Notes on Theories of Crime Causation

**CHAPTER 1** **FUNDAMENTALS OF CRIME CAUSATION** **Learning Objectives:** At the end of this chapter, the learners are expected to be able to: 1. Investigate various criminological perspectives, such as biological, psychological, sociological, and ecological theories, to comprehend the...

**CHAPTER 1** **FUNDAMENTALS OF CRIME CAUSATION** **Learning Objectives:** At the end of this chapter, the learners are expected to be able to: 1. Investigate various criminological perspectives, such as biological, psychological, sociological, and ecological theories, to comprehend the multifaceted causes of criminal behavior. 2. Analyze how individual traits, including genetics, personality, cognitive processes, and psychological disorders, influence the propensity towards criminal behavior. 3. Examine how societal factors like poverty, inequality, peer pressure, family dynamics, and community environments contribute to the likelihood of criminal activity. 4. Understand the application of criminological theories in the criminal justice system, including policy development, crime prevention strategies, rehabilitation, and recidivism reduction. 5. Develop the ability to critically evaluate different theories of crime causation, considering their strengths, limitations, and relevance in understanding and addressing criminal behavior. 6. Explore ethical dilemmas in crime causation theories, including issues related to intervention strategies, profiling, the presumption of innocence, and the balance between punishment and rehabilitation. **Introduction:** The fundamentals of crime causation explore various perspectives on what leads individuals to commit crimes. *Biological or medical determinism* delves into how genetic, neurological, or physiological factors can influence behavior. *Psychological determinism* examines the impact of individual experiences, personality, and mental processes on criminal behavior. *Psychiatric determinism* focuses on the role of mental disorders or illnesses in influencing criminal actions. *Sociological determinism* emphasizes societal, cultural, and environmental factors that contribute to criminal behavior, such as poverty, social norms, or peer influence. Understanding these perspectives helps in comprehending the multifaceted nature of crime causation, where biological, psychological, psychiatric, and sociological factors intertwine to shape human behavior and its criminal outcomes. ***Causes of Crimes*** Causes of crime may be environmental, hereditary or psychological. Environmental causes are ruled out as independent causes of crimes. But psychological conditions are said to be determinant of an individual's reaction to persuasive environmental influence. Criminologist says that certain offenders are born to create crimes in the environment. Other cause may be the poverty. Due to low condition of their living, they are enforced to commit crimes. Discrimination against minorities may become the cause of crimes. Emotional disorders are also cause of crimes. **Major Theories and Causation of Crime** A. **Biological Theories** Biological theories focus on aspects of the physical body, such as inherited genes, evolutionary factors, brain structures, or the role of hormones in influencing behavior. Biological theories about the causes of crime on the idea that the physical body, through inherited genes, evolutionary factors, brain structures, or the role of hormones, has influence on an individual's involvement in criminal behavior. Growing understanding of these mechanisms suggests that certain biological factors, such as particular genes, neurological deficits, low serotonin activity, malnutrition and environmental pollutants may all affect a person's biological propensity of criminal or antisocial behavior. The challenge for biological theories of crime is to adequately represent the complex interplay between inherited characteristics and environment. B. **Psychological Theories** Psychological theories focus on human cognition and its development, and how this relates to criminal behavior. Psychology presents a number of perspectives on the causes of crime. Of particular importance are theories exploring the relationship between crime and individual personality, social factors, cognition and developmental factors. These psychological theories have different degrees of focus on individual, family, group and societal psychology. Psychological literature shows that a key variable identified in the development of individual characteristics, and any criminal propensities, is the role played by parents, in terms of factors such as child-rearing practices, attachment, neglected, abuse, supervision, and the parents own anti-social or criminal behavior. C. **Psychiatric Theories** Psychiatric theories encompass various perspectives to understand and treat mental health conditions. Some major theories include psychoanalytic (Freudian), behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, and biological perspectives. Each offers distinct viewpoints on the causes and treatment of mental health issues. For instance, psychoanalytic theory delves into unconscious drives, while cognitive theory focuses on thought patterns, and biological theory explores neurological factors. These theories often intersect and evolve over time, contributing to our understanding of mental health. D. **Sociological Theories** Sociological theories focus on the influence of the organization of society and social conditions. Sociology encompasses a very wide range of theoretical perspective, but generally regards crime as a social phenomenon, and emphasizes the cultural and social elements of criminal behavior. Some sociological theories emphasize the relationship between social structures, such as language, ethnicity and class, and criminal behavior. Other theories emphasize the effect of social conditions on an individual's propensity to become involved in crime. **Other theories of crime causation** **1. Developmental Life-Course Theory** Developmental life-course theories focus on ***human development*** and how individual and social factors interact in different ways and at different developmental stages to influence individual propensity for criminal behavior. Developmental life-course explanations see crime as the result of a development process that starts before birth and continues throughout a person's life. It seeks to understand the interaction between individual factors such as genetics and personality, and social factors such as family and community wellbeing. **2. Geographic Theories** Geographic theories focus on the location of crime and how physical environments promote or discourage criminal behavior. Geographical theories of crime focus on analyzing data about the geographic distribution of crime, modifying the physical environment to reduce the likelihood of crime and targeting initiatives to geographic areas with high rates of offending. Using data about the geographic distribution of crime, it is possible to find patterns that can be used to inform crime prevention projects. Geographic theories of crime prevention that focus on the physical environment tend to focus on such things as how urban planning, building design and the design of public spaces affect crime, and also on how physical environments can be modified to make businesses and residences more resistant to crime (sometimes called "situational crime prevention"). **3. Economic Theories** Economic theories focus on how offending is influenced by incentives. The economic theory is based on the notion that individuals respond rationally to the costs and benefits of criminal opportunities. Thus, factors that increase the expected costs of crime (such as increasing the likelihood of apprehension or severity of punishment) or reduce the expected benefits (such as improved educational or job opportunities) can reduce the incidence of crime. The economic framework can also encompass other theories of crime that provide a richer understanding of rationality and decision-making (such as the biological basis of impulsivity), the costs of crime (such the social capital in anti-social peer networks) and the benefits of crime (such as local economic conditions). **CHAPTER 2** **BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES** **Learning Objectives:** At the end of this chapter, the learners are expected to be able to: 1. *Explore how biological factors, such as genetics, neurobiology, and physiology, influence behavior and mental processes.* 2. *Investigate psychological theories that elucidate how thoughts, emotions, and motivations shape human actions and interactions.* 3. *Grasp the complex interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental influences in determining behavior and mental health outcomes.* 4. *Understand how these theories are used in fields like clinical psychology, medicine, education, and social sciences to address and solve real-world problems.* 5. *Develop the ability to critically assess and compare various biological and psychological theories, understanding their strengths, weaknesses, and practical implications.* 6. *Explore ethical implications in applying these theories, especially in healthcare, research, and societal contexts, considering issues related to consent, privacy, and interventions.* **Introduction:** Biological and psychological theories form the backbone of understanding human behavior and cognition. These theories delve into the intricate connections between our biology, brain functions, and mental processes. While biological theories explore the role of genetics, neuroscience, and bodily functions in shaping behavior, psychological theories focus on thoughts, emotions, and social interactions. Together, they offer comprehensive perspectives on what makes us who we are, illuminating the fascinating interplay between our biology and the workings of the mind. **A. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES** - This pertains to a collection of theories that attribute the perpetration of crimes by certain individuals to physical, physiological, and other natural factors. - This explanation for the presence of criminal characteristics links an individual\'s malevolent inclination to physical deformity or impairment. **Heredity** - **refers to the process through which qualities are passed down from parents to their children.** **Richard Louis Dugdale** - **undertook an extensive investigation into the Jukes family, tracing their genealogy as far back as two centuries.** - **It was shown that a significant majority of the progenitors of the Jukes lineage exhibited criminal tendencies.** **Henry Goddard** - **conducted a study in which he examined the lineage of Martin Kallikak\'s offspring from both of his wives.** - **Through his investigation, Goddard saw a notable disparity in the overall quality of life among the descendants.** - **The individual in question is credited with the origination of the term \"moron.\"** **Charles Goring** - **was a prominent figure in the field of criminology during the early 20th century.** - **The author posited the notion that hereditary factors play a role in the transmission of criminal behaviors from parents to their offspring.** - **Additionally, the author suggested that persons exhibiting criminal characteristics should be subject to restrictions on their reproductive capabilities.** **INTELLIGENCE AS A FACTOR IN CRIMINALITY** The seminal investigations conducted on the Juke and Kallikak lineages were pioneering research that demonstrated the hereditary transmission and perpetuation of feeblemindedness or low IQ through several generations. Several tests were also undertaken, which ultimately resulted in the creation of the utilization of IQ tests as a method of assessment for those involved in criminal activities. The first findings appeared to support the notion that individuals who engaged in criminal behavior exhibited diminished cognitive capacities and were diagnosed with cognitive impairments. **Alfred Binet** - a renowned French psychologist, is credited with the creation of the initial intelligence quotient (IQ) test. This exam was designed to assess the cognitive abilities of individual children by comparing their performance on activities and problem-solving with the average abilities of their classmates. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Physiognomy** | | | | | | - refers to the scholarly | | | investigation of face traits | | | and their correlation with | | | human behavior. | | +===================================+===================================+ | **Giambattista della Porta**, | **Johann Kaspar Lavater** | | | | | - the progenitor of human | - espoused the idea of | | physiognomy, posited that the | delaPorta, positing that an | | facial characteristics of an | individual\'s character can | | individual might be utilized | be discerned by their face | | to forecast criminal conduct. | features. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Phrenology, craniology, or | **Franz Joseph Gall** | | cranioscopy** | | | | - is credited with the | | - refers to the scholarly | development of cranioscopy, a | | examination of the exterior | field that was afterwards | | configuration of the cranium | known as phrenology. | | in correlation with an | | | individual\'s psychological | **Johann Kaspar Spurzheim** | | traits and proclivities | | | towards engaging in criminal | - served as an assistant to | | activities. | Franz Joseph Gall in the | | | field of phrenology. He | | | played a significant role in | | | the dissemination and | | | popularization of phrenology | | | across a broad spectrum of | | | individuals. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Physiology or Somatotype** | | | | | | refers to the study of the body | | | build of a person in relation to | | | his temperament and personality | | | and the type of offense he is | | | most prone to commit. | | +===================================+===================================+ | **Ernst Kretschmer** | **William Herbert Sheldon** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **asthenic**-- characterized as | **ectomorph** -- tall and thin | | thin, small and weak. | and less social and more | | | intellectual than the other | | | types. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **athletic** -- muscular and | **mesomorph**-- have | | strong. | well-developed muscles and an | | | athletic appearance. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **pyknic** -- stout, round and | **endomorph** -- heavy builds and | | fat. | slow moving. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **dysplastic** -- combination of | | | two body types | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Ernst Kretschmer** (1888-1964) ---------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------ ---------------------------- **Body Physique** **Description** **Psychiatric Disorders** **Asthenic** lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders Schizophrenia **Athletic** medium to tall, strong, muscular, coarse bones Schizophrenia **Pyknic** medium height, rounded figure, massive neck and broad face Bipolar (Manic Depression) **B. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES** - refers to the theories that attribute criminal behavior of individuals to psychological factors, such as emotion and mental problems. **Sigmund Freud** - he is recognized as the FATHER OF PSYCHOANALYSIS - known for his *psychoanalytic theory* - According to him, criminality is caused by the imbalance of the three (3) components of personality: *the id, the ego, and the superego.* **THREE PARTS OF PERSONALITY** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **ID** -- this stands for instinctual drives; it is governed by the "pleasure principle"; the id impulses are not social and must be repressed or adapted so that they may become socially acceptable **EGO** -- this is considered to be the sensible and responsible part of an individual's personality and is governed by the "reality principle" **SUPEREGO** -- serves as the moral conscience of an individual; it is structured by what values were taught by the parents, the school and the community, as well as belief in God. **Sigmund Freud\'s conceptualization of the human mind encompasses three distinct levels.** The human mind is believed to include three distinct degrees of consciousness. The three components under consideration are the conscious mind, which accounts for around 10% of mental activity, the subconscious mind, which encompasses 50-60% of mental activity, and the unconscious mind, which represents 30-40% of mental activity. Freud explicated the structure of the mind into several levels, each with unique responsibilities and purposes. The three tiers of cognitive functioning encompass: 1. The conscious mind encompasses the array of ideas, memories, emotions, and desires that individuals are now cognizant of. This pertains to the cognitive processes within our mind that can be subject to logical thought and verbal expression. In addition, our memories, although not always inside the realm of consciousness, may be readily accessed and brought into awareness. 2. The subconscious encompasses all elements that have the capacity to be accessed by the conscious mind. 3. The unconscious mind can be seen as a reservoir containing a multitude of emotions, cognitions, impulses, and recollections that lie outside the realm of our conscious consciousness. The unconscious mind includes elements that are deemed unwanted or unpleasant, such as experiences of distress, apprehension, or discord **Psychology** -- the science of behavior and mental processes of the criminal. It is focused on the individual criminal behavior-how it is acquired, evoked, maintained and modified. Both the environmental and personality influences are considered, along with the mental processes that mediate the behavior. **Criminal Psycho-Dynamics** -- The study of mental processes of criminals in action, the study of the genesis, development and motivation of human behavior that conflicts with accepted norms and standards of society. This study concentrates on the study of individuals as opposed to general studies of mass populations with respect to their general criminal behavior. **Common Types of Insanity** a. **Dementia Praecox** - A collective term for mental disorders that begin at or shortly after puberty and usually lead to general failure of the mental faculties with the corresponding physiological impairment. Also known as Schizophrenia. b. **Manic Depressive** - (characterized by mania and mental depression) c. **Paralysis** - condition of helpless inactivity or of inability to act. d. **Senile** -- mental deterioration often accompanying old age (Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease). 1. **Idiots** -- person whose case there exist mental defectiveness of such a degree that they are unable to guard themselves against common physical dangers. Their mentality is compared to a two years old person. 2. **Imbeciles** -- persons in whose case there exist mental defectiveness which thought not amounting to idiocy, is yet so pronounced that they are incapable of managing themselves or their affairs. Their mentality is like a child of 2 to 7 years old. 3. **Feeble-Minded Persons** -- those in whose case there exist mental defectiveness which thought not amounting to imbecility, is yet so pronounced that they require care, supervision and control for their own or for the protection of others, or in the case of children, they appear to be permanently incapable by reason of such defectiveness or receiving proper benefit from the intrusion in ordinary schools. 4. **Moral Defectiveness** -- person wherein defect exists coupled with strong vicious or criminal propensities, and who require care and supervision, and control for their own or for the protection of others. **Sigmund Freud** **-** He is known for his *psychoanalytic theory.* **-** According to him, criminality is caused by the imbalance of the three (3) components of personality: *the id, the ego, and the superego.* *- According to him there are three parts of personality:* **Psychosexual Stages of Human Development** **Eros --** The most basic human drive present at birth (the instinct to preserve and create life); expressed sexually. **Oral Stage --** Usually during the first year of life when the child attains pleasure by sucking and biting (Birth to 1^st^ year). **Anal Stage --** Focus on the elimination of bodily wastes during the second and third years of life (1 to 3 years old). **Phallic Stage --** During the third year when child focuses their attention on their genitals (3^rd^ to 6^th^ year). **Oedipus Complex --** A stage of development when male begins to have sexual feelings for their mother. **Electra Complex --** A stage of development when girls begin to have sexual feelings for their fathers. **Latency -** Begins at age 6; feelings of sexuality are expressed until the genital stage begins at puberty. This marks the beginning of adult sexuality (6^th^ year to puberty). **Genital -** This is the last stage of Freud\'s psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20\'s. Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage (Puberty to Adulthood). **Fixated Person --** It exhibits behavior traits characteristics of those encountered during infantile sexual development e.g., an infant who does not receive enough oral gratification during the first year of life if likely as an adult engage in such oral behavior as smoking, drinking, or drug abuse and others. **Psychopathy Or Anti-Social Personality** - Personality that is characterized by an inability to learn from experience, lack of warmth and no sense of guilt. - Referred to as **"manie sans delire"** or madness without confusion by the French physician **Philippe Pinel** - Called as **"moral insanity"** by **James Prichard** - Referred to **"irresistible atavistic impulses"** by Gina Lombroso-Ferrero 1. Characterized by no sense of guilt; 2. No subjective conscience; 3. No sense of right and wrong; 4. They have difficulty in forming relationships with other people; and 5. They cannot relate to other people. **CHAPTER 3** **SOCIOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC THEORIES** **Learning Objectives:** At the end of this chapter, the learners are expected to be able to: **INTRODUCTION** Sociological theories examine how society shapes human behavior, interactions, and institutions, while economic theories explore the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services within societies. Both fields offer frameworks to understand complex social structures, behaviors, and systems that impact individuals and communities. Sociological theories delve into social phenomena, while economic theories focus on resource allocation and market dynamics, contributing to a broader comprehension of how societies function and evolve. **A. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES** Sociological factors refer to things, places and people with whom we come in contact with and which play a part in determining our actions and conduct. These causes may bring about the development of criminal behavior. **Sociology** -- the study of crime focused on the group of people and society as a whole. It is primarily based on the examination of the relationship of demographic and group variables to crime. Variables such as socio-economic status, interpersonal relationships, age, race, gender, and cultural groups of people are probed in relation to the environmental factors that are most conducive to criminal action, such as time, place, and circumstances surrounding the crime. **Sociological Factors** - refer to things, places and people with whom we come in contact with and which play a part in determining our actions and conduct. These causes may bring about the development of criminal behavior **Anomie (B -- A -- N)** - is a condition in which society provides little moral guidance to individuals. This is characterized by **b**reakdown of social order, **a**bsence of social norms and **n**ormlessness. NOTE: LOGOMACY -- A statement that we would have no crime if we have no criminal laws and that we could eliminate all crime merely by abolishing all criminal laws. a. **David Emile Durkheim or Emile Durkheim** **-** He stated that crime is a normal part of the society just like birth and death. b. **Gabriel Tarde** c. **Adolphe Quetelet and Andre Michael Guerry** - He repudiated the free will doctrine of the classicists. - He is a founder of *cartographic school of criminology.* - He is a founder of moral statistics. - First Scientific Criminologist - Father of Modern Sociological and Psychological Statistics - Thermic Law (Temperature and Crime) \- Cartographic school of criminology made use of statistical data such as population, age, gender, occupation, religious affiliations and social economic status and studies their influences and relationship to criminality. It also states that crimes against person increase during summer and crimes against property increase during winter. \- Environmental factors such as the kind of rearing or family upbringing, quality of teaching in school, influences of peers and friends, conditions of the neighborhood, and economic and other societal factors are believed to be contributory to crime and criminal behavior. 1. **SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES** - These refer not only to the physical features of the communities but also to the way society is organized. - These include such things as level of poverty and unemployment and the amount of crowded housing which are believed to affect behavior and attitudes of individuals which in turn contribute to their commission of crimes. - Also called *social environment* - These include *social disorganization theory, strain theory and cultural deviance theory.* a. **Social Disorganization Theory** - This was popularized by Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay. - According to this theory, crimes in urban areas are more prevalent because residents have impersonal relationships with each other. - Increase in the number of broken families and single parenthood are also very common in disorganized communities. - Another feature of disorganized community is poverty as evidenced by poor living conditions such as rundown houses, unsanitary and unsightly streets and high unemployment rates. b. **Strain Theory by Robert King Merton or Robert Merton** - Strain refers to the individual's frustration, anger and resentment. - It holds that crime is a function of the conflict between the goals people have and the means they can use to legally obtain them. This also argues that the ability to obtain these goals is class dependent; members of the lower class are unable to achieve these goals which come easily to those belonging to the upper class. Consequently, they feel anger, frustration and resentment, failure of a man to achieve a higher status of life caused them to commit crimes in order for those status/goals to be attained referred to as STRAIN. - **Innovation -** The innovator buys into the culturally approved goals of society but pursues them through unacceptable means. - **Ritualism -** This describes a person who, over time, abandonsthe goal of financial success. Despite this, they continue to embrace the accepted means. - **Retreatism --** A retreatist is a social dropout. This type of person will not resort to illegitimate means to achieve widely shared goals. This individual simply withdraws from society. - **Rebellion --** These are individuals who oppose both culturally dominant goals and the means to achieve these goals. The rebel seeks to establish a new social order and embraces a different cultural goal. c. **Cultural Deviance Theory** - It gives emphasis on the concept of culture and sub-culture. - According to this theory, people in the lower class feel isolated due to extreme deprivation or poverty. They tend to create a sub-culture with its own set of rules and values. This is characterized by deviant behavior which results in criminal behavior among its members. \- Different Groups learn different conduct norms and that the conduct norms of some groups may clash with conventional middle-class rules. It defines what is considered appropriate or normal behavior and what inappropriate or abnormal behavior is and considered as the source of delinquent behaviors. \- He claims that lower class cannot socialize effectively as the middle-class behavior. Thus, the lower class gathered together to share their common values/problems forming a sub-culture that rejects middle-class values. \- It explains that society leads the lower class to want things and society does things to people. 1. **SOCIAL PROCESS THEORIES (Social Learning)** \- These refer to a group of theories which points to the individual's socialization process as the cause for the commission of crimes. These theories cite interaction with people and experiences and exposure to different elements in the environment as primary factors to criminality. \- Under this theory is the **social learning theory** which in turn has three (3) sub-theories: *differential association theory; differential reinforcement theory; and neutralization theory*. a. **Differential Association Theory** - This was formulated by Edwin Sutherland - his theory states that criminal behavior is learned through socialization. - Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication. b. **Differential Reinforcement Theory** - According to this theory, individual's behavior depends on how people around him react towards his behavior. - An act that is rewarded is repeated; an act that is punished will be avoided. - This was introduced by David Matza and Gresham Sykes. - Sometimes referred to as "*drift theory"* - According to this theory, people know when they are doing something wrong. However, they rationalize and justify their actions. This rationalizing is what we called *"neutralization*". 2. **SOCIAL REACTION THEORY** \- This is more commonly called "**labeling theory".** \- It states that people become criminals when significant members of society label them as such and they accept those labels as a personal identity. 1. **FRANK TENNEMBAUM** -- He made the earliest statements of latter-day labeling theory. He describes the process of defining deviant behavior as different among juvenile delinquents and conventional society, causing a \"tagging\" of juveniles as delinquent by mainstream society. The stigma that accompanies the deviant \"tag\" causes a person fall into deeper non-conformity. 2. **ERWIN LEMERT** -- founder of the \"Societal Reaction\" theory. This theory explores the journey to social deviance in two stages; primary deviance and secondary deviance which are both incorporated into Labeling Theory as well. 3. **HOWARD BECKER** - hailed as the founder of modern labeling theory. He proposes that this label becomes a person's master status, meaning that this is a constant label, affecting and over-riding how others will view them. 4. **GEORGE HERBERT MEAD** - One of the founders of Social Interactionism. Believed that people are compelled to see themselves as society perceives them to be. 3. **SOCIAL CONTROL THEORIES** \- Maintain that everyone has the potential to become criminal but most people are controlled by their bonds to society. \- Social control refers to the agencies of social control such as family, school, religion or church, government and laws and other identified authorities in society. \- There are two (2) sub-theories: **containment theory** and **social bond theory.** **a. Containment Theory** \- It was proposed by Walter Reckless \- He stated that inner and outer containments help prevent juvenile offending. \- Containment means the forces within and outside the individual that has the power to influence his actions. \- Inner containments include positive self-concept, tolerance for frustration and an ability to set realistic goals. \- Outer containments include family. \- This was propagated by Travis Hirschi \- This theory views crime as a result of individuals with weakened bonds to social institutions. \- According to this theory, there are four (4) elements of social bonds: **attachment; commitment; involvement and belief**. - **[B]elief** -- refers to acceptance of the norms of conventional society - **[I]nvolvemen**t -- refers to the amount of time an individual spends on a conventional pursuit. - **[A]ttachment** -- refers to the degree to which an individual care about the opinions of others. - **[C]ommitment** -- refers to an individual's investment of energy and emotion in conventional pursuits such as getting good grades. **B. ECONOMIC THEORIES** Economic theories of crime causation analyze how economic factors influence criminal behavior. These theories suggest that individuals may engage in illegal activities due to financial incentives or lack of legitimate economic opportunities. For instance, the Rational Choice Theory posits that individuals weigh the costs and benefits of committing a crime, choosing to engage if the perceived benefits outweigh the risks. Poverty, income inequality, unemployment, and disparities in wealth distribution are often linked to higher crime rates, as they can create environments where individuals turn to illegal means to fulfill their economic needs. **Rational Choice Theory** The rational choice theory was formulated by philosopher and economist **Adam Smith** (1723-1790). He stated that people are rational thinkers who weigh the disadvantages and benefits of their decisions, and will most often make the choices that maximize their benefits and minimize their disadvantages. **Rational choice theory in criminology** makes a similar assertion. While many criminologists believe that the commission of crime is influenced by external factors such as culture and environment, rational choice theory centers on the individual as the primary driving force in criminal activity. The assumptions of the rational choice theory are: - People are motivated by their own personal desires and goals and prioritize them in their choices. - People compare and contrast the potential outcomes of different choices. - People ultimately make the choice that gives them the most benefit. This all means that criminal behavior is the result of calculated decision-making. When people make the choice to commit crime, it is because they see a greater possible reward for it compared with the rewards for abiding by the law. Additionally, people who resort to crime see the costs of committing crime to be lower than those accrued by legal activities. The formal term for this method of weighing the costs and benefits of a decision for one\'s own self-interest is **hedonistic calculus**. Rational choice theory mostly applies to adults, as children lack the ability to make informed decisions as adults can due to ongoing cognitive development.