Theories of Crime Causation PDF

1. Explain the trait theories of crime such as: ücriminal anthropology üsomatotyping üIQ and crime üfamily studies üneurotransmitters and hormones 2. Relate the following theories of crime causations to law enforcement activities, üRational Choice üBroken Windows Crime Preventi...

1. Explain the trait theories of crime such as: ücriminal anthropology üsomatotyping üIQ and crime üfamily studies üneurotransmitters and hormones 2. Relate the following theories of crime causations to law enforcement activities, üRational Choice üBroken Windows Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) üRoutine Activities Theory üCrime Pattern Theory 3. Determine the various risk factors associated with crime, including but not limited to poverty, unemployment, peer pressure, religious influences, social responsibility, drug involvement, and family dynamics 4. Illustrate the importance of discerning crime patterns within the frameworks of Social learning theories, social disorganization, strain theories, and labeling theory in the context of law enforcement and crime prevention.  Theories of Crime Causation Theory defined Theory is a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained. It derived from the Greek word “theoria” which means “contemplation or speculation”. It is a plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena. It is synonymous with the terms thesis, hypothesis, supposition, and proposition. It is a set of logically related explanatory hypotheses that are consistent with a body of empirical facts (verifiable by observation or experience) and may suggest more empirical relationships.  Importance of Theory 1. Theory provides concepts to name what we observe and to explain relationships between concepts. Theory allows us to explain what we see and to figure out how to bring about change. Theory is a tool that enables us to identify a problem and to plan a means or altering the situation. 2. Theory is to justify reimbursement to get funding and support- need to explain what is being done and demonstrate that it works. 3. Theory is to enhance the growth of the professional area to identify a body of knowledge with theories from both within and without the area of distance learning. That body of knowledge grows with theory and research. Theory guides research. 4. Theory also helps us understand what we don’t know and, therefore, is the only guide to research. It increases its ability to solve other problems in different times and different places.  PERSPECTIVES OF CRIME CAUSATION 1. Classical Perspective 2. Biological Perspective 3. Process Perspective 4. Conflict Perspective 5. Biosocial Perspective 6. Psychological Perspective qClassical Choice Perspective – Situational Forces – crime is a function of free will and personal choice, punishment is a deterrent to crime. qBiological / Psychological Perspective – Internal Forces – crime is a function of chemical, neurological, genetic, personality, intelligence, or mental traits. qStructural Perspective – Ecological Forces – crime rates are function of neighborhood conditions, cultural forces, and norm conflict. qProcess Perspective – Socialization Forces – crime is a function of upbringing, learning, and control. Peers, parents, and teachers influence behavior. qConflict Perspective – Economic and Political Forces – crime is a function of competition for limited resources and power. Class conflict produces crime. qDevelopmental Perspective – Multiple Forces – Biological, social- psychological, economic, and political forces may combine to produce crime  BIOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE It seeks to explain the onset of antisocial behavior such as aggression and violence by focusing on the physical qualities of the offenders. It concentrated mainly on the three areas of focus: biochemical (diet, genetic, hormones, and environmental contaminants), neurological (brain damage), and genetic (inheritance). Biological Perspective  BIOCHEMICAL THEORY Another biological explanation of criminal behavior involves the body’s hormones released by some of the body’s cells or organs to regulate activity in other cells or organs. ANDROGENS are hormones associated with masculine traits and ESTROGENS are associated with feminine traits 1. TESTOSTERONE Is considered as the male sex hormone. Researches have found that higher levels of this hormone are associated with increased levels of violence and aggression. Increased level of testosterone reduce the brain’s sensitivity to environmental stimuli, making a person act out, with reduced abilities to control emotions. 2. PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME AND PREMENSTRUAL DYSPHORIC DISORDER Researchers also investigated the impact of female hormones on behavior or women. More recently, a more severe form of PMS has been identified, the Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD) distinguished by the level of interference the menstrual process has on the ability of women to engage in the functions of everyday life. Women with certain genetic structure have increased abnormal sensitivity to their own normal hormones, resulting in increased symptoms of emotional and physical distress. Another phenomenon is the postpartum depression syndrome. Although most new mothers experience symptoms of depression in the weeks or months following birth, approximately 1 or 2 percent of these mothers exhibit severe symptoms such as hallucinations, suicidal or homicidal thoughts, mental confusion and panic attacks 3. NEUROTRANSMITTERS Are chemicals that transmit messages between brain cells called neurons, and have a direct impact on many functions of the brain, including those affect emotions, learning, mood and behavior. example : Reward dominance theory is a neurological theory based on the proposition that behavior is regulated by two opposing mechanisms, these are: 1. Behavioral Activating System (BAS) Ø Is associated with the neurotransmitter dopamine and with pleasure areas in the brain Ø Insensitive to reward and can be likened to an accelerator motivating a person to seek rewarding stimuli Ø Motivates us to seek whatever affords us pleasure. 2. Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) Ø Is associated with serotonin and with brain structures that govern memory Ø Is sensitive to threats of punishment and can be likened to a brake that stops a person from going too far or too fast. Ø Tells us when we have had enough for own good 4. HYPOGLYCEMIA A condition that occurs when the level of blood sugar falls below an acceptable range. The lower the sugar level falls the greater is the tendency to commit a criminal act.  Family Studies: Jukes and Kallikak Family A. JUKES FAMILY According to Richard Louis Dugdale in his book, “The Jukes”: A Study in Crime, Pauperism, Disease and Heredity, Also Further Studies of Criminals, stated the origin of the stock of the “Jukes”, there was a hunter, a fisher, a hard drinker, and a jolly-man named Max who was also a descendant of the Dutchess settler. Two of Max’s sons married two out of six sisters (Jukes). The whereabouts of the sixth sister is nowhere to be found. Of the five that are known, three had illegitimate children before marriage. One is called “Ada Juke” but publicly known by many as “Margaret, the mother of criminals”. Ada Juke had one bastard son, who is the progenitor of the distinctively criminal line. 52.40 percent of 84 of the descendants of Ada are into harlotry (prostitution). Dugdale found out among the thousands of descendants that there 280 paupers, 60 thieves, 7 murderers, 40 other criminals and 40 percent sons have venereal disease. B. Kallikak Family Dr. Henry H. Goddard, a prominent American psychologist together with Elizabeth S. Kite conducted a study entitled the “Kallikak Family: A Study in the Heredity of Feeblemindedness,” wherein they traced the family tree of revolutionary war soldier”pseudonym Martin Kallikak, Sr.” He coined the term “moron” MARTIN KALLIKAK’s relationship with a feebleminded lady, there were 143 feeble-minded and only 46 normal, 36 were illegitimate, 3 epileptics, 3 criminals, 8 kept brothels and 82 died of infancy. His marriage with a woman from a good family produced almost all normal descendants, only 2 were alcoholics, 1 was convicted of religious offense, 15 died at infancy and no one became criminal or epileptic CHARLES GORING He believed that criminal traits can be passed from parents to offspring through the genes. He proposed that individuals who possess criminal characteristics should be prohibited from having children. ØThe English Convict: a statistical study, one of the most comprehensive criminological works of its time. It was first published in 1913, and set out to establish whether there were any significant physical or mental abnormalities among the criminal classes that set them apart from ordinary men, as suggested by Cesare Lombroso. ØHe ultimately concluded that "the physical and mental constitution of both criminal and law-abiding persons, of the same age, stature, class, and intelligence, are identical. There is no such thing as an anthropological criminal type.“ ØHe did, however, assert that it is an "indisputable fact that there is a physical, mental, and moral type of normal person who tends to be convicted of crime: that is to say, our evidence conclusively shows that, on average, the criminal of English prisons is markedly differentiated by defective physique - as measured by stature and body weight, by defective mental capacity". ØGoring went on to argue that one of the three measures in which to combat crime was to "regulate the reproduction of those degrees of constitutional qualities - feeble-minded, inebriety, epilepsy, social instinct, etc“ ØGoring found that those with frequent and lengthy imprisonment where physically smaller than other people do and were mentally inferior. (Siegel 2019)  SOMATOTYPING THEORY A. ERNST KRETSCHMER (1888-1964). Associates body physique to behavior and criminality. types of body physiques: 1. Pyknic. Those medium height, rounded figure, massive neck and broad face. They tend to commit deception, fraud and violence 2. Athletic. Those medium to tall, strong, and muscular. They are usually connected with crimes of violence 3. Asthenic. Those lean, slightly built, and narrow shoulders. Their crimes are petty thieves and fraud 4. Dysplastic or Mixed typed – those who are less clear evident having any predominant type. Their offenses are against decency and morality. Since Kretschmer was a psychiatrist, he related these body shapes to various psychiatric disorders: pyknics to manic depression (bipolar disorder); asthenics and athletics to schizophrenia B. WILLIAM SHELDON (1898-1977) Association of body types to human temperament: 1. Endomorphic. Those who are fat; rounded and soft, have tendency toward a “viscerotonic” personality (i.e., relaxed, comfortable, extroverted) 2. Mesomorphic. Those with square and muscular body ,have a tendency toward a “somotonic” personality (i.e., active, dynamic, assertive, aggressive) 3. Ectomorphic. Are those slim,thin and fine-boned, have a tendency toward a “cerebrotonic” personality (i.e., introverted, thoughtful, inhibited, sensitive) People with predominantly mesomorph traits tend more than others to be involved in illegal behavior  PHYSIOGNOMY It is the study of facial features and their relation to human behavior. from the Greek, 'physis' meaning "nature", and 'gnomon', meaning "judge" or "interpreter" - 1. Giambatista dela Porta - He is the founder of human physiognomy - According to him, criminal behavior may be predicted based on facial features of a person. 2. Johann Kaspar Lavater - He supported the belief of dela Porta - He believed that a person’s character is revealed through his facial characteristics. 1615) Giovanni Battista Della Porta De humana physiogn omonia Aequensis, Italy: Joseph Cacchi, 1586 Giambattista della Po rta’s contributions to experimental science during the Renaissance lent credence to his foundational work on physiognomy. In the engraved frontispiece on view here, human type faces are matched opposite the animalistic 1. Choleric (yellow bile) - Seated in the gall bladder and associated with anger and bad temper. 2. Sanguine (blood) - Seated in the liver and associated with courage and love. 3. Phlegmatic (phlegm) - Seated in the brain and lungs and associated with calmness and lack of excitability. 4. Melancholic (black bile) - Seated in the spleen and associated with depression, sadness, and irritability.  PHRENOLOGY (CRANIOLOGY OR CRANIOSCOPY) Determination of character, personality, traits, and criminality on the basis of the shape of head. Phrenology posited that bumps on the head were indications of psychological propensities. This is a theory of brain and science of character reading which is known as “the only true science of mind”. It is the study of the external formation of the skull in relation to the person’s personality and tendencies toward criminal behavior. 1. Franz Joseph Gall - He developed cranioscopy which was later renamed as phrenology. 2. Johann Kaspar Spurzheim - He was an assistant of Gall in the study of phrenology. - He was the man most responsible for popularizing and spreading phrenology to a wide audience.  NATURE THEORY Low intelligence is genetically determined and inherited. This was supported by Henry H. Goddard in his studies in 1920 that many institutionalized people were what he considered “feebleminded” and concluded that at least half of all juvenile delinquents were mentally defectives. In similar vein, William Healy and Augusta Bronner tested a group of delinquents in Chicago and Boston and they found that 37 percent were subnormal in intelligence. Healy and Bronner concluded that delinquent boys were 5 to 10 times more likely to be mentally deficient than delinquent boys. Classical Choice Perspective  This theory is based on the assumption that people exercise free will, and are thus completely responsible for their actions. In classical theory, human behavior, including criminal behavior, is motivated by a hedonistic rationality, in which actors weigh the potential pleasure of an action against the possible pain associated with it. 1. Criminals weigh/assess the costs and benefits and makes a conscious, rational choice to commit crime/maximization of pleasure and minimization of pains. 2. Human beings have free will to choose legal or illegal behavior i.e. a crime is committed after an individual weighs the pros and cons. 3. Crime is attractive.  RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY Man is a reasoning actor who weighs means and ends, cost and benefits, and makes a rational choice. It holds that person will engage in criminal behavior after weighing the consequences and benefits of their actions. Criminal behavior is a rational choice made by a motivated offender who perceives that the chances of gain outweigh any possible punishment or loss. Law violating behavior occurs when a reasoning offender decides to take the chance of violating the law after considering his or her personal situation, values and situational factors.  BROKEN WINDOWS THEORY The broken windows theory is a criminological theory that states that visible signs of crime, anti-social behavior, and civil disorder create an urban environment that encourages further crime and disorder, including serious crimes. Something that is clearly neglected can quickly become a target for vandals. But it eventually morphed into something far more than that. It became the basis for one of the most influential theories of crime and policing in America: "broken windows. qFascinated in the work of Philip G. Zimbardo, criminologists James Q. Wilson (1931-2012) and George L. Kelling proposed that policing minor offenses might reduce or prevent serious crimes. qIf a window in a building is broken and left unrepaired, all of the windows will soon be broken qJames Q. Wilson and George L. Kelling  ROUTINE ACTIVITY THEORY (LAWRENCE E. COHEN & MARCUS FELSON) Emphasizes that crime occurs when three elements converge: (1) a motivated offender; (2) a suitable target; and (3) the absence of a capable guardian. This theory includes the routine activities of both offender and victim. It is a sub-field of crime opportunity theory that focuses on situations of crimes. In this theory “opportunity and vulnerability” are the reasons of crime. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED pronounced SEP-TED) is a concept that asserts that “the proper design and effective use of the built environment can lead to a reduction in the fear of crime and the incidence of crime, and to an improvement in the quality of life.” The purpose is to introduce CPTED concepts and provide examples of how CPTED can be applied to enhance the look and feel of safe places. In this case, environmental design is defined as physical design and immediate situational factors such as a. site design b. territorial boundaries c. the number of people using or observing the space d. the purpose of their use e. temporal factors, and disorder. It does not include broader socio-cultural factors such as poverty level, racial and gender inequality, family structure, criminal laws, and exposure to violence.  CPTED was first coined in 1971 by criminologist C. Ray Jeffery, and the framework has been refined through its application in the fields of public health, criminology, community development, and planning and design. It extends other environmental crime prevention theories, such as defensible space and the broken windows theory, building on the idea that some places are safer than others, in part, because of how they are built and how people use them. Therefore, CPTED interventions focus on the deterring development of crime events or opportunities.  CPTED COMPRISES FIVE PRINCIPLES: PHYSICAL SECURITY SURVEILLANCE; MOVEMENT CONTROL; MANAGEMENT AND MAINTENANCE AND DEFENSIBLE SPACE Physical security: the measures which are used on individual dwellings to ensure that they withstand attack. Surveillance: design ensuring that residents are able to observe the areas surrounding their home. Surveillance can be facilitated by ensuring that front doors face onto the street; that areas are well illuminated and blank walls are avoided. Movement control: the restriction of access, egress and through movement. High levels of through movement allow offenders to access and egress an area; permits identification of targets and increases anonymity. Management and maintenance: the processes are in place to ensure that a development is free from signs of disorder. This signals that the area is cared for. Defensible space: the ownership of space in a neighbourhood should be clearly defined. For example: public (e.g. pavement); semi-public (e.g. front garden); semi-private (e.g. rear garden) and private (e.g. inside the home) FOUR CPTED PRINCIPLES Natural Surveillance Access Control Territorial Enforcement Maintenance and Management Activity Support NATURAL SURVEILLANCE This is also referred to as the “eyes of the street” concept that safe spaces are nurtured when the community has the opportunity and an underlying investment to observe, intervene and/or report potential crime to ensure a safe public space. A space can be designed to maximize natural surveillance and visibility by creating clear sightlines to avoid blind spots (the inability to see what is ahead along a route due to sharp corners, walls, fences, tall bushes, etc. can shield a potential attacker and make a person feel unsafe), maintaining quality lighting, and using materials, usually transparent or reflective, to prevent concealed or isolated routes or spaces. Active surveillance Refers to intentional activities and mechanical strategies, such as police patrols, security guards, and formal observation systems (e.g., CCTVs, observing points, and street lighting). Passive surveillance It is facilitated by planned social activities, such as markets and performances, which encourage more people to be out in a community. For it to be successful, the physical design must include appropriately sited physical and natural amenities that enable broad view by residents, visitors, and passersby. Policy and planning elements that facilitate natural surveillance in public spaces include: üDesign spaces that are open and visible in order to allow for clear sightlines and quality lighting that enhances views for neighbors and passersby.11 üDesignate spaces intended for nighttime use and specify the type, placement, and intensity of lighting. üAvoid creating concealed or isolated routes which are often predictable routes for potential offenders to corner pedestrians in. üProgram activities to activate public spaces supported and enabled by municipal policies, bring a large number of people into a space and increase visitors and ownership over spaces; this can include markets, performances, festivals, art installations, and approved, organized activities by community groups.  ACCESS CONTROL Access control relies on physical elements to keep unauthorized persons out of a particular space if they do not have a legitimate reason for being there as a strategy to decrease the opportunity for crime. It relates to the control of who is allowed into a particular enclosure or other demarcated territory. The following list provides examples of elements that can be incorporated to increase access control: üUse a single, clearly identifiable, point of entry and ensure adequate lighting and signage. üUse structures to divert persons to reception areas like walkways, planters, furniture or signs. üUse low, thorny bushes beneath ground level windows. Next to fences rambling or climbing thorny plants may discourage intrusion. üEliminate design features that provide access to roofs or upper levels. Use a locking gate between front and backyards. Territorial Enforcement This concept requires particular roles to be understood: owner, occupier, visitor, intruder, etc., because a territory draws its meaning from who owns it (real or perceived)and who is misusing it in addition to where its boundaries are. If those in a community feel greater ownership over a space, the community is more likely to protect, report suspected criminal activity, or directly monitor the safety of the space. Neighborhood park associations and neighborhood watch groups are examples of community organizations that enhance territorial enforcement. Maintenance and Management The CPTED principle of “Maintenance and Management” refers to one’s sense of pride of place, e.g., the more dilapidated a place is, the more likely it is to attract unwanted activities For example, the announcement and opening of a light rail station in North Carolina saw crimes decrease in the area, due in part to improved maintenance of the area in question. In Santa Cruz, California, a street that was plagued by crime underwent an extensive renovation. The appearance of the street was improved to make it appear more defended and cared for. Although the police presence abated after the opening of the renovated street, actual crime fell. Activity Support Activity support is meant to assist and strengthen the other pillars, especially natural surveillance, natural access control, and territorial reinforcement. In a nutshell, it means creating an environment that encourages legitimate use by legitimate users, which then increases the risk of detection for criminals.  CRIME PATTERN THEORY Crime pattern theory is particularly important in developing an understanding of crime and place because it combines rational choice and routine activity theory to help explain the distribution of crime across places. The distribution of offenders, targets, handlers, guardians, and managers over time and place will describe crime patterns. Changes in society like the presence of commercial establishments, shopping centers have increased the number of potential targets while separating them from the people who can protect them. Reasonably rational offenders, while engaging in their routine activities, will note places without guardians and managers and where their handlers are unlikely to show up. Pattern theory exposes the interactions with their physical and social environments that influence offenders’ choices of targets Complexity of the criminal event Crime is not random Criminal opportunities are not random Offenders and victims are not pathological in their use of time and space  THE CRIMINAL SPATIAL LANDSCAPE AS ELEMENTS OF CRIME PATTERN THEORY 1. Nodes. A place that an individual is regularly drawn to such as home, work, school, etc. For offenders, nodes tend to be the site of many of their offenses. 2. Paths. The routes between nodes. It is also the locations of many offenses. 3. Edges. Physical and perceptual boundaries between different parts of the city. Examples: boundaries of neighborhoods, changes in land use, socio- economic boundaries, entertainment districts 4. Crime Attractors. These are the nodes of known criminal activity that attract additional offenders. Example: the presence of drug den in an area may attract potential drug users. 5. Crime Generators. A particular node where lots of people tend to congregate for reasons that are not related to any particular criminal activity. Provide concentration of potential targets. Example: funfair where people gather during fiesta may generate pick pocketing because of the presence of people who are anonymous with each other. Awareness space: A personal perimeter created by the paths taken to and from personal nodes. Personal pathway: the route that an individual takes to and from typical locations of activity in his or her daily life. Node: An exact location of activity that an individual uses regularly, for example home, work or school. Activity space: Describes an area of activity where crime can occur. Crime generators: A location that attracts a large number of people without any premeditated intention to commit a crime but the opportunity is too good to pass up, for example a shopping mall. Crime attractors: A location that attracts offenders because of its known opportunity for crime. Edges: The boundaries of an individual's awareness space. Structural Perspective  SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY People are not actually born to act violently but they learned to be aggressive to their life experiences. Criminality is learned through close relationships with others; Asserts that children are born “good” and learn to be “bad” from others. Sources of behavior: a) Family member/Parents (Adults to whom they are in close contacts with)- family life showing children who use aggressive tactics have parents who use similar behaviors when dealing with others. b) Mass-media such as movies and films shows commonly depict violence graphically. c) Environment are people who reside in areas where violence is a daily occurrence are more likely to act violently than those in low crime areas. Steps in Behavior Modeling Process: Attention: Observing the model's behavior. Retention: Remembering what you observed. Reproduction: Imitating the model's behavior. Motivation: Having a good reason to reproduce the behavior.  SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY (CLIFFORD R. SHAW AND HENRY D. MCKAY) The primary causes of criminal behavior were neighborhood disintegration and slum conditions to place what they called transitional neighborhood which refer to the place in Chicago where ridden by poverty and which suffers high rates of population turnover and were incapable of inducing residents to remain and failed to defend the neighborhoods against criminal groups.  Anomie Theory (David Emile Durkheim) Anomie derived from the Greek word nomos which means without norms. Anomic society is one in which rules of behavior (norms) have broken down or become inoperative during periods of rapid social change or social crisis such as war or famine. Anomie most likely occurs in societies that are moving forward mechanical to organic solidarity. Crimes are not only normal for society but are necessary. Without crime there could be no evolution in law Anomie was one cause of deviance: if people were not properly socialized into the shared norms and values of society, or if a society was changing so much that it was unclear what the shared norms and values were, then deviance (and hence crime) was much more likely.  Strain Theory (Robert King Merton) Holds that crime is a function of the conflict between the goals people have and the means they can use to legally obtain them. Consequently, they feel anger, frustration and resentment, which is referred to as STRAIN. Behavioral Patterns of individuals in response to means and ends: 1. Conformity. This occurs when individuals both embrace conventional social goals and also have the means at their disposal to attain them. 2. Innovation. This occurs when individuals accept the goals of society but rejects or is incapable of attaining them through legitimate means. This is the mode of adaptation followed by those law violators because the success of those criminal shows that innovative means work better and faster than conventional one. 3. Ritualism. This is less concern about accumulating wealth and instead gain pleasure from practicing traditional ceremonies regardless of whether they have a real purpose or goal. 4. Retreatism. Otherwise known as the “escapist mode” which rejects both the goals and the means of the society. 5. Rebellion. This involves substituting an alternative set of goals and means for conventional ones.  SOCIAL REACTION: LABELING THEORY (HOWARD BECKER AND FRANK TANNENBAUM) Explained that society creates deviance through a system of social control agencies that designate (label) certain individuals as delinquent, thereby stigmatizing a person and encouraging them to accept this negative personal identity. Members of the rule-making society may label rule breaking behavior deviant depending on the degree of reaction over time (Becker 1963). In 1938, Frank Tannenbaum presented his own approach to labeling theory in response to his studies of juvenile participation in street gangs. Tannenbaum describes the process of defining deviant behavior as different among juvenile delinquents and conventional society, causing a "tagging" of juveniles as delinquent by mainstream society. The stigma that accompanies the deviant "tag" causes a person fall into deeper nonconformity (Pfohl, 1994).  CONSEQUENCES OF LABELING A. STIGMATIZATION Labels are believed to produce stigma. People who have been negatively labeled because of their participation or alleged participation in deviant or outlawed behaviors maybe socially outcasted wo may be prevented from enjoying a higher education, well- paying jobs, and other social benefits. B. SELF-LABELING It refers to the process by which a person who has been negatively labeled accepts the label as a personal role or identity. Example: A child who has been treated by his family as stupid may live life assuming that he is stupid. C. SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY Deviant behavior patterns that are in response to an earlier labeling experience, a person act out these social roles even if they were falsely bestowed. Example: A wife who keeps on saying that her husband is a cheater although it is untrue, there is a chance that the husband would fulfill the statements made by her wife. D. DRAMATIZATION OF EVIL Transforms the offender’s identity from a “doer of evil” to “an evil person”. Example: One who is labeled as a hired killer from committing a crime because he is being hired may become a real evil killer  PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DEVIANCE (EDWIN LEMERT) Primary deviance involves norm violations or crimes that have very little influence on the actor and can be quickly forgotten. Example: A college student who steals a book to get a higher grade, later graduated and admitted to a law school and became a judge. Because of his unnoticed act, it has a relatively unimportant event that has little bearing on his future life. Primary deviance refers to acts which have not been publicly labelled, and are thus of little consequence, while secondary deviance refers to deviance which is the consequence of the response of others, which is significant.  Secondary deviance occurs when a deviant event comes to the attention of significant others or social control agents who apply a negative label. The newly labeled offender then recognizes his or her behavior and personality around consequences of the deviant act. Example: The Shoplifter student was caught by a security guard and got expelled from college. As a result, his law school dream dashed, his options became limited, and eventually ended as a drug dealer and winds up in prison.  The importance of discerning CRIME PATTERNS within the frameworks of Social learning theories, Social Disorganization, Strain Theories, and Labeling Theory in the context of law enforcement and crime prevention. 1. Social Learning Theories: Crime patterns help us identify how criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others. By recognizing these patterns, law enforcement can design targeted interventions to prevent crime. 2. Social Disorganization: Analyzing crime patterns within neighborhoods allows us to understand social factors (e.g., poverty, unemployment) that contribute to criminal activity. Addressing these issues can enhance community safety. 3. Strain Theories: Identifying crime patterns helps us recognize stressors (e.g., economic disparities) that lead individuals to engage in criminal behavior. Mitigating these strains can reduce crime rates. 4. Labeling Theory: Recognizing crime patterns helps us understand how labeling individuals as “criminals” can perpetuate criminal behavior. Law enforcement can adopt alternative approaches to prevent labeling and its consequences. SOCIAL PROCESS THEORIESS  DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY (EDWIN H. SUTHERLAND) “Tell me who your friends are and I will tell you who you are” a Mexican proverb that would best describe this theory. Suggests that people commit crime by learning in a social context through their interactions with others and communication with them. Criminal behavior is learned by interaction with others, and this includes learning the techniques of committing the crime, and the motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes for committing it  NEUTRALIZATION/DRIFT THEORY (DAVID C. MATZA AND GRESHAM M. SYKES) Suggest that delinquents hold values similar to those law abiding citizens but they learn techniques that enable them to neutralize those values and drift back and forth between legitimate and delinquent behavior. Sykes and Matza suggest that a person develop a distinct set of justifications for their behavior when it violates accepted social rules and norms. FIVE TECHNIQUES OF NEUTRALISATION OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR: Denial of Responsibility Denial of Injury Denial of the Victim Condemnation of the Condemners Appeal to Higher Loyalties 1. Denial of Responsibility The criminal argues that they were a victim of circumstance and had no other choice but to commit the crime; that the crime was not their fault. ü“My friends made me throw a rock through Bob’s window.” 2. Denial of Injury The criminal argues that their actions didn’t harm anyone. ü“Sure, I threw eggs at Bob’s car but it was all in good fun, it didn’t hurt anyone.” 3. Denial of the Victim The criminal argues that the victim deserved to have the crime committed against them. ü“I punched Bob in the face, but he had it coming to him!” 4. Condemnation of the Condemners The criminal argues that it is unfair for them to be blamed for the crime and that they are being persecuted or punished out of spite. ü“I was arrested for punching Bob because his cousin is a police officer.” 5. Appeal to Higher Loyalties The criminal argues that their actions, although illegal, were justified, or even positive; for the greater good. ü“I stole Bob’s car because I needed to take my granny to a doctor’s appointment.”  CONTAINMENT THEORY (WALTER RECKLESS) Assumed that in every individual there is a containing internal psychological and protective external social structure both of which provides defense and insulation against criminality. People commit crimes because of weak inner and outer containment factors Reckless called an individual’s ability to resist criminal inducement “containments”, the most important of which are a positive self-image and “ego strength”  CONTAINMENT FACTORS 1.Inner containment. Those ability of a person to resist temptations to deviate and maintain normative loyalty. a) Self Control (balanced ego) b) Self Concept (good self image) c) Internalization of the social norms (well develop conscience) 2. Outer Containment. Those formidable array of legal demands and prohibitions that keep most people within the behavioral bounds of society. a)Laws/ social norms b)Parental relationship c)School supervision and discipline d)Strong group cohesion  If a person’s inner and outer containment are weak, then there is a possibility that he will commit a crime or deviancy. Example: You are invited for a drinking spree, but because you are not used to it and your parents are strict, you’d refused to involve on that kind of activities.  SOCIAL BOND THEORY (TRAVIS HIRSCHI) Criminality results from commitment to the major social institutions (family, peers and school); lack of such commitment allows them to exercise antisocial behavioral choices. People engage in crime and delinquency because of broken or weak social bonds. Elements of social bond: 1.ATTACHMENT 2.COMMITMENT 3.INVOLVEMENT 4.BELIEF Hirschi's Four Elements of Social Bonds Attachment refers to the degree to which we care about the opinions of others, including parents and teachers. The more sensitive we are to their views, the less likely we are to violate norms, both because we have internalized their norms and because we do not to disappoint them Commitment individuals' investment of energy and emotion in conventional pursuits, such as getting a good education. The more committed people are in this sense, the more they have to lose if they break the law Involvement amount of time an individual spends on a conventional pursuit. The more time spent, the less opportunity to deviate Belief acceptance of the norms of conventional society. People who believe in these norms are less likely to deviate than are those who reject them Hirschi's Four Elements of Social Bonds Flashcards | Quizlet  THE BIO-PSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL OF CRIME CAUSATION The Bio-psychosocial Model of Crime Causation is an integration or combination of both the “bio”, “psycho”, and the “socio”. The “BIO” component of this theory examines aspects of biology that influence health. This might include things like brain changes, genetics, or functioning of major body organs, such as the liver, the kidneys, or even the motor system. For example, let’s say Josh met an accident that leaves him with reduced movement in his left arm. The biological change might influence how he feels about himself, which could lead to depression or anxiety in certain situations.  The “PSYCHO” component of the theory examines psychological components, things like thoughts, emotions, or behaviors, Josh might go through many different psychological changes. He might experience decreased self-esteem, fear of judgment, or fell inadequate in his life or job. These changes in thoughts might lead to changes in behaviors, like avoiding certain situations, staying at home, or quitting his job. As he engages in these behaviors, his injury might worsen, or he could suffer further depression and anxiety.  The “SOCIAL” component of the bio-psychosocial model examines social factors that might influence the health of an individual, thing like our interactions with others, our culture, our economic status. A possible social factor for Josh could be his role in his household. Josh is a new father. An injured arm might reduce his ability to care for his new baby. Being unable to fulfill this social role might trigger problems with his wife or other family members, causing John stress that could lead to further biological or psychological problems. An important connection to make here is that the elements of the biopsychosocial model are all connected. Biology can affect psychology, which can affect social well-being, which can further affect biology, and so on. Josh’s biological state changed, which affected his psychological state and social interactions which all went on to affect each other again. POLITICAL/SOCIAL CONFLICT THEORIES  MARXIST CRIMINOLOGY Crime is a function of the capitalist mode of production. Within this system economic competitiveness is the essence of social life and controls the form and function of social institutions. Every element of society: government, law, education, religion, family- is organized around the capitalist mode of production comprising of the owners of the production (bourgeoisie), the worker (proletariat) and the non- productive people (lumpen proletariat). The rich (bourgeoisie) use the fear of crime as a tool to maintain their control over society: the poor are controlled through incarceration; the middle class are diverted from caring about the crimes of the powerful because they fear the crimes of the powerless. According to Marx and Engels, criminals came from a third class in society- the lumpen proletariat- who would play no decisive role in the expected revolution.  CONFLICT THEORY Crime is the outcome of class struggle. The classes that are struggling here are the upper, middle and lower class (have-nots). Conflict works to promote crime by creating a social atmosphere in which the law is a mechanism for controlling dissatisfied, have-not members of the society while the wealthy maintain their position of power. It also viewed that crime is defined by those in power. Power refers to the ability of persons and groups to determine and control the behavior of others and to shape public opinion to meet their personal interests. It was first applied to criminology by three distinct scholars: Willem A. Bonger, Ralf G. Dahrendorf, and George B. Vold.  PEACEMAKING CRIMINOLOGY This perspective is often viewed as a philosophy as opposed to a theoretical perspective, and it may or may not contain a religious core. In essence, it is an attempt to get all players in society (victims, offenders, and criminal justice agents) to recognize and reduce the violence that is at the heart of the society and the system. The violence can then be replaced with non-violent solutions. DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION  LIFE COURSE THEORY As people are into the process of transition-moving from one stage to another stage of life like from adolescents to adulthood, along the way, he or she may experience some disruption in any of the stages mentioned. The disruption in any of the stages can lead to criminal behavior. It viewed criminality as dynamic process, influenced by a multiple of individual characteristics, traits, and social experiences. For example, a female student got pregnant in her third year of college and eventually stopped by the parents from going to school. After delivering the baby, the student had no intention anymore of going back to school, instead she’s now more concerned on joining her friends wherever they go. Letting her parents took care of her baby  AGE-GRADED THEORY Robert J. Sampson and John H. Laub in their work, “Crime in the Making” identify the turning points in a criminal career. The stability of delinquent behavior can be affected by the events that occur in later life, even after a chronic delinquent career has been undertaken. Children who enter delinquent careers are those who have trouble at home and school, and maintain deviant friends.  In age-graded theory, the type of crime committed by a certain individual is in consonance with his age governs or dictates the type of crime to be committed by him. Aging-out Process/phenomenon, it is also known as desistance or remission. The process by which individuals reduce the frequency of their offending behavior as they age. It is also known as spontaneous remission because people are believed to spontaneously reduce the rate of their criminal behavior as they mature. Aging out is thought to occur among all groups of offenders.  LATENT TRAIT THEORY Latent trait theory is a complete opposite of life course theory. This theory claims that people do not change, criminal opportunities change; maturity brings fewer opportunities; early social control such as proper parenting can reduce criminal propensity. It also holds that human development is controlled by a “master trait-such as personality, intelligence, and genetic make-up“, present at birth. It is also believed that this trait remains stable and unchanging throughout the person’s lifetime whereas others suggest that it can be altered, influenced, or changed by subsequent experience FEMINIST THEORY OF CRIME  ADLER’S THEORY OF MASCULINITY Freda Adler, a prominent female criminologist on her book entitled, “ Sister in Crime: The Rise of a New Female Criminal” in 1975 has helped to develop the masculinity theory. She argued that, women are involved in more crime due to the increasing participation of women in social movements since the 1970’s, which changed role of female in family and the feelings of independence in her work and thought. All these factors promote the “masculinization process of women” role in society. The main premise of this theory is that criminalities of women are mainly dependent on the masculinity behavior of female. The empowered women are involved in more serious violent crime than non-empowered women due to the masculinity  OPPORTUNITY THEORY This was created by Rita J. Simon in her work, “Women and Society”, this theory argued that the involvement of criminal activities is increased when women have different opportunities. Increasing opportunities of women reduced the rates of violent female offending, but increased the rates of property crimes. According to the empirical observations of this theory, Simon argued that historically, males are more active in crime because of their greater social opportunities, competences, and networking than females. In the broader social context, if female opportunity, efficiency and social communication are increased, then the rate of female criminality increases accordingly. Simon logically argued that, “when more women get access in labor market as skilled labor and possess highly specialized position in the job sector they commit more employment related property crime like men. Some women take the advantage of these opportunities, just as some men do before.  MARGINALIZATION THEORY Meda Chesney-Lind and Kathleen Daly (1986): Women and Crime: The Female Offender (1986). Marginality (low salary; inadequate job; lower class position; family victimization) of a woman penetrates criminality in contemporary societies. Those women are motivated to commit crime as a rational response to poverty and economic u n c e r ta i n ty th a t t h e y p e r c e i v e. T h e y p o i n t e d o u t w o m e n ’s unemployment, inadequate labor charges, and the increase in the number of members in the home, that is the care for the large family, which leads to a reduction in the domestic budget, and on her fee time can make women crime prone.  Criminologist Kathleen Daly developed a new term in c r i m i n o l o g y t h a t e m p h a s i z e s w o m e n ’s i n v o l v e m e n t i n professional criminality. The term “pink collar crime” appears as a counterpart to the “white collar crime”. According to Daly, “pink collar crime” is carried out by women whose office jobs can be characterized as being set on a low to medium level, or more simply speaking, at a position as accountant, manager, officers, etc. which embezzlement from their employers. That is, women who may not have carrying main functions but still have enough powers and opportunities to commit fraud or theft at their jobs  CRITICAL FEMINIST THEORY Critical feminist theory also known as Marxist feminists. This theory holds that gender inequality stems from the unequal power of men and women and the subsequent exploitation of women by men. Further, the cause of female criminality originates with the onset of male supremacy and the efforts of males to control female sexuality. Women are a “commodity” like land or money. The male exploitation acts as a trigger for female criminal or delinquent behavior.  POWER-CONTROL THEORY Power control theory by John L. Hagan (1985) suggests that class influences delinquency and criminality by controlling the quality of family life. In egalitarian families, in which the husband and the wife share similar positions of power at home and in the workplace-daughters gain a kind of freedom that reflects reduced parental control. These families produce daughters whose law violating behaviors mirror those of their brothers. The daughters of successful and powerful mothers are more at risk of delinquency than the daughters of stay-at-home mothers What are risk and protective factors? Risk factors These are negative influences in the lives of individuals or a community. These may increase the presence of crime, victimization or fear of crime in a community and may also increase the likelihood that individuals engage in crime or become victims. Protective factors These are positive influences that can improve the lives of individuals or the safety of a community. These may decrease the likelihood that individuals engage in crime or become victims. Building on existing protective factors makes individuals and communities stronger and better able to counteract risk factors.  Five Risk Factors 1. Individuals 2. Family 3. Peers 4. Schools 5. Community Individuals 1. Negative attitudes 2. Low self-esteem 3. Drug, alcohol or solvent abuse 4. Early and repeated anti-social behaviour 5. Mental or physical illness 6. Leaving institutional/government care (hospital, foster care, correctional facility, etc) Family 1. Values or beliefs 2. Lack of positive role models 3. Family distress 4. Family violence Peers 1. Drug, alcohol or solvent abuse 2. Involvement in Gang or Deviant group 3. More time with friends than family 4. Pre-marital sex 5. School truancy Schools 1. Lack of services (social, recreational, cultural, etc) 2. Poor teaching program and environment 3. Lack of attention from teachers 4. School tracking 5. Grade retention 6. Bullying 7. Low literacy Community 1. Poverty 2. Disorganized and conflicting neighborhood 3. Presence of neighbourhood crime 4. Racism 5. Anomie 6. war