Intro to Psych Notes PDF

Intro to Psych INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Definition of Psychology Origin of the Term: Derived from Greek roots: psyche (meaning “soul” or “mind”) and logos (meaning “word”). I...

Intro to Psych INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Definition of Psychology Origin of the Term: Derived from Greek roots: psyche (meaning “soul” or “mind”) and logos (meaning “word”). Initially defined as the study of the mind or soul until the early 1900s. Shift in Definition: Around 1920, psychologists shifted focus from the mind to behavior. Reasons for the Shift: The mind is unobservable, making it difficult to study scientifically. Referring to “the mind” implies it is a tangible object. Current Definition: Psychology is the scientific study of human mind and behavior. Major Philosophical Issues in Psychology 1. Free Will vs. Determinism Determinism: The idea that every event or action has a cause that can be observed or measured. Free Will: The belief that behavior is caused by an individual’s independent decisions. 2. The Mind–Brain (Mind-Body) Problem Core Question: How does experience relate to the brain? Dualism: The view that the mind is separate from the brain but controls it and, consequently, the body. Monism: The view that conscious experience is inseparable from the physical brain. Either the mind is a product of brain activity, or mind and brain activity are two terms for the same phenomenon. Intro to Psych 1  3. Nature vs. Nurture Core Question: How do differences in behavior relate to differences in heredity and environment? Heredity: Genetic factors influencing behavior. Environment: Agents of socialization and other external factors influencing behavior. The Different Fields and Professions in Psychology What Psychologists Do Understanding the Difference Between Mental Health Professionals Clinical Psychology Clinical Psychologists Qualifications: Advanced degree in psychology (Master’s, PhD, or PsyD). Specialty: Understanding and helping people with psychological problems such as depression, anxiety, substance abuse, marriage conflicts, decision-making difficulties, and existential concerns. Roles: Diagnose and treat psychological issues. Some are college professors and researchers, but most are full-time practitioners. Over half of new PhDs are in clinical psychology or health-related fields. Psychiatry Psychiatrists Field: Branch of medicine dealing with emotional disturbances. Qualifications: Medical doctor (MD) degree followed by four years of residency in psychiatry. Capabilities: Can prescribe drugs (e.g., antidepressants), unlike most psychologists. Work Environment: More likely to work in mental hospitals and treat clients with severe disorders. Intro to Psych 2  Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysts Approach: Rely on theories and methods pioneered by Sigmund Freud, focusing on uncovering unconscious thoughts and feelings. Training: Often graduates of psychoanalytic institutes, which require four or more years of training. Typically, these institutes admit individuals who are already psychiatrists or clinical psychologists. Clinical Social Workers Similarities: Similar to clinical psychologists but with different training. Qualifications: Master’s degree in social work with a specialization in psychological problems. Role in Healthcare: Often preferred by health maintenance organizations (HMOs) due to lower costs. Additional Providers: Psychiatric nurses with additional training in psychiatry provide similar services. Counseling Psychology Counseling Psychologists Focus: Help with educational, vocational, marriage, health-related, and other decisions. Qualifications: Doctorate degree (PhD, PsyD, or EdD) with supervised experience in counseling. Differences from Clinical Psychologists: Deal mainly with life decisions and family or career readjustments rather than severe emotional distress. Work Environment: Found in educational institutions, mental health centers, rehabilitation agencies, businesses, and private practice. Forensic Psychology Forensic Psychologists Role: Provide advice and consultation to police, lawyers, and courts. Qualifications: Clinical or counseling psychologists with additional training in legal issues. Responsibilities: Advise on mental competency of defendants and parole eligibility. Serve as expert witnesses in litigation, particularly in marriage nullification and child custody cases in the Philippines. Intro to Psych 3  Media Representation: Often depicted in films and TV series helping police develop psychological profiles of criminals. Service Providers to Organizations Industrial-Organizational Psychology Field: Psychological study of people at work. Responsibilities: Hiring, training, developing work teams, determining salaries and bonuses. Providing performance feedback, planning organizational structure, and improving workplace productivity and satisfaction. Scope: Focuses on both individual workers and the organization, considering economic conditions and government regulations. Human Factors Role: Facilitate the operation of machinery for efficient and safe use. Origins: Initially worked in military settings to help soldiers handle complex technologies. Responsibilities: Redesign tasks to fit the skills of personnel. Military Psychology Role: Provide services to the military. Responsibilities: Conduct intellectual and personality tests, help train personnel. Consult on strategies, deal with cultural challenges, and provide clinical and counseling services to soldiers. School Psychology Role: Specialists in the psychological condition of students (K-12). Responsibilities: Identify educational needs, devise and implement plans, or advise teachers. Training: Can be taught in psychology, education, or educational psychology departments. In the U.S., typically requires a master’s degree, with a doctorate possibly becoming necessary in the future. Work Environment: Mostly in school systems, but also in mental health clinics and guidance centers. Intro to Psych 4  Psychologists in Teaching and Research Developmental Psychology Focus: Study how behavior changes with age, from infancy to old age. Examples: Examine language development in young children or memory changes in older adults. Learning and Motivation Focus: Study how behavior depends on past outcomes and current motivations. Examples: Investigate how past experiences influence current behavior patterns. Cognitive Psychology Focus: Study thought and knowledge processes. Examples: Research decision-making, problem-solving, and language use. Biological Psychology Focus: Explain behavior in terms of biological factors. Examples: Study the nervous system, effects of drugs and hormones, genetics, and evolutionary pressures. Evolutionary Psychology Focus: Explain behavior through evolutionary history. Examples: Investigate why certain behaviors, like craving sweets, have evolved. Social Psychology Focus: Study how individuals influence and are influenced by others. Examples: Research group behavior, social interactions, and cultural influences. Cross-Cultural Psychology Focus: Compare behavior across different cultures. Examples: Determine what behaviors are universal and what varies by culture. HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Historical Perspectives Democritus (460-370 BCE) Intro to Psych 5  Body and Mind: Suggested that behavior can be understood in terms of a body and a mind. Soul and Atoms: Believed the soul consists of atoms that provide movement to the body, which is life. Three-Centric Theory: Proposed the soul is localized near the brain, chest and heart, and liver. External Stimulation: Pointed out that behavior is influenced by external stimulation. Free Will: Raised questions about free will and the influence of others on our “real selves.” Socrates (469-399 BCE) “Know Thyself”: Emphasized the importance of self-knowledge through understanding one’s nature and practicing virtues. Introspection: Suggested introspection as a research method, which remains a key concept in psychology. Unexamined Life: Famously stated, “An unexamined life is not worth living.” Aristotle (384-322 BCE) Rules and Laws: Argued that human behavior is subject to rules and laws, similar to natural phenomena. Five Senses: Enumerated the five senses: vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. Cause and Effect: Explored the nature of cause and effect. Rational Thought: Highlighted that humans differ from other living things in their capacity for rational thought. Associationism: Outlined laws of associationism, foundational to learning theory. Pleasure and Pain: Declared that people are motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain. Contemporary Perspectives Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887) Elements of Psychophysics: Published a landmark book showing how physical events stimulate psychological sensations and perception. Scientific Measurement: Demonstrated how to scientifically measure the effect of physical events. Modern Psychology: Marked the debut of modern psychology as a laboratory science in 1879 with Wilhelm Wundt’s first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Intro to Psych 6  Mind and Body: Postulated that mind and body are different sides of one reality. Experimental Procedures: Developed procedures for measuring sensations in relation to the physical magnitude of stimuli. Just-Noticeable Difference: Devised an equation for the theory of the just- noticeable difference, concerning sensory discrimination between stimuli. Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) Scientific Study of the Mind: Wundt viewed the mind as a natural occurrence that could be studied scientifically, similar to light, heat, and blood flow. Introspection: Used introspection to discover the basic elements of experience. Founding Structuralism: Wundt and his students established the school of psychology known as structuralism. Breaking Down Experience: Structuralism aimed to break conscious experience into objective sensations (e.g., sight, taste) and subjective feelings (e.g., emotional responses, mental images like memories or dreams). Combination of Elements: Structuralists believed the mind functions by combining these objective and subjective elements of experience. Functionalism William James (1842-1910) Development in the U.S.: Became a major figure in the development of psychology in the United States. Conscious Experience and Behavior: Focused on the relationship between conscious experience and behavior. Stream of Consciousness: Argued that the stream of consciousness is fluid and continuous. Critique of Structuralism: Introspection led him to believe that experience cannot be broken down into objective sensations and subjective feelings as structuralists claimed. Adaptive Function: Functionalists examined how our experiences help us function more adaptively in our environments. Influence of Darwin: Influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, proposing that adaptive behavior patterns are learned and maintained, while maladaptive patterns drop out. Intro to Psych 7  Survival of the Fittest: Adaptive actions tend to be repeated and become habits, similar to Darwin’s idea of the “fittest” surviving and reproducing. Behaviorism John B. Watson (1878-1958) Founder of American Behaviorism: Considered the founder of American behaviorism. Doctoral Research: Required to consider the contents of a rat’s “mind” for his doctoral degree at the University of Chicago. Shift from Functionalism: While functionalism was dominant at the University of Chicago, Watson believed psychology should focus on observable, measurable events to be a natural science like physics or chemistry. Focus on Observable Behavior: Behaviorism focuses on learning observable behavior, which can be measured using specialized instruments (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, brain waves). Public Behaviors: These behaviors are public and can be easily measured, with different observers agreeing on their existence and features. Definition of Psychology: Behaviorists define psychology as the scientific study of behavior, not of behavior and mental processes. B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) Contribution to Behaviorism: Believed organisms learn to behave in certain ways because they have been reinforced for doing so. Reinforcement: Demonstrated that laboratory animals can be trained to carry out behaviors through strategic use of reinforcers, such as food. Adoption of Behaviorism: Many psychologists adopted behaviorism in principle due to Skinner’s demonstrations of teaching behaviors through reinforcement. Gestalt Psychology Key Figures Max Wertheimer Kurt Koffka Wolfgang Köhler Core Concepts Focus on Perception: Gestalt psychologists concentrated on how perception influences thinking and problem-solving. Gestalt Meaning: The German word “Gestalt” translates to “pattern” or “organized whole.” Intro to Psych 8  Holistic Approach: They argued that understanding human nature requires more than just focusing on overt behavior. Beyond Basic Units: Claimed that human perceptions, emotions, and thought processes cannot be explained in terms of basic units. Wholes Over Parts: Emphasized that perceptions are more than the sums of their parts, viewing our perceptions as wholes that give meaning to individual parts. CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology Psychology is guided by several contemporary theories that offer different perspectives on human behavior and development. Each theory provides unique insights into how we think, feel, and act. 1. Psychoanalytic Perspective Founder: Sigmund Freud Overview: This perspective focuses on the development of personality, suggesting that human behavior is driven by unconscious motives, early experiences, and emotional conflicts. Levels of Mental Life: Unconscious: Hidden drives influencing thoughts and behaviors. Preconscious: Elements not currently in awareness but accessible. Conscious: Thoughts and perceptions we're aware of. Provinces of the Mind: Id: Seeks pleasure; impulsive desires. Superego: Moral conscience; societal rules. Ego: Reality-based decision-maker. Psychosexual Stages: Development through childhood focuses on different erogenous zones, influencing personality. 2. Psychosocial Stages of Development (Erik Erikson) Context: Erikson expanded Freud’s theories, emphasizing lifelong development through eight stages, each involving a central conflict that contributes to personality growth. Key Stages: Trust vs. Mistrust: Building trust in caregivers. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt: Developing independence. Identity vs. Role Confusion: Forming self-identity. Integrity vs. Despair: Reflecting on life with fulfillment or regret. Intro to Psych 9  3. Learning Theories These theories highlight how behavior is learned through interactions with the environment. John B. Watson (Behaviorism): Focused on observable behavior and classical conditioning, demonstrating that behavior can be shaped by associating stimuli. Little Albert Experiment: Showed how fear could be conditioned in a child. B.F. Skinner (Operant Conditioning): Proposed that behaviors are influenced by their consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment. 4. Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget) Context: Piaget’s theory explains how children think and learn in stages as they interact with the world. Four Stages: Sensorimotor: Learning through senses and actions. Preoperational: Developing symbolic thinking but still egocentric. Concrete Operational: Logical thinking about concrete events. Formal Operations: Ability to think abstractly and hypothetically. STRUCTURE OF NEURONS THE NERVOUS SYSTEM BRAIN: THE CENTER OF ALL FUNCTIONS The nervous system is essential for coordinating all body functions, processing sensory information, and facilitating communication throughout the body. It is divided into two main parts: Central Nervous System (CNS): Composed of the brain and spinal cord. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Includes nerves and most sensory organs. STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM CELLS NEURONS: AN OVERVIEW Neurons are the fundamental units of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting information. They can be categorized into three main types: Sensory Neuron (Afferent Neuron): Detects changes in the environment and sends information to the CNS. Motor Neuron (Efferent Neuron): Located in the CNS, it controls muscle contractions or gland secretions. Intro to Psych 10  Interneuron: Found entirely within the CNS, they connect sensory and motor neurons. Types of Interneurons: Local Interneurons: Form circuits with nearby neurons to analyze information. Relay Interneurons: Connect circuits across different brain regions. BASIC STRUCTURE OF A NEURON 1. Soma (Cell Body): Contains the nucleus and machinery for cell function. 2. Dendrites: Receive messages from other neurons and transmit them across the synapse. 3. Axon: A slender tube that carries information from the cell body to the terminal buttons, transmitting action potentials. 4. Myelin Sheath: Insulates the axon, speeding up impulse transmission. 5. Terminal Buttons: Release neurotransmitters that either excite or inhibit the receiving cell. Types of Neurons: Unipolar Neuron: One axon with two branches, commonly found in sensory neurons. Bipolar Neurons: Rare sensory neurons located in the retina and olfactory epithelium. Multipolar Neuron: One axon and multiple dendrites for integrating information. Pseudounipolar Neuron: A sensory neuron in the PNS with one axon split into two branches. SUPPORTING CELLS: GLIA CELLS OR NEUROGLIA Supporting cells, or glial cells, play a crucial role in maintaining neural health and function: Astrocytes: Provide physical support, clean debris, and isolate synapses to prevent neurotransmitter dispersion. Oligodendrocytes: Produce myelin sheaths that insulate axons in the CNS. Microglia: Act as the immune system of the brain, breaking down dead neurons and responding to damage. Schwann Cells: Perform similar functions as oligodendrocytes but in the PNS. THE BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER Function: Protects the brain by controlling which substances can enter. Intro to Psych 11  Selective Permeability: CNS capillaries lack the gaps found in other capillaries, maintaining a protective barrier. Exception: The area postrema in the medulla oblongata is a weak point where substances can initiate a vomiting response. NEURAL COMMUNICATION Neural communication is fundamental for the functioning of the nervous system: Neural Impulses: Messages travel at speeds ranging from 2 to 225 miles per hour, enabling rapid responses. Electrochemical Nature: Neural impulses involve both electrical charges and chemical changes along neurons. THE NEURAL CONNECTION Signal Reception: Dendrites receive signals; the cell body integrates them; the axon transmits action potentials, accelerated by the myelin sheath; synaptic terminals transmit signals to the next neuron. ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL OF AXONS Membrane Potential: The electrical potential difference across the membrane when the neuron is at rest. Resting Potential: The state of the neuron before it fires, maintained by the movement of ions. Depolarization and Hyperpolarization: Changes in membrane potential that affect neuron excitability. ACTION POTENTIAL All-or-None Law: An action potential either occurs fully or not at all. Refractory Period: Following an action potential, the neuron becomes less sensitive to stimuli. Conduction: Sodium and potassium ions rapidly change during action potentials, allowing messages to be transmitted. SYNAPSE Definition: The gap between neurons where neurotransmitters transmit signals. Components: Includes the axon terminal of the sending neuron, the receiving neuron, and the synaptic cleft. NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS Intro to Psych 12  Different neurotransmitters play vital roles in neural communication and bodily functions: Acetylcholine: Activates muscles; linked to memory formation and motor control. Dopamine: Influences pleasure, movement, and learning; linked to Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia. Serotonin: Affects mood and sleep; deficiencies associated with various psychological disorders. Norepinephrine: Involved in arousal and mood regulation; linked to mood disorders. Endorphins: Act as natural painkillers; inhibit pain messages to the brain. THE USE OF PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS Psychoactive drugs can correct neurotransmitter imbalances by: Agonists: Mimicking neurotransmitters to enhance their effects. Antagonists: Blocking neurotransmitter action to diminish effects. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM DIVISION SYSTEMS AND THE BRAIN STRUCTURE Nervous System Overview Central Nervous System (CNS): Includes the brain and spinal cord. Functions: Processes sensory signals, stores memory, and enables thought. Structure: Gray matter (cell bodies) and white matter (myelinated fibers). Protected by vertebrae. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Comprises somatic and autonomic systems. Somatic Nervous System: Transmits sensory and motor signals. Autonomic Nervous System: Regulates organs/glands; divided into: Sympathetic: "Fight or flight" response. Parasympathetic: Rest and digest. Brain Overview Plasticity: The brain's ability to adapt and reorganize. Brain Regions 1. Forebrain: Frontal Lobe: Motor cortex: Movement planning. Prefrontal cortex: Higher-level cognitive functions. Intro to Psych 13  Broca’s area: Language production. Association areas: Learning, thought, and memory. Parietal Lobe: Somatosensory cortex: Processes sensory information. Temporal Lobe: Auditory cortex: Processes sound. Wernicke’s area: Language comprehension. Angular gyrus: Visual-to-auditory translation. Occipital Lobe: Visual cortex: Interprets visual information. Thalamus: Sensory relay center, regulates sleep/attention. Limbic System: Emotion and memory regulation. Components: Amygdala (emotion), Hippocampus (memory), Hypothalamus (homeostasis, motivation). 2. Midbrain: Substantia nigra/VTA: Dopamine production, movement. Reticular formation: Regulates sleep/wake cycle and arousal. 3. Hindbrain: Medulla: Controls autonomic functions (breathing, heart rate). Pons: Connects brain/spinal cord, regulates sleep. Cerebellum: Coordinates movement and balance. Brain Hemispheres Left Hemisphere: Logic, language, problem-solving, mathematics. Right Hemisphere: Visual-spatial skills, emotional responses, creativity. Both hemispheres work together; no strict "left-brained" or "right-brained" people. Handedness Left-handedness: Historically viewed negatively but linked to creative and artistic abilities. Greater likelihood of language-related challenges (e.g., dyslexia). Split-Brain Experiments Highlighted differences in hemisphere functions, demonstrating specialized processing. The Endocrine System Intro to Psych 14  THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Definition: The endocrine system is a group of ductless glands that release hormones into the circulatory system. Function: Works with the nervous system to maintain internal control of the body, regulating growth, development, metabolism, and stress responses. Key Point: Unlike the nervous system (which acts quickly), the endocrine system causes gradual changes by secreting hormones. Hormones Definition: Chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream and regulate various bodily activities. Functions: Growth, reproduction, metabolism, and regulation of internal processes. Example: Oxytocin (stimulates milk production) is needed in very small amounts (1/100,000,000 gram). Negative Feedback Loop: When sufficient hormone levels are reached, the gland is signaled to stop production. GLANDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS Pituitary Gland Nickname: "Master gland," but it’s regulated by the hypothalamus. Location: Below the hypothalamus, consists of anterior (front) and posterior (back) lobes. Key Hormones: Growth hormone (GH): Regulates growth of muscles, bones, glands. Prolactin: Stimulates milk production and maternal behavior. Vasopressin: Reduces urine production during fluid loss. Oxytocin: Stimulates labor and is linked to maternal behavior. Pineal Gland Function: Secretes melatonin, which regulates the sleep-wake cycle and affects puberty onset. Additional Info: Melatonin helps with jet lag adjustment and is linked to aging. Thyroid Gland Function: Produces thyroxin, which regulates metabolism (rate of oxygen use and energy production). Intro to Psych 15  Hypothyroidism: Too little thyroxin leads to weight gain, fatigue, and sluggishness. Hyperthyroidism: Too much thyroxin leads to excitability, insomnia, and weight loss. Adrenal Gland Location: Above the kidneys, composed of cortex (outer) and medulla (inner). Cortex Hormones: Corticosteroids: Regulate heartbeat, stress resistance, muscle development, and energy release. Medulla Hormones: Epinephrine (Adrenaline): Released during stress, intensifies emotions and helps in emergency responses. Norepinephrine: Also acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain. Testes and Ovaries Testes: Produce testosterone, which regulates male reproductive development and secondary characteristics (muscle growth, deeper voice). Ovaries: Produce estrogen and progesterone, which regulate female reproductive organs, pregnancy, and secondary characteristics (e.g., breast development). STEROIDS, BEHAVIOR, AND MENTAL PROCESSES Steroids (e.g., testosterone) increase muscle mass, enhance resistance to stress, and boost energy. Anabolic Steroids: Synthetic forms of testosterone used to enhance athletic ability, associated with increased confidence and aggression. Learning and Conditioning LEARNING AND CONDITIONING REVIEWER 1. Definition of Learning Behaviorist View: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. Cognitive View: Learning involves a change in mental representations of the environment, resulting from experience. 2. Unlearned Behaviors Instinct: Automatic, inborn patterns of behavior (e.g., birds building nests). Reflex: Automatic responses to stimuli (e.g., withdrawing from heat). Intro to Psych 16  3. Learned Behaviors Learning: A change in behavior or knowledge from experience. Associative Learning: Making connections between stimuli or events (e.g., linking the sound of thunder with lightning). CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Definition: A form of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a response. Key Components Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response (e.g., meat powder). Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural reaction to UCS (e.g., salivation). Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral, triggers a conditioned response after association (e.g., bell). Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation to bell). Process of Classical Conditioning Acquisition: Initial stage of learning when CS and UCS are paired. Extinction: Weakening of CR when CS is presented without UCS. Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of CR after rest period. Generalization: CR is triggered by stimuli similar to CS. Discrimination: Distinguishing between different stimuli (e.g., salivating only at the sound of a specific bell). Applications Taste Aversion: Strong aversion formed after a single negative experience (e.g., food poisoning). Conditioning of Emotional Responses: Watson’s Little Albert experiment demonstrated how fears can be conditioned (e.g., fear of rats). Preparedness: Evolutionary tendency to develop certain fears (e.g., snakes, heights). Counterconditioning: Learning a new response to replace an old one (e.g., associating relaxation with a feared object). Flooding: Prolonged exposure to feared stimuli. Systematic Desensitization: Gradual exposure while practicing relaxation techniques. OPERANT CONDITIONING Intro to Psych 17  Definition: Learning based on the consequences of actions, focusing on reinforcements and punishments. Thorndike’s Law of Effect Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are more likely to recur, while those followed by negative outcomes are less likely. B.F. Skinner and Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., praising for good work). Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., turning off an annoying alarm by waking up). Positive Punishment: Applying an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior (e.g., spanking). Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., taking away phone privileges). Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement after a fixed time (e.g., checking the mail at a specific time). Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement after variable time intervals (e.g., checking social media for new messages). Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., reward after every 5 sales). Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement after unpredictable responses (e.g., gambling on slot machines). Shaping and Behavior Modification Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior (e.g., training a dog to roll over step by step). Behavior Modification: Using reinforcement to change behavior, often used in education and therapy. Applications Biofeedback Training: Controlling physiological functions through reinforcement (e.g., learning to relax using heart rate monitors). Programmed Learning: Breaking complex tasks into smaller steps with immediate feedback (e.g., teaching through modules). COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING Cognitive Theories of Learning Intro to Psych 18  Learning is not just mechanical but involves mental processes, such as schemas and information processing. Latent Learning: Learning that is not immediately expressed but remains dormant until it is needed (e.g., rats forming cognitive maps in a maze). Cognitive Map: Mental representation of a spatial layout. Contingency Theory Rescorla’s Experiment: Learning occurs when the CS reliably predicts the UCS. Dogs learned fear when the tone predicted a shock, but they did not learn if there was no clear contingency between the tone and the shock. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Definition: Learning by observing the behavior of others. Modeling: Imitating behaviors seen in others (e.g., children learning aggressive behavior from watching adults). Vicarious Reinforcement: Observing someone else being rewarded for a behavior, which encourages the observer to mimic that behavior. Bandura’s Experiment: In the famous Bobo doll experiment, children who watched adults behave aggressively towards a doll were more likely to imitate the aggressive behavior. Intro to Psych 19