OriGinal CopY of Science A notes.pdf

LESSON 1 SCOPE OF BIOLOGY Science is a systematic way of deriving information to understand in the simplest form. It comes from a Latin word “scientia” meaning knowledge. Galileo Galilei is the Father of Science. Pure science - pursuit of knowledge Applied science - “technology” is the...

LESSON 1 SCOPE OF BIOLOGY Science is a systematic way of deriving information to understand in the simplest form. It comes from a Latin word “scientia” meaning knowledge. Galileo Galilei is the Father of Science. Pure science - pursuit of knowledge Applied science - “technology” is the application of pure science Biology - “study of life” It comes from two Greek words. It is the science that deals with structures, functions, and relationships or living things and their environment. Bios - life Logos - reason or study # 3 Major divisions of Biology ( Botany, Zoology, Microbiology ) Traditional Fields of study in Biological Science Taxonomy - naming and classification Cytology - structures and functions of cells Genetics - heredity and variation - DNA ( Deoxyribonucleic acid ) carries the genetic information Ecology - relationships of organisms with their environment Physiology - functions and parts Morphology - shape/form and structures Embryology - formation and development of gametes ( sex cells ) - Egg cell + sperm cell = zygote - Egg cells carries x chromosome while sperm carries either x or y chromosome - In-vitro fertilization ( IVF ) joining of a woman's egg and a man's sperm in a laboratory dish. Louis brown is the first in vitro baby. Saliva has enzymes that aids in chemical reaction - salivary amylase “ptyalin” Evolution - origin and differentiation  Biochemistry - biochemical composition Immunology - immune system Modern Fields of study in Biological Science Bioinformatics - biological data using computers Genomics - entire genetic material Molecular biology - molecules Pharmacogenomics - how genes affect a person’s response to drugs Proteomics - proteins Synthetic biology - design of biological parts, devices, and systems Systems biology - biological systems, behavior, and interactions of biological entities such as molecules, cells, organs, and organisms. Discovery-based science - relies mainly on verifiable results and measurements, knowledge of cells to the level of biosphere, sequencing of human genome. Hypothesis-based science - use of the scientific method, proposing and testing hypotheses, experimental design. Scientific Method ( OHEC ) 1.) Observation: using of the senses 2.) Hypothesis: intelligent guess or possible explanation 3.) Experimentation: test hypothesis, recording and analyzing results 4.) Conclusion: generalization about the results that may accept, reject, or modify the hypothesis. Edward Jenner’s discovery of smallpox vaccine in 1796 Aristotle - Father of biology, modern science ( discovered the scientific method ) Entomology - insects Conchology - shells Ichthyology - fish Ornithology - birds Helminthology - worms Herpetology - reptiles and amphibians Phycology - algae Mycology - fungi Mammalogy - mammals Anthropology - man Taxonomy - identification, classification, nomenclature - Father of Taxonomy: Carl Von Linne or Carolus Linnaeus, introduced the binomial nomenclature, naming organisms using two latin words, which is now called the scientific name. Kingdom - Animalia Phylum - Chordata Class - Mammalia Order - Primates Family - Hominidae Genus - Homo Species - sapien Branches of Biology based on Specialization - Taxonomy - identification, classification, nomenclature - Anatomy - structural organization of living things - Morphology - study of form and their specific structural features - Cytology - cells - Histology - tissue - Embryology - prenatal development of gametes ( sex cells ), fertilization, and development of embryos and fetuses. - Ecology - interactions among organisms and their biophysical environment - Genetics - inheritance of characters or heredity - Cell Biology - deals with the morphological, organizational, physiological aspects of cell and its components - Paleontology - fossils and remains of past organisms - Evolution - origin of life  - Biotechnology - exploitation of biological processes such as genetic manipulation to develop products. - BT - Bacillus thuringiensis - GMO - Genetically Modified Organism / transgenic organism - Photobiology - effects of ultraviolet - Radiobiology - ionizing radiation - Pharmacology - synthesis and effects of medicines - Pharmacogenomics - how genes affect a person’s response to drugs - Synthetic Biology - design of biological parts, devices, and system - System Biology - biological systems, behavior, and interactions of biological entities such as cells, organs and organisms - Genomics - entire genetic material - Proteomics - proteins - Molecular biology - structure and function of macromolecules In some ways, viruses are both living and nonliving. They have genetic information that evolves through natural selection. Others believe that they are more like seeds, with the potential for life, if they find the right environment ( a cell host ) Biophysics - application of the laws of physics to biological phenomena Biochemistry - chemical and physiochemical processes that occur within living organisms Biomathematics / Biometry - biological process using mathematical techniques Biogeography - occurrence and distribution of different species of living organisms in different geographical regions of the world Bioeconomics - study of organisms from an economical point of view Theoretical Biology - interdisciplinary scientific research field with a range of applications in biology, biotechnology, and medicine. Bioinformatics - application and use of computers to process and analyze biological data LESSON 1.1 FOREIGN BIOLOGISTS Louis Pasteur - developed the process of pasteurization, responsible for the development of vaccines against rabies, anthrax, and cholera. Gregor Mendel - Father of genetics, he made experiments on pea plants which lead to the understanding of the patterns of transmission of genes from one generation to the next Charles Darwin - Father of evolution, he traveled to the Galapagos Island to observe living things. “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection” Carolus Linnaeus - Father of Taxonomy, proposed binomial nomenclature Alexander Fleming - discovered penicillin, an antibiotic from mold species Penicillium notatum Rosalind Franklin, James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins - three-dimensional structure of DNA or the double helix model Frederick Sanger and Walter Gilbert - DNA Sequencing, discovery of genes Georges J.F. Kohler and Cesar Milstein - monoclonal antibodies Kary Mullis - polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ), produce copies of DNA Robert Hooke - coined the term “cell” in a biological context. William Harvey - blood’s circulation in the body. FILIPINO BIOLOGISTS Dolores A. Ramirez - mutant coconut endosperm “makapuno” researches hybridization of different wild types of crops such as corn, rice, legumes, and eggplants. Her research aims to improve harvest and develop plant varieties that can tolerate stress and are resistant to pests. Benjamin Cabrera - filarial parasites William Padolina - isolation of natural chemicals from plants Clara Lim-Sylianco - mutagens, antimutagens Quintin Quintanar - molecular mechanisms of lipoprotein biosynthesis Magdalena Cantoria - morphology, physiology, and biochemistry of medicinal plants Paulo Campos - father of nuclear medicine, first radioisotope laboratory Alfredo Santos - father of natural products, studied chemicals found in medicinal plants Francisco Foronda - development of poultry industry Julian Banzon - agro-industrial wastes Lourdes Cruz - toxic peptides gathered from the venom of fish hunting Conus marine snails LESSON 2 LABORATORY TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT Beaker - glass with a wide mouth and usually a lip for pouring. Used for mixing, holding, and heating liquids. This is NOT used for accurate measurements Erlenmeyer Flask - flat-bottomed flask that tapers upward to a straight neck. Used for swirling. This is NOT used for accurate measurements. Graduated Cylinder - tall narrow container with a volume scale. Used to measure liquid volume exactly from 10 mL to 100 mL. Used for accurate and precise measurements. Test Tube - plain or lipped tube. Used by chemists to hold, mix, or head small quantities of solid or liquid chemicals. Test tube rack - used for holding test tubes, can hold 6-12 test tubes Funnel - hollow cone with a tube extending from the smaller end design to catch and direct a downward flow. Used to channel liquid or fine-grained substances. Pipette - small piece of apparatus which consists of a narrow tube into which fluid is drawn by suction. Used to transport a small amount of liquid. Tongs - two movable piece joined at one end. Used for grasping and lifting Ring stand and Ring clamp - metal stand consisting of a long upright rod attached to a heavy rectangular base. Used for supporting laboratory equipment Forceps - used for picking up objects too small to be handled. Used like pincers Triple beam balances - measure masses; reading error is 0.05 gram Digital balances - measure masses very precisely Bunsen Burner - produces a single open cas flame. Used to heat laboratory samples When the desired temperature is 100°C or higher Safety goggles - provide more protection than safety glasses from impact, dust, etc. Sanitized in 5 mins using UV light. Test tube brush - located in beakers next to each sink. Used to clean test tubes. Thermometer - measure temperature Alcohol lamp - heating, sterilization, and combustion. The alcohol lamp uses ethyl alcohol or spirit as fuel. Made up of glass, brass, or aluminum. Magnifying glass - simplest form of a basic microscope. Cover slip - placed over specimen on a microscope slide, to hold the specimen in place and protect it from contamination from the environment. Protects the lens of the microscope. Glass slide - thin, flat, rectangular piece of glass used as a platform for microscopic specimen. 25 mm wide by 75mm or 1 inch by 3 inches. Dissecting pan - hold the sample Dissecting pins - hold specimen or tissues in place Probe - track vessels, nerves, and muscle fibers Pithing / Dissecting needle - immobilize biological specimens. Scalpel - sharp blade used for anatomical dissection LESSON 2.1 PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE Head - cylindrical metallic tube that holds the eyepiece lens at one end and connects to the nose piece at other end. Also called a body tube or eyepiece tube. The light coming from objectives will bend inside this tube. Arm - connecting the base to the head and the eyepiece tube to the base. Supports the head of the microscope and is also used when carrying the microscope. Some high-quality microscopes have an articulated arm with more than one joint, allowing more movement of the microscopic head for better viewing. Base - lowermost part that supports the entire microscope structure. Provides stability for the microscope. Illuminators, light switches, and electrical wiring systems are fitted in the base. Eyepiece - Ocular lens is the closest to the viewer’s eye. Used to look at the specimen. These lenses come in different magnification powers from 5X to 30X, but the most common ocular lenses are of 10X or 15X magnification. They magnify the image for the second time. Eyepiece tube - eyepiece holder. It carries the eyepiece just above the objective lens. In some microscopes, such as the binoculars, the eyepiece tube is flexible and can be rotated for maximum visualization for variance in distance. For monocular microscopes, they are none flexible. Diopter Adjustment - control knob present only in the binocular microscope that is used to change focus on one eyepiece. It is used to correct any difference in vision and compensate for the differences in vision between the viewer’s two eyes. Nose piece - movable circular structure that houses all the objective lenses. It is also called the revolving turret. It is connected to the body tube and lies just above the stage. It can be rotated clockwise or counterclockwise to increase or decrease the magnification. The change in magnification results due to a change in the objective lens. Objective lens - the lens that is closest to the specimen. They are fitted on the nosepiece. A standard microscope has 3 to 4 objective lenses of different magnifying powers: 4X, 10X, 40X, and 100X. The objective lenses first receive the light transmitted from the specimen and magnify the image for the first time. The Adjustment knobs - Adjustment Knobs are the control knobs used to focus the microscope on the specimen, consisting of two types: A. The Fine Adjustment Knob is a smaller knob used for fine adjustment, primarily used for sharpening images when viewing under high power. B. The Coarse Adjustment knob is a larger knob used for focusing images under low power magnification, allowing for rapid movement of the stage. Stage - The stage is the section where the specimen is placed for viewing, typically with stage clips holding slides in place. The mechanical stage allows for manual slide movement using mechanical knobs. Stage Control Knobs - Stage Control Knobs are mechanical controls used to move the stage, with two knobs; one for left and right movement and one for forward and backward movement, This moves the slide which affects the field of vision. Aperture – This is a hole in the microscope stage through which the transmitted light from the source reaches the stage. Microscopic Illuminator - A microscopic illuminator is a light source used in optical microscopes, such as tungsten-halogen lamps, 75-150W Xenon lamps, tin-halide lamps, or mercury vapor lamps. It is used to reflect light from an external source or to maintain a constant light source, depending on illumination intensity and wavelength. Condenser – These are lenses that are used to collect and focus light from the illuminator into the specimen. They are found under the stage next to the diaphragm of the microscope. Diaphragm - The diaphragm, also known as the iris, is an adjustable apparatus located under the microscope stage, responsible for controlling the light intensity and size of the beam of light reaching the specimen. Light Switch – Light Switch is an electrical control device. Light switches are used to turn on and off the illuminator. Brightness Adjustment – The brightness adjustment system controls the voltage supplied to the light bulb, controlling the intensity (brightness) of the light bulb.