Realism: Focus on accurate mental representations, not objective reality. Summary: Knowledge = True, Justified Belief. Skepticism challenges this by questioning perceptions, with various solutions (metaphysical, realism, anti-realism) addressing the doubt. Philosophy Page 3  Ontology 21 November 2024 10:36 Ontology: The Theory of Existence Definition: The study of being, focusing on existence beyond appearances. Etymology: ○ On, Onto: Being, existence ○ Logos: Knowledge Key Concepts Phenomenal World: Perceived by senses, not true existence. Ontology's Focus: Understanding being in general, not specific beings. Presocratic Period Cosmology: Study of the universe as a whole. Cosmogony: Study of the universe's origin. Miletean Philosophers Thales: Arkhé = Water. Anaximander: Arkhé = Apeiron (infinite substance). Anaximenes: Arkhé = Air. Southern Italian Philosophers Pythagoras: World based on numbers; ethics of moderation. Parmenides: Existence is indivisible, eternal; Law of Non-Contradiction. Heraclitus Arkhé: Fire; unity through opposites. Plato’s Ontology Two Worlds: Physical: Imperfect, changing. → World of Ideas: Perfect, eternal. Theory of Ideas: Forms are eternal; physical objects imitate them. Allegory of the Cave: Sensory world is illusion; knowledge comes through reason. Aristotle’s Ontology Substance (Ousia): Essence that persists through change. Key Ideas: Primary Substances: Individual entities. → Secondary Substances: Species. Accidents: Properties that change without altering essence. Matter (Hylé) & Form (Eidos): Material and structure/purpose. Act & Potential: Change = transition from potential to act. Four Causes: Material, Formal, Efficient, Final. Plato vs. Aristotle Philosophy Page 4 Plato vs. Aristotle Plato: Ideas are separate (transcendent); dualism (physical vs. ideal); focus on reason. Aristotle: Essence in the object itself; dualism (matter + form); focus on empirical knowledge. Philosophy Page 5  Metaphysics 21 November 2024 10:40 Metaphysics - Study Notes Key Concepts from Kant & Metaphysics 1. Kant's Four Questions: What can we know? (Epistemology, Ontology, Metaphysics) What can we hope for? (Theology) → What can we do? (Ethics, Morality) What is man? (Anthropology) 2. Metaphysics: ○ Explores the nature of reality. ○ Defines ultimate reality, being, and fundamental principles. 3. Metaphysics vs. Epistemology: ○ Epistemology: Investigates knowledge and its limits (e.g., "What is knowledge?"). ○ Metaphysics: Examines the nature of reality (e.g., "What are properties?"). 4. Two Basic Metaphysical Questions: ○ What exists? (e.g., God, mind, events, properties) ○ What is the nature of these things? (e.g., simple vs. complex, properties) 5. Metaphysics vs. Physics: ○ Physics: Empirical science based on sensory experience. ○ Metaphysics: Conceptual inquiry beyond experience (a priori knowledge). 6. Scope of Metaphysics: ○ Concerned with both physical and non-physical realities. ○ Seeks a complete and consistent theory of reality. Immanuel Kant’s Revolution in Metaphysics Kant’s Copernican Turn: Kant argues that metaphysics is not about an independent reality, but how we perceive and conceptualize it. We can only know the world through human cognition, not as it is in itself. Heraclitus & The Problem of Identity 1. Heraclitus’ View: ○ "You cannot step into the same river twice." ○ The world is constantly changing ("Panta Rhei"). ○ Metaphysical Problem: What maintains identity despite constant change? 2. Identity & Change: ○ Does a river or object maintain identity through change? ○ The Boat of Theseus Paradox: If parts of a ship are replaced, is it still the same ship? ▪ Materialism: Identity depends on physical parts. ▪ Idealism: Identity depends on form. ▪ Both face challenges (e.g., paradox of replacement). 3. Heraclitus’ View on Identity: ○ Identity is found in substance (water, not form). ○ Time and change challenge identity—things constantly evolve. Personal Identity & Change Philosophy Page 6 Personal Identity & Change Human Identity: ○ Humans change over time (e.g., cells regenerate), but personal identity remains constant. What defines this continuity? ○ Philosophical Questions: ▪ Is personal identity linked to the body, memory, or something else? Summary: Metaphysics explores reality, identity, and essence. Heraclitus’ river and the Boat of Theseus challenge our understanding of identity over time. Kant shifts focus from objective reality to human cognition—how we understand and perceive the world. Personal identity is shaped by physical, mental, and existential factors. Philosophy Page 7 Ethics 21 November 2024 10:36 The "What to Do" Question: Ethics What Is Ethics? Ethics, the study of moral action and principles, is the second question in Kant's framework: Originating from Greek philosophy (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle), ethics has evolved What can we know? – Epistemology alongside societal moral judgments. Modern issues like abortion, AI, genetic What can we hope for? – Theology engineering, and environmental ethics have expanded the scope of ethical inquiry. → Key questions today include: What can we do? – Ethics When does life begin? What does it mean to be human? – Anthropology Is someone still a person if kept alive by machines? Should we alter nature for human benefit? How should we address environmental destruction? Fundamental Questions of Ethics Ethics provides a framework for addressing these complex challenges. What should I do? How should I live? Ethics explores the moral duality of good vs. bad, right vs. wrong, and moral vs. immoral. Determinism vs. Free Will Belief in destiny raises issues: Without freedom, there’s no responsibility or moral accountability. Freedom is essential for moral action. Core Concepts in Ethics Opportunity: Moral dilemmas require choosing between alternatives. The Self: Ethical decisions are made by an autonomous agent (the "I"). → Freedom: The power to choose is crucial for morality. Responsibility: We are responsible for actions within our influence, including inaction. Willpower: Moral action requires overcoming external influences. Judging Moral Actions Intentional: Focuses on the intention behind actions (good intent = moral). Consequential: Focuses on the outcome (good results = moral). Fundamental Ethics Ethics clarifies the basis of morality, investigating what makes actions good or bad and how factors influence behavior. Aristotle, Aquinas, and Kant explored these foundational questions. Moral Experience Example: A man feels guilt after speaking curtly to his wife, despite no external consequence. This guilt stems from his inner moral compass (conscience). Ethics examines how freedom, responsibility, and action shape this moral experience. Key Terms: Ethics vs. Morality Ethics: Philosophical study of morality. Morality: Community-based rules, values, and norms. Ethics seeks universal principles behind moral judgments. Philosophy Page 8 16th century 21 November 2024 10:52 Events in the History of Ideas in the 16th Century 1. Paradigm Shift and Crisis Paradigm: A framework of interpretation that shapes how a culture perceives reality. Major cultural changes result in paradigm shifts. 16th Century Crisis: A series of events triggered a crisis in European culture, marking the transition to modernity. 2. Key Historical Events in the 16th Century 1492: Discovery of America ○ Columbus' discovery impacts Europe in the 16th century. ○ Impact: European dominance over the Americas, colonialism, economic transformation (influx of raw materials, gold, silver). ○ Sparked capitalism and led to the Bourgeois Revolution (1640) and later the Industrial Revolution. 1543: Copernicus’ De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ○ Introduced the Copernican Revolution: A shift from a geocentric to a heliocentric worldview. ○ Set the stage for modern scientific thought. 3. Intellectual Crisis in the Late Renaissance Medieval Worldview: ○ Time: Finite; Biblical view of history with a clear beginning and end. Dude are ○ Space: Geocentric (Earth at the center of the universe, with the stars as equidistant). you real Disruption: ○ The Copernican Revolution challenged the finite view of space, suggesting a universe with no boundaries and infinite stars. ○ Encounter with other cultures (e.g., Chinese history) also undermined the Christian, linear view of history. 4. Summary of 16th Century Intellectual Shifts Crisis: The 16th century saw a collapse of medieval values, especially in religion and worldview. Impact: New scientific and philosophical ideas challenged traditional thought, laying the foundation for modernity. Philosophy Page 9 Copernican Revolution 21 November 2024 10:54 The Copernican Revolution Key Concepts: Copernican Revolution: Shift from geocentric to heliocentric model, changing astronomy, physics, and human self-understanding. Heliocentric Model: Earth is a planet orbiting the Sun; universe is infinite. Intellectual Crisis: Traditional worldview challenged by new discoveries. Church defended old beliefs; conflict between “ancients” (traditionalists) vs. “moderns” (innovators). Philosophical Revival: Epicureanism: Materialism and atomism. Skepticism: Questioning certain knowledge. Stoicism: Influence on ethical thought. Summary: The Copernican Revolution replaced the finite, geocentric cosmos with an infinite universe, starting the modern scientific era and causing an intellectual crisis. Philosophy Page 10 Modernity 21 November 2024 10:30 Study Notes on The Beginnings of Modernity Key Focus: Intellectual trends of the 17th and 18th centuries. Division between pre-modern and modern thought. Overview of the Ages of Philosophy Origins: Ancient Greece (6th century BC), transitioning from mythology to rational explanations of reality. Major Break: Copernican Revolution (16th-17th centuries), shifting from a geocentric to heliocentric model, marking the start of modern thought. Pre-Modern vs. Modern Periods Pre-Modern Era: ○ Antiquity: Birth of Western philosophy. ○ Middle Ages: Scholasticism dominated by Christian theology. ○ Renaissance (14th-16th centuries): Humanism challenges scholasticism. Modern Era: ○ Start: Copernican Revolution leads to new frameworks, rejecting scholasticism. ○ Divisions: ▪ Early Modern (17th Century): Rise of modern science, rationalism, empiricism. ▪ Enlightenment (18th Century): Emphasis on reason, progress, and human rights. Philosophical Trends (17th-18th Centuries) 17th Century: Modernity begins, rationalism vs. empiricism. 18th Century: Enlightenment focuses on intellectual freedom, critiquing tradition. Key Historical Impacts Copernican Revolution: Shifted humanity's place in an infinite, heliocentric universe. Modern Science: Focus on empirical observation and rationalism. Course Objectives Explore 17th-18th century intellectual trends. Understand the division between pre-modern (Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance) and modern (Early Modern, Enlightenment) thought. Analyze the philosophical shift from the Copernican Revolution. Review Questions 1. What divides pre-modern and modern thought? ○ The Copernican Revolution: geocentric to heliocentric. 2. Why separate the 17th and 18th centuries? ○ Different intellectual trends: continuity in Anglo-Saxon thought, break in Continental thought. 3. What characterized late Renaissance thought? ○ Challenge to scholasticism, rise of humanism and science. 4. How did world interpretation change? From a finite, Earth-centered universe to an infinite, sun-centered cosmos. Philosophy Page 11  ○ From a finite, Earth-centered universe to an infinite, sun-centered cosmos. Visual Aids Worldview Comparison: ○ Ptolemaic Model: Earth-centered, finite. ○ Copernican Model: Sun-centered, infinite. Philosophy Page 12 Enlightenment 21 November 2024 10:44 Lesson 10.2: Characteristics of the Enlightenment 1. Overview ○ Intellectual movement (17th-18th centuries) focused on reason, science, and progress. ○ Thinkers shared common ideas but had notable differences. 2. Physics vs. Metaphysics ○ Enlightenment = Empiricism (experience-based knowledge). ○ Rationalists: Knowledge through metaphysics (e.g., God’s ideas). ○ Enlightenment thinkers reject metaphysics, prefer natural science. 3. Criticism of Religion ○ Religion seen as superstition, hindering reason. ○ Materialism and atheism rise; religion seen as a tool for political control. 4. New Physical Worldview ○ Copernican Revolution ends medieval cosmology. ○ Newton defines modern physics with gravity and laws of motion. ○ Voltaire promotes Newtonian physics over Descartes. 5. Rise of Science ○ Scientific institutions: Royal Society, Académie Française. ○ Journals (e.g., Journal des savants from 1665). ○ Encyclopédies aim to gather and spread knowledge (e.g., Diderot’s Encyclopédie). 6. Man & Society ○ Naturalistic anthropology: Humans defined by nature, not religion. ○ Social philosophy: Society originates from a social contract, not theology. 7. History & Progress ○ Enlightenment seen as the peak of human history. ○ Progress: Replacing superstition with reason, leading to scientific and practical advancements (e.g., telescope, microscope). 8. Radical vs. Moderate Enlightenment ○ Radical Enlightenment: Atheism, anti-religion, belief in progress (e.g., Spinoza, Voltaire, Diderot). ○ Moderate Enlightenment: More cautious (e.g., Rousseau, Kant, Wolff). 9. Key Ideas ○ Opposition to metaphysics and systems thinking. ○ Preference for empiricism and natural science. ○ Naturalistic views on human nature and society; belief in progress. Philosophy Page 13 Rousseau 21 November 2024 10:50 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778): Key Points 1. Key Works ○ Discourse on the Sciences and Arts (1750): Progress corrupts virtue; gained fame. ○ Discourse on Inequality (1755): Humans good by nature, corrupted by society. ○ The Social Contract (1762): Advocated democracy; banned in France. ○ Emile (1762): Natural education philosophy; also banned. ○ Confessions/Reveries: Personal reflections, paranoia. 2. Influence ○ Shaped Kant’s ethics, Romanticism, and French Revolution ideals. 3. Legacy ○ Exiled for controversial works; major impact on Enlightenment, politics, and education. Philosophy Page 14 Philosophy Flashcards 25 November 2024 14:38 I have generated a full deck of Philosophy flashcards so it's easier to memorize and learn the subject. Feel free to use it! Here's the link : https://anki-decks.com/deck/detail/T8hxuOuHp/ Philosophy Page 15