Module-Principles-and-Theories-of-Language-Acquisition-and-Learning PDF

lOMoARcPSD|39208261 Module-principles-and-theories-of-language-acquisition-and-l earning-pdf-free. pdf ELANG BS International Tourism Management (Joji Ilagan Career Center Foundation, Inc.) Scan to open on Studocu S...

lOMoARcPSD|39208261 Module-principles-and-theories-of-language-acquisition-and-l earning-pdf-free. pdf ELANG BS International Tourism Management (Joji Ilagan Career Center Foundation, Inc.) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 Table of Contents Title Page Table of Contents Course Outline Online Rules and Regulations Course Description Week 1 – 3 Nature of Language and Learning Learning Exercises / Activities Week 4 – 6 Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning Approaches Learning Exercises / Activities Week 7 – 9 Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning: The Functional Approaches Learning Exercises / Activities Week 10 – 12 Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning: Philosophies of Education Learning Exercises / Activities Week 13 – 15 Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning:Reading Approach Learning Exercises / Activities & Rating Guide Week 16 – 18 Approaches to Language Teaching Learning Exercises / Activities & Rating Guide References 1 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 Course Outline Course Name Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning Course Credit 3 Units Pre-requisite None Contact Hours / Week 3 Hours Nature of Language and Learning  Definition of Language  Nature of Language Week 1 - 3  What is Learning?  Nature of Learning  Language Acquisition vs Language Learning  First Language Acquisition vs Second Language Acquisition Learning Exercise / Activities Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning Approaches  Behaviorist theory Week 4 - 6  Basic Language Learning  Stages in Child Language Acquisition  Cognitive Theory  Social Interaction Theory  Nature vs Nurture Learning Exercise / Activities Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition 2 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 and Learning: The Functional Approaches Week 7 - 9  Instrumental Function  Regulatory Function  Interactional Function  Personal Function  Representational/Informative Function  Hueristic Function  Imaginative function  Learning Exercise / Activities Rating Guide Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Week 10 - 12 Learning: Philosophies of Education  How we view learning as teachers?  Education Philosophies  Idealism  Realism  Pragmatism  Existentialism Learning Exercise / Activities Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition Week 13 - 15 and Learning:Reading Approach  Why reading is important in language acquisition?  Brief history of reading approach  Different approaches in teaching reading  The intensive and extensive reading 3 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 Learning Exercise / Activities Approaches to Language Teaching Present-day Teaching Methods Week 16 - 18 Learning Exercise / Activities Rating Guide ONLINE RULES AND REGULATIONS 1. Students must provide notebook and ballpen for note taking. 4 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 2. Students must mute his / her speaker as the discussion started. 3. As the online class started, please observe the following: a. Find a place that is noise free but with strong signal for internet connection a. Unnecessary exercises are not allowed while the online class are going on. b. Make sure that everybody is ready for the session. c. Be on your well-mannered position, lying or sleeping position is not permitted. d. Eating during online class is not allowed. e. If you have questions / queries regarding with the discussion, just press the hands-up emoticon to acknowledge your questions. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning 5 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 Course Description. Language learning starts at birth. However, we wonder how children could possibly acquire language as such a complex skill with very little experience of life. Rice, Bruehler, and Specker(2004) stated that experiments have clearly identified an ability to distinguish syntactical shades of difference in very young infants, although they are still at the pre- linguistic stage. For example, children of three are able to handle very complicated syntactical sentences, although they are unable to tie their own shoelaces. So how do children learn to speak? This course will examines principles, factors, and contexts of language acquisition and learning based on theories and research findings. Learning Objectives: At the end of this course student should be able to: 1. To Identify various theories in first and second language acquisition. 2. To describe the stages of second language acquisition. 3. To differentiate between characteristics of language acquisition and language/learning 4. To understand the different approaches and functions of language acquisitions and learning. Week 1 - 3. Nature of Language and Learning Learning Objectives. 6 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 1. To define language and learning 2. To differentiate language learning from language acquisition. 3. To understand the nature of learning. Discussion. What is language? Language is the process of exchanging of messages and creating meaning. Language Is part of culture. Language is also intertwined with human biology. Characteristics of Human Language 1. Language is a social tool. 2. Language must be learned. 3. The relationship between the sound of a language and their meaning is arbitrary and dual. 4. Language has rules. 5. Language allows human to be creative. Language acquisition vs Language Learning 7 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 Language is about communication and identity (Baker, 2000:26). We need language to transfer and share information and to build relationships with the others. Bowen (1998) said that language is called the symbolization of thought. It is a learned code, or system of rules that enables us to communicate ideas and express wants and needs. Bowen further added that language falls into two main divisions, receptive language (understanding what is said, written or signed) and expressive language (related to speaking, writing or signing). Thus, language is simply defined by Richards et. al. (1992, p. 196) as the system of human communication which consists of the structures arrangements of sounds (or their written presentation) into larger units, e.g. morphemes, words, sentences, utterances. The process of perceiving language in an individual is by the processes of learning and acquisition. Learning is a conscious process, knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able to talk about them. Whereas acquisition is a process by which children unconsciously acquire their native/first language(s). In language acquisition, the focus is on communication or reception of a message as opposed to syntax and grammar as is the case in language learning (Rice, Bruehler & Specker, 2004). Ebert & Hawk (2003). It is believed that the usual outcome of language acquisition is fluency, which is by no means guaranteed in language learning. Nature of Learning 1. Learning is a process. 2. Learning involves experiences and training of an individual which helps to change his behavior. 3. Learning prepare the individual to adjust and adopt in the situations. 4. All learning is purposeful and goal oriented. 5. Learning is universal and continuous. 6. It is a continuous process and never- ending process that goes from womd to tomb. 8 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 7 Principles in Learning (Dumont et. al. 2010) 1. Learners at the center. 2. The social nature of learning. 3. Emotions are integral to learning. 4. Recognizing individual difference. 5. Stretching all students. 6. Assessment fro learning. 7. Building horizontal connections. First Language Acquisition vs Second Language Acquisition The expected cry of a newborn baby is the first sign of human communication. Language acquisition process can be seen as a running parallel throughout a child‟s life every day. She/he learns to communicate through natural interactions with his/her environment. The process begins in the early live of a human and requires a healthy start, sufficient opportunities, and exposure to a care giving environment that allows the child‟s innate predisposition to learn to communicate to functions (Rossetti, 2001, p. 45). More than half of the world‟s population today uses more than one language while being connected to fundamental human activities. Bilingualism symbolizes the essential humanity of building bridges between people of different color, creed, culture and language (Baker, 2000, p.5). Baker (2000) stated children are born ready to become bilinguals and multilingual. They are like“sponges”, as they sponges-up all languages provided by their environment and chances to interact with people of different language backgrounds. They would pick-up any language without endangering their own first language development. Lambert (1962) said that bilingual activity does not retard intelligence (in Garcia, 1986). To enhance children‟s bilingualism, a lot of stimulations to language are essential. In some 9 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 situations, producing bilingual children is easy and natural, in others it can be a struggle. A lot of factors affect the process, such as encouragements from both of the parents at home and the community. In bilingual and multilingual community, there is a great need to master two or more languages for operating daily activities successfully. Therefore, this situation strongly supports the children‟s bilingualism. Language engineering or shaping is important in families that judge bilingualism as a challenge. This means that it is important that children‟s attitudes towards their languages are motivated and encouraged continuously. A variety of pleasurable environment for language growth is very important. Learning Exercises / Activities I. Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the correct answer. 1. Which of the following statements is true about language acquisition? a) At birth, children know the elementary aspects of the language of their parents. b) By age one, children typically use about three words consisting of single morphemes. c) Babies learn a language best when they are forced to repeat phrases given to them by their parents. d) none of the above 2. When young children begin to learn standard grammar, they tend to over regularize it. What does this mean? a) They consistently use correct grammar in virtually every sentence. b) They excessively regulate or control what they say to the point that they become inhibited. c) They assume that common syntax rules apply in all situations. d) none of the above 3. The best time to learn a second language is in: a) early childhood b) junior and senior high school c) college 4. It is best to learn a second language: a) in a classroom where you can focus on the grammar and receive help from a teacher b) through constant contact with native speakers in their own society 10 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 c) both of the above approaches to learning are equally effective. 5. Which of the following statements is true about the effect of language? a) Bilingual people usually perform math and other complicated mental tasks with their first language. b) Second languages learned as adults are rarely forgotten even if they are not used regularly. b) neither of the above is true 6. Language acquisition A. is best understood by watching animals communicate. B. is a theory that is agreed upon by the psychological community. C. cannot happen among the deaf community. D. is the process by which we learn to communicate in meaningful ways. 7. How can we describe the language acquisition device? A. A hypothetical tool that helps children quickly learn and understand language B. A section of the brain labeled 'language acquisition device' C. A device you plug into children's heads to teach them a language D. A toy that teaches children how to speak 8. Who developed the language acquisition device? A. Noam Chomsky B. Choam Nomsky C. Chuck Norris D. Chuck Numsky 9. Which is NOT a stage of language acquisition according to Krashen´s theory? A. Pre- production. B. Early production. C. Language interference D. Speech emergent. 10. The idea that ‘Language is not learnt by groups’ relates to. A. Individual differences 11 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 B. Affective Factors C. Cognitive Factors Week 4 – 6. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning Approaches Learning Objectives. 1. To determine the theory of behaviorism 2. To understand the behaviorism theory in language acquisition and Learning. 3. To analyze the theory of behaviorist theory. Discussion. The Principle of Behaviorist Theory Behaviorism is a learning theory that studies observable and measurable behavioral changes, which result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner. This theory stems from the work of Pavlov who studied animal behavior, and was able to condition a dog to associate the ringing of a bell with food. Pavlovian conditioning is known as classical conditioning. Pavlov's premise was later developed by Thorndike, Watson and Skinner. Skinner introduced the theory of operant conditioning (i.e., a behavior followed by a reinforcer results in an increased probability of that behavior occurring in the future; a behavior followed by a punishment is weakened or suppressed in the future). Behaviorism in the classroom Behaviorist techniques have long been applied in educational practices, especially in classroom and behavior management. The learning process, according to Behaviorism, places the teacher in a primary role wherein he or she adjusts the learner's behavior and directs learning through drill and practice, through habit-breaking, and punishment/reward. 12 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 Conversely, the learner's activity, be it thinking or doing, is confined to the framework of "behavior", and is governed by the stimulus-response-reinforcement process. Examples: In Behaviorism 1. Follow the instructions. 2. Take the test. 3. Get the reward. 4. Learn. BEHAVIORIST THEORY ON LANGUAGE LEARNING AND ACQUISITION Introduction 13 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 There are some basic theories advanced to describe how language is acquired, learnt and taught. The behaviorist theory, Mentalist theory (Innatism), Rationalist theory (otherwise called Cognitive theory), and Interactionism are some of these theories.Of these, behaviorist theory and mentalist theory are mainly applicable to the acquisition of native languages while the rest can account for foreign language acquisition. Yet, these four fundamental theories of language acquisition cannot be totally divorced from each other, for "theobjectives of second language learning are not necessarily entirely determined by native language competence inevitably serves as a foil against which to set second language learning." (H.H. Stem,.1983; 30). Mother Tongue and Foreign Language Learning These five basic theories are, furthermore, very much complementary to each other, serving different types of learners or representing various cases of language learning. They must not automatically make us presume that first and second language learning are identical or alike processes, though second language learning is strongly tied up with first language acquisition.Obviously, native language growth must pave the way for foreign language growth. Then these five basic language learning theories are fundamental pillars of language learning whose relevance to education is undeniable. The Principle of the Behaviorist Theory The behaviorist theory believes that “infants learn oral language from other human role models through a process involving imitation, rewards, and practice. Human role models in an infant’s environment provide the stimuli and rewards,” (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). When a child attempt oral language or imitates the sounds or speech patterns they are usually praised and given affection for their efforts. Thus, praise and affection becomes the rewards. However, the behaviorist theory is scrutinized for a variety of reasons. If rewards play such a vital component in language development, what about the parent who is inattentive or not present when the child attempts speech? If a baby’s language learning is motivated strictly by rewards would the speech attempts stop merely for lack of rewards (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004)? Other cases against this theory include “learning the use and meaning of abstract words, evidence of novel forms of language not modeled by others, and uniformity of language acquisition in humans”(Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). 14 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 The Background of the Behaviorist Theory The behaviorist theory believes that “infants learn oral language from other human role models through a process involving imitation, rewards, and practice. Human role models in an infant’s environment provide the stimuli and rewards,” (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). When a child attempts oral language or imitates the sounds or speech patterns they are usually praised and given affection for their efforts. Thus, praise and affection becomes the rewards. However, the behaviorist theory is scrutinized for a variety of reasons. If rewards play such a vital component in language development, what about the parent who is inattentive or not present when the child attempts speech? If a baby’s language learning is motivated strictly by rewards would the speech attempts stop merely for lack of rewards (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004)? Other cases against this theory include “learning the use and meaning of abstract words, evidence of novel forms of language not modeled by others, and uniformity of language acquisition in humans”(Cooter & Reutzel, 2004).Behaviorist theory, which is basically a psychological theory in its essence, founded by J.B.Watson, is actually a theory of native language learning, advanced in part as a reaction totraditional grammar. The supporters of this theory are Leonard Bloomfield, O.N. Mowrer, B.F.Skinner, and A.W. Staats. Behaviorism was advanced in America as a new approach to psychology in the early decades of the 20th-century by making a particular emphasis on the importance of verbal behavior, and received a considerable trust from the educational world of 1950s.The major principle of the behaviorist theory rests on the analyses of human behavior in observable stimulus-response interaction and the association between them. E.L.T. Thorndike was the first behaviorist to explore the area that learning is the establishment of associations on particular process of behavior and consequences of that behavior. Basically, "the behaviorist theory of stimulus-response learning, particularly as developed in the operant conditioning model of Skinner, considers all learning to be the establishment of habits as a result of reinforcement and reward" (Wilga Rivers, 1968, 73). This is very reminiscent of Pavlov's experiment which indicates that stimulus and response work together. According to this category, the babies obtain native language habits via varied babblings which resemble the appropriate words repeated by a person or object near him. Since for his babblings and mutterings he is rewarded, this very reward reinforces further articulations of 15 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 the same sort into grouping of syllables and words in a similar situation. In this way, he goes on emitting sounds,groups of sounds, and as he grows up he combines the sentences via generalizations and analogy (as in*goed for went, *doed,for did,so on), which in some complicated cases,condition him to commit errors by articulating in permissible structures in speech. By the age offive or six, or babblings and mutterings grow into socialized speech but little by little they are internalized as implicit speech, and thus many of their utterances become indistinguishable from the adults. This, then, obviously, means that behaviorist theory is a theory of stimulus-response psychology."Through a trial-and- error process, in which acceptable utterances are reinforced by comprehension and approval, and un acceptable utterances are inhibited by the lack of reward,he gradually learns to make finer and finer discriminations until his utterances approximate more and more closely the speech of the community in which he is growing up (Wilga M. Rivers,1968; 73). To put it in other words, children develop a natural affinity to learn the language of their social surroundings whose importance both over language learning and teaching must never be underestimated. In this respect behaviorist theory stresses the fact that "human and animal learning is a process of habit formation. A highly complex learning task, according to this theory may be learned by being broken' down into smaIl habits. These are formed correct or incorrect responses, are rewarded or, punished, respectively'. (Hubbard Jones and ThorntonWheeler, 1983; 326). Thus it is clear that the acquisition of learning in infancy is governed the acquisition of other habits. Stages of Language Acquisition 16 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 Stages of Language Acquisition There are four main stages of normal language acquisition: The babbling stage, the Holophrastic or one-word stage, the two-word stage and the Telegraphic stage. These stages can be broken down even more into these smaller stages: pre-production, early production, speech emergent, beginning fluency intermediate fluency and advanced fluency. On this page I will be providing a summary of the four major stage of language acquisition. Babbling Within a few weeks of being born the baby begins to recognize it’s mothers’ voice. There are two sub-stages within this period. The first occurs between birth – 8 months. Most of this stage involves the baby relating to its surroundings and only during 5/6 – 8 month period does the baby begin using it’s vocals. As has been previously discussed babies learn by imitation and the babbling stage is just that. During these months the baby hears sounds around them and tries to reproduce them, albeit with limited success. The babies attempts at creating and experimenting with sounds is what we call babbling. When the baby has been babbling for a few months it begins to relate the words or sounds it is making to objects or things. This is the second sub-stage. From 8 months to 12 months the baby gains more and more control over not only it’s vocal communication but physical communication as well, for example body language and gesturing. Eventually when the baby uses both verbal and non-verbal means to communicate, only then does it move on to the next stage of language acquisition. Holophrastic / One-word stage The second stage of language acquisition is the holophrastic or one word stage. This stage is characterized by one word sentences. In this stage nouns make up around 50% of the infants vocabulary while verbs and modifiers make up around 30% and questions and negatives make up the rest. This one-word stage contains single word utterances such as “play” for “I want to play now”. Infants use these sentence primarily to obtain things they want or need, but sometimes they aren’t that obvious. For example a baby may cry or say 17 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 “mama” when it purely wants attention. The infant is ready to advance to the next stage when it can speak in successive one word sentences. Two-Word Stage The two word stage (as you may have guessed) is made of up primarily two word sentences. These sentences contain 1 word for the predicate and 1 word for the subject. For example “Doggie walk” for the sentence “The dog is being walked.” During this stage we see the appearance of single modifiers e.g. “That dog”, two word questions e.g. “Mummy eat?” and the addition of the suffix –ing onto words to describe something that is currently happening e.g. “Baby Sleeping.” Telegraphic Stage The final stage of language acquisition is the telegraphic stage. This stage is named as it is because it is similar to what is seen in a telegram; containing just enough information for the sentence to make sense. This stage contains many three and four word sentences. Sometime during this stage the child begins to see the links between words and objects and therefore over generalization comes in. Some examples of sentences in the telegraphic stage are “Mummy eat carrot”, “What her name?” and “He is playing ball.” During this stage a child’s vocabulary expands from 50 words to up to 13,000 words. At the end of this stage the child starts to incorporate plurals, joining words and attempts to get a grip on tenses. As a child’s grasp on language grows it may seem to us as though they just learn each part in a random order, but this is not the case. There is a definite order of speech sounds. Children first start speaking vowels, starting with the rounded mouthed sounds like “oo” and “aa”. After the vowels come the consonants, p, b, m, t, d, n, k and g. The consonants are first because they are easier to pronounce then some of the others, for example ‘s’ and ‘z’ require specific tongue place which children cannot do at that age. As all human beings do, children will improvise something they cannot yet do. For example when children come across a sound they cannot produce they replace it with a sound they 18 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 can e.g. ‘Thoap” for “Soap” and “Wun” for “Run.” These are just a few example of resourceful children are, even if in our eyes it is just cute. How do children learn to speak? Behavioural theory assumes that children imitate what they hear, and thanks to continuous, positive reinforcement, children learn language through conditioning and habit formation. Behaviourist theorists such as Skinner also claim that all errors during first language acquisition are due to ‘bad habit formation,’ which, in due course, children correct as they hear and imitate accurate speech. In contrast to behaviourists, ‘nativists,’ like Chomsky, believe that human beings are born with an innate capacity for language development. Deliberations continue between linguists regarding the importance of ‘nature’ over ‘nurture’ in acquisition of language. Language Acquisition as a Result of Nurture Behaviourists propose that a child’s environment is the most important factor in first language acquisition, and if a child is exposed to ‘rich language,’ then ‘good habit formation,’ and proper language development will occur. It is possible that first language acquisition includes speech imitation, but: · Children do not imitate everything they hear; they appear to be very selective and only reproduce unassimilated language chunks. Therefore, their replications seem to be controlled by an internal language-monitoring process. · Children learn the basic rules of language at around the age of five; the behaviourist theory cannot account for the speed that first language is acquired. · Children say things that are not adult imitations; in particular they use inflectional over generalizations such as ‘goed,’ ‘putted,’ ‘mouses,’ and ‘sheeps.’ · Children produce language structures that do not exist; you often hear, “Where I am?” instead of “Where am I?” 19 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 · Children that acquire language from habit formation seem to memorize certain structures prematurely. These phrases become lodged in their minds as unassimilated chunks of information that they cannot incorporate into their own verbal expressions. · Children produce many more sound-combinations than they hear, and understand many more than they can produce. · Children are exposed to language performance and not to language competence. Often they are exposed to “debilitated” language, yet, they manage to extract the language rules from these utterances and speak correctly. We are Wired to Acquire Language “When we study human language, we are approaching what some might call the ‘human essence,’ the distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as we know, unique to man.” (Noam Chomsky) Unlike the behaviourist approach that does not take into consideration the child’s own cognitive processes, the ‘Innateness Hypothesis’ proposed by linguist Noam Chomsky supports the idea that language acquisition has a biological foundation. Facts that support this theory include the following: · Children acquire language sounds in a certain sequence, and the first sounds that children learn are those that are common to all world languages: a stop consonant followed by an open vowel: thus a child’s first utterances are usually those found in words for ‘mother’ and ‘father,’ sounds such as ‘pa,’ ‘ma,’ ‘ba’ or ‘ta,’ as seen in French: maman, papa; Greek: mama, baba; Hebrew: eema, aba. · Children tend to learn language in the same sequence, suggesting that universality of language exists and the environment alone cannot be responsible for language acquisition. · Children acquire function words such as ‘or’ and ‘on’ and the less salient sounds connected to possessives, pluralisation and third person singular in a certain order. Interestingly, the plural ‘s’ and other forms of ‘s’ are not all developed in unison. 20 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 Language Development: An Innate Neurological Process For language development to occur, interaction has to take place; language cannot be acquired passively. Although imitation and habit forming do have a role in language acquisition, children seem predisposed to acquire speech and competency in language by being able to map language, possibly onto what Noam Chomsky calls a ‘language acquisition device.’ Learning Exercises / Activities I. Multiple Choice: Write the letter of the correct answer. 1. What is the first language level children learn? A. Lexis B. Grammar C. Phonology D. Syntax 2. At what age do children typically enter the one word stage? A. 6 months B. 12 months C. 18 months D. 24 months 3. What is it called when a child makes a mistake that make grammatical sense but isn't correct due to an irregular rule. A. Honest mistake B. Virtuous mistake C. Virtuous error D. A boo boo 4. Which theory do virtuous errors support? A. Naturvist B. Behaviourist C. Cognitive D. Vygotsky 5. Who suggests children learn by imitating adults? 21 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 A. Chomsky B. Skinner C. Piaget D. Nelson 6. Which of this is an example of positive reinforcement? A. No, that's wrong. B. Say please. C. Ok, you can have some juice. D. When? 7. Which is more effective? A. Positive reinforcement B. Negative reinforcement 8. When do children enter the two word stage? A. 6 months B. 12 months C. 18 months D. 24 month 9. What does Vygotsky suggest is essential to language acquisition? A. Interaction B. Play C. Older siblings D. TV 10. In his review of Skinner’s (1957) book on behaviourism and language learning, Chomsky (1959) argued that ______. A. operant conditioning is inefficient because it relies on imitation B. children acquire a good deal of their verbal behaviour by imitating adults C. children do not rely on imitation in the acquisition of verbal behaviour d. the acquisition of verbal behaviour depends on operant 22 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 Conditioning Week 7 – 9. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning: The Functional Approaches Learning Objectives. 1. To identify the different language approaches under functional approach 2. To understand the theory of Hallidays. 3. To discuss the theory of Hallidays and its importance in language acquisition and learning Discussion. 23 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 Several attempts have been made to catalogue the different functions of language, and to chart child language development in terms of the increasing range of these functions to be found in the growing child’s repertoire. Michael Halliday’s taxonomy is documented below:- Instrumental: Language used to fulfil a need on the part of the speaker. Directly concerned with obtaining food, drink and comfort. – Regulatory: Language used to influence the behaviour of others. Concerned with persuading / commanding / requesting other people to do things you want. – Interactional: Language used to develop social relationships and ease the process of interaction. Concerned with the phatic dimension of talk. – Personal: Language used to express the personal preferences and identity of the speaker. Sometimes referred to as the ‘Here I am!’ function – announcing oneself to the world. – Representational: Language used to exchange information. Concerned with relaying or requesting information. – Heuristic: Language used to learn and explore the environment. Child uses language to learn; this may be questions and answers, or the kind of running commentary that frequently accompanies children’s play. – Imaginative: Language used to explore the imagination. May also accompany play as children create imaginary worlds, or may arise from storytelling. Halliday’s Functions of Language Function Examples Classroom Experiences Instrumental "I want to..." Problem solving, language is used to gathering materials, 24 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 communicate role playing, preferences, choices, persuading wants, or needs Personal "Here I am...." Making feelings language is used to public and express individuality interacting with others Interactional "You and me...." Structured play, language is used to "I'll be the dialogues and interact and plan, cashier,...." discussions, develop, or maintain a talking in groups play or group activity or social relationship Regulatory "Do as I tell you...." making rules in language is used to "You need...." games, giving control instructions, teaching Representational "I'll tell you." Conveying Use language to explain "I know." messages, telling about the real world, expressing a proposition Heuristic "Tell me why...." Question and language is used to find "Why did you do answer, routines, things out, wonder, or that?" inquiry and research hypothesize "What for?" Imaginative "Let's pretend...." Stories and language is used to "I went to my dramatizations, create, explore, and grandma's last rhymes, poems, and 25 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 entertain night." riddles, nonsense and word play How did you learn to speak your native language? Notice that this shouldn't be such a puzzling question. We often ask questions such as, do you remember when you learned to tie your shoes, ride a bike, and eat with a fork? Sometimes we can remember because a parent helped us learn how to do these things. Now, since we always speak the language of our parents, they must have helped us learn to speak our first language. But do you remember when your mother taught you the past tense? When your father laid down the rules for passive sentences? We don't remember these important moments of our childhood because they never occurred. Our parents didn't teach us how to walk and they didn't teach us how to talk. Yet we learned from them. How can this be? Certainly there must have been a subtle, perhaps intuitive teaching process that neither our parents nor we were aware of. We begin by imitating what we hear our parents say as best we can, repeating random phrases. Our parents in subtle ways punish us for the childish speech errors we make (by not responding, correcting the error, etc.) and reward correct phrases (by responding positively). As our speech improves, our parents respond more positively and less negatively. No? First, let's examine the assumption that children begin speaking by trying to repeat what they have heard their parents say. Have you ever heard a child say things like this: Daddy go He hitted me! No eat cake 26 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 So, can I finish his eggs?Who did they hear utter such phrases? "Daddy go" is an attempt to express 'Daddy is going'. But if the child were merely trying to repeat this common phrase, choosing random two-word combinations, he or she would also occasionally say "Daddy is" or simply "is going"? Yet these two phrases do not occur as normal speech errors of children while "Daddy go" is a common one. Second, research shows that while mothers often respond to the semantic content of what their children say ("No, that's not a doggie; it's a cow"), they very rarely respond to the grammatical status of their children's phrases. Indeed, when parents do respond to speech errors, they most often respond positively. Here are a few advanced errors from the history of my family. What do you think our response was—correction or laughter (which I take to be a positive response)? Mama, mama, there's a tree-knocker in the back yard! It's raining, where is the underbrella? Give me the beach-lookers! (binoculars) In fact, parents themselves make grammatical errors when they speak. Despite the fact that children don't know when their parents are speaking grammatically and when they are making errors, all children grow up knowing (if not always speaking) the language perfectly. So how do we learn to speak? Recall the example above, "He hitted me." Although hitted is not a word children hear adults utter, it is wrong for an interesting reason: the verb, in a sense, has the "right" ending on it for the past tense. In other words, the only way a child learning language could make such an error is that he or she is learning a rule that derives past tense verbs from verb stems. What the child hasn't mastered at this stage is the exceptions to the rule. Still, it shows that children look for and learn grammatical rules from nothing more than the utterances they hear. Notice also that the words in the erroneous phrases are all in the correct order. No child would say "go Daddy" for "Daddy is going" or "cookie mommy" for "Mommy's cookie". By the time a child begins putting two words together, he or she has already mastered the basic rules of syntax and applies them correctly even in their erroneous speech. It takes the child a little longer to master the rules of morphology, i.e. affixes and suffixes. 27 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 The evidence then indicates that children do, in fact, absorb a massive number of sentences and phrases but rather than parrot them back, they abstract rules from them and create their own grammar which they then apply to create new utterances they have never heard before. Over the years from 2-6, when language is mastered, children constantly adjust their grammar until it matches that of the adult speaker population. This critical period between the ages of 2-6 suggests that first language learning, like walking, is an innate capacity of human beings triggered by a level of development more than feedback from the environment. Can I have it?That is, so long as a child hears a language–any language–when they reach this critical period they will learn it perfectly. If this is true, any child not hearing language during this period not only should not learn to speak but also should not be able to learn to speak. The ethical implications of research on this question are obvious. However, there have been a few tragic non-scientific bits of evidence that supports the innateness + critical period hypothesis. The first bit of evidence comes from the so-called Wild Boy of Aveyron, Victor. Victor is the name given to a boy found roaming the woods of Averyon in southern France toward the end of September 1799. He behaved like a wild animal and gave all indications that he had been raised by wild animals, eating off the floor, making canine noises, disliking baths and clothes. He also could not speak. He was taken in by Doctor Jean Marc Itard who had developed a reputation for teaching the deaf to speak. However, after years of work, Itard failed to teach Victor to more than a few basic words without correct endings, the indicators of grammar. A similar event unfolded in Los Angeles in November 1970 when a 13-year-old girl was discovered who had been isolated in a baby crib most of her life and never spoken to. She was physically immature, but had difficulty walking and could not speak. Psychologists at UCLA spent years trying to teach "Genie" (as they called her to protect her identity) to speak. While Genie did get to the point where she could communicate, her speech never advanced beyond the kind of constructions we saw in the first set of examples above, the point where the language explosion in normal children begins. In other words, she could use words to the same extent as chimpanzees but could not manipulate grammar, as indicated in the prefixes, suffixes and 'function' words missing in the first set of examples 28 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 above. At middle age she stopped talking altogether and was soon committed to a mental institution. The evidence is not conclusive but, such as it is, it suggests that language is an innate capacity of human beings which is acquired during a critical period between 2-6. After that period, it becomes increasingly more difficult for humans to learn languages. Learning Exercises / Activities. I. Multiple Choice: Answer the following questions: 1. Which of these is one of Halliday's functions of speech? A. Instrumental B. Social C. Action D. Personal 2. What do Halliday's functions help us to understand about child language? A. Lexis B. Semantics C. Pragmatics D. Grammar 3. Which of the following is NOT an example of language acquisition from a behaviorist perspective? A. Babies learn language by repeatedly associating the object 'dog' with the word 'dog.' B. Babies learn language by imitating adult patterns of speech. C. Babies are born with an innate ability to learn language. 29 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 D. Babies are rewarded for attempts at speech when their caregivers smile and applaud their efforts. 4. Noam Chomsky argues that babies acquire language A. because humans are born with the ability to learn language. B. when caregivers speak softly to infants. C. by watching adults interact. D. by repeated exposure to sounds that have meaning. 5. Which theorist places the most importance on social interaction in the development of language? A) Chomsky B) Piaget C) Skinner D) Vygotsky 6. In the nature-nurture debate as it applies to language acquisition, Chomsky emphasizes ______. A. the ‘harmony and mutual dependence’ of nature and nurture B. the fundamental antagonism of nature and nurture C. the importance of nature over nurture D. the importance of nurture over nature 7. Every time young Haley says the word 'teddy,' she is given her favorite stuffed bear, which reinforces her understanding and continued use of the word for getting the toy. According to behaviorist theory, this is an example of: A. Operant conditioning B. Information processing C. Conditioned stimulus D. Repetitive-style language learning 8. Regardless of culture, children begin to learn language around the same time all over the world. At about what age is this? A) between 6 and 8 months B) between 8 and 28 months C) between 2 and 4 years D) between 5 and 7 years 9. Susie and Jen, identical twins, appear to speak and understand their own "secret language"; however, upon listening to them, their mother is unable to discern any consistency in the words and grammar they use. When she asks the girls, they reply that they change it whenever they feel like it. What characteristic of language does their "language" violate?. A. The language code is conventional. B. Language is a representational tool. C. Language is socially shared. D. Language is a code that uses a system of arbitrary symbols. 30 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 10.While studying for your upcoming Language Development test, you ask your friend to define the term speech. He tells you that it is the process of sharing information among individuals. Your friend gave you the definition for: A. Communication. B. Hearing. C. Language. D. Speech. Week 10 – 12. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning: Philosophies of Education Learning Objectives. 1. To recognize the common philosophies of education 2. To explain the involvement of philosophies of education in developing child’s language acquisition and learning 3. To analyze the theories of language learning presented by experts. Discussion. Language. It’s all around us. It’s vital for our everyday existence. And yet many of us find it challenging to pick up a new one. The problem, we tell ourselves, is that we’re thinking too hard. 31 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 The solution, we say, is to be more like those kids that we once were when we learned our first language. Simply absorbing things the way kids do without really thinking about the language must surely be our best bet, we convince ourselves. But here’s the thing. We’re not kids anymore and we never will be again. We’re not going to have the same opportunities as we did in our native language where we were in constant contact with mothers, fathers and siblings who corrected our every mistake (though a girlfriend or boyfriend might compensate). Nor do most of us want to spend 18 years of our lives studying a language just to achieve high school level fluency. We don’t need to abandon the lessons we’ve taken from childhood language learning, but we must surely temper them with something else. And that thing is theory. Theory, that most highly condensed form of thought based on principles and evidence, can help us as adults to excel in language learning in ways that would otherwise not be possible. Of course, learning about language learning theory in no way needs to occupy the bulk of your time. By devoting just a fraction of your time to theory right now, you’ll reap benefits far beyond getting in an extra 10 minutes of studying. So without further ado, let’s start at the beginning. 7 Great Theories About Language Learning Theories of language learning have been bandied about since about as far back as one would care to look. It may be surprising to know that the problems that philosophers in Ancient Greece and 16th century France were concerned about are largely still relevant today. To get a quick rundown of early language learning theory, let’s take a quick look at the ideas of three brilliant philosophers who you’ve probably already heard of. 32 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 1. Plato’s Problem The writings of Plato stretch all the way back to the beginnings of Western philosophical thought, but Plato was already posing problems critical to modern linguistic discourse. In the nature versus nurture debate, Plato tended to side with nature, believing that knowledge was innate. This was his answer to what has become known as Plato’s Problem, or as Bertrand Russell summarizes it: “How comes it that human beings, whose contacts with the world are brief and personal and limited, are nevertheless able to know as much as they do know?” Being born with this knowledge from the get-go would naturally solve this little quandary and consequently he viewed language as innate. 2. Cartesian Linguistics, by Descartes Centuries later, the French philosopher Descartes took a crack at linguistic philosophy. In his opinion, language acquisition was a simple and easy process, barely worthy of his attention. Like Plato he believed in the innateness of language because he thought it reflected the general rationality of human beings. But rather than Descartes himself, it was the rationalist movement that he symbolized and that was thriving in the time period when he lived that was most important for linguistics. This “Cartesian” movement, according to Chomsky (who we’ll get to later), noted the creativity involved in everyday language and presented the idea that there were universal principles behind every language. 3. Locke’s Tabula Rasa Most people familiar with Locke’s philosophy have heard of his concept of tabula rasa, or the blank slate. To state it briefly and in a simplified manner, this is the idea that all knowledge comes from outside ourselves through sensory experience rather than through innate knowledge that 33 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 we have at birth. This naturally carried over to language theory with Locke rejecting the idea that there was an innate logic behind language. Obviously these theories don’t touch too much on the practical, everyday level of language learning. They’re far less detailed and more philosophical than the modern scientific theories we’re used to. But they have important implications. If Plato and the Cartesians are right, then the emphasis in language learning must lie on what we already know, using our innate abilities to come to an understanding of the particularities of a specific language. If Locke is right, then we must focus our attention on sensory input, gaining as much external input as possible. In the practical, everyday world, all of this can easily be done with FluentU. FluentU takes real-world videos with familiar formats—like movie trailers, music videos, news and inspiring talks—and turns them into personalized language lessons. 4. Skinner’s Theory of Behaviorism In the middle of the 20th century, B.F. Skinner took Locke’s ideas of sensory input and ran with them. According to behaviorism, a radical variant of which was put forward by Skinner, all behavior is no more than a response to external stimuli and there’s no innate programming within a human being to learn a language at birth. What differentiates Skinner from those who came before him is the level of detail he went into when connecting behaviorism and language learning. In his concept of what he called “operant conditioning,” language learning grew out of a process of reinforcement and punishment whereby individuals are conditioned into saying the right thing. For instance, if you’re hungry and you’re able to say “Mommy, I’m hungry,” you may be rewarded with food and your behavior will thereby be reinforced since you got what you wanted. To put it another way, Skinner described a mechanism for language learning that hadn’t existed before on the tabula rasa side of the language acquisition debate. What this means for us as language learners, should his theory be even partially true, is that a process of conditioning must be achieved for us to succeed. When we say the right thing, we must be 34 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 rewarded. When we say something incorrectly, that too must be made clear. In other words, we need feedback to succeed as language learners. 5. Chomsky’s Universal Grammar Around the same time as Skinner there came another linguistic powerhouse who would leave a lasting impression on the field of linguistics. Namely, Noam Chomsky. The theory that Chomsky proposed would be called Universal Grammar and it would assert nearly the exact opposite of what Skinner had offered in his theory. Where Skinner saw all learning coming from external stimuli, Chomsky saw an innate device for language acquisition. What Skinner understood to be conditioning according to particular events Chomsky, understood to be the result of the universal elements that structure all languages. In fact, one of Chomsky’s major bones to pick with Skinner’s theory had to do with Plato’s problem, as described above. After all, if Skinner is right, how is it that children can learn a language so quickly, creating and understanding sentences they have never heard before? Universal Grammar has been around for roughly a half a century by now, so it’s hardly the last word on the subject. It has also received plenty of criticism. One critique that particularly concerns us is that it may have little to do with learning a second language, even if it’s how we learn a first language. There are certainly theories about applying this concept to organize syllabi for language learning, but this seems unnecessarily complex for the average, independent learner. In short, while Chomsky’s theory may be still be important in the linguistics field as part of an ongoing discussion, it offers little help for learning a second language other than to provide you with the confidence that the grammar for all languages is already inside your head. You just need to fill in the particulars. Over the past half century or so, a slew of other language learning theories have cropped up to try to deal with the perceived flaws in Chomsky’s theory and to fill in the cracks for more specific areas of language learning (i.e. areas of particular interest to us). 35 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 Next up are two theories that, while not the philosophical bombshells like the ones listed above, arguably have more of a practical edge. 6. Schumann’s Acculturation Model John Schumann’s Acculturation Model describes the process by which immigrants pick up a new language while being completely immersed in that language. This theory doesn’t deal with the process of language learning as we normally think of it (such as how we acquire grammar or listening skills), but rather focuses on social and psychological aspects that influence our success. For instance, an immigrant is more likely to acquire their new target language if their language and the target language are socially equal, if the group of immigrants is small and not cohesive and if there is a higher degree of similarity between the immigrant’s culture and that of their new area of residence. The obvious takeaway is that language learning is not an abstract subject like physics that can be learned out of a book regardless of the world around you. There are sociological factors at play, and the more we do to connect with the culture on the other end of our second language, the faster and easier it will be for us to learn that language. 7. Krashen’s Monitor Model Stephen Krashen’s Monitor Model in fact consists of several distinct hypotheses which make up what is probably the most cited theory in second language acquisition. There’s so much to take away from Krashen’s theory that I’ll just let you peruse the link given for details and give a rundown of the highlights here. Language acquisition is subconscious and results from informal, natural communication. Language learning is conscious and driven by error correction (more formal). Grammar structures are acquired in a predictable order. Language acquisition occurs with comprehensible input (i.e. hearing or reading things that are just slightly above our current language level). 36 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 A monitor is anything that corrects your language performance and pressures one to “communicate correctly and not just convey meaning” (such as a language teacher who corrects you when you make a grammatical mistake). It should be noted that this is just Krashen’s theory. While this theory is quite popular, there has been criticism and direct contradiction of certain parts of it (particularly his idea about the predictable order of grammar structures). Still, it’s useful to get ideas for language learning. This theory suggests that we should both strive to increase our second language inputs (like by watching video clips on FluentU and going through books for reading) and make sure we receive proper error correction in one form or another. As this selection of important theories should make clear, the subset of linguistics which deals with language learning is both wide and deep. Some of it is highly theoretical and complex and is most relevant to scholars of the field. Other parts are extremely zoomed in and tell us highly specific details about how to learn a language. Regardless, it’s all connected. By understanding more bits and pieces of it all, you’ll gradually begin to understand yourself and your own language learning process better than ever before. The philosophy of education examines the goals, forms, methods, and meaning of education. The term is used to describe both fundamental philosophical analysis of these themes and the description or analysis of particular pedagogical approaches. Considerations of how the profession relates to broader philosophical or sociocultural 37 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 contexts may be included. The philosophy of education thus overlaps with the field of education and applied philosophy. For example, philosophers of education study what constitutes upbringing and education, the values and norms revealed through upbringing and educational practices, the limits and legitimization of education as an academic discipline, and the relation between educational theory and practice. Idealism Idealism is the oldest system of philosophy known to man. Its origins go back to ancient India in the East, and to Plato in the West. Its basic viewpoint stresses the human spirit as the most important element in life. The universe is viewed as essentially non material in its ultimate nature. Although Idealist philosophers vary enormously on many specifics, they agree on the following two points; the human spirit is the most important element in life; and secondly the universe is essentially non material in its ultimate nature. Idealism should not be confused with the notion of high aspirations that is not what philosophers mean when they speak of Idealism. In the philosophic sense, Idealism is a system that emphasizes the pre-eminent importance of mind, soul, or spirit. It is possible to separate Idealism into different schools, but for our purposes we shall be content to identify only the most general assumptions of the Idealists in metaphysics, epistemology, and value theory, without regard to the idiosyncrasies of the various schools. If we study the basic principles, Idealism puts forth the argument that reality, as we perceive it, is a mental construct. It means that experiences are result of sensory abilities of the human mind and not because reality exists in itself, as an independent entity. In the philosophical term this means that one cannot know the 38 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 existence of things beyond the realm of the intellect. Plato describes “reality” in his Theory of Forms. For him the “Form” is actual substance of 'Things' which 'Formed' matter and perceptible reality. Plato wants convey the message that matter is real and can be experienced as a rational living entity; it is not a mere projection of consciousness. According to Knight (1998) Augustine (354-430), Rene Descartes (1596-1650), George Berkeley and the German philosopher Immanuel Kant and George William Hegel are the prominent names who represent idealism. Berkeley and Kant have interpreted idealism in very different ways. Kant described idealism as transcendent, whereas Berkeley called it 'immaterialism' which is commonly termed as subjective materialism. George Berkeley says that the material world exists because there is a mind to perceive it and that things which are not within the conceptual framework of the human mind cannot be deemed real. Berkeley admits that objects exist, but their presence in the physical realm is as long as there is a mind to perceive them. For this Berkeley has used a Latin phrase 'Esse est percipi' (to be perceived).On the other hand Kant is of the opinion that reality exists independently of human minds but its knowledge is inherently unknowable to man because of sensory filters in our consciousness. These filters slow down our ability to see the 'thing in itself'. Thus our ultimate perception of things is always through the mind's fixed frame of reference (Shahid, 2008). Idealism and curriculum According to idealism the teacher is the symbol or model of good character, he is the masters of all sort of knowledge, so the teacher has the central role in the teaching-learning (Singh, 2007). The teacher has right to choose suitable content from the available literature and to teach. The student is a passive receptor, who has to gain the knowledge transferred by the knowledge. The teacher certifies the disciple at the successful completion of education as per the above given age levels (Singh). 39 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 Idealism and aim of education Plato says that to become a philosopher or king, a person has to go through all the processes of education. He describes the aim of education as to drag every man out of the cave as far as possible. Education should not aim at putting knowledge into the soul, but at turning the soul toward right desires continuing the analogy (similarity) between mind and sight. The overarching goal of the city is to educate those with the right natures; so that they can turn their minds sharply towards the Form of the Good. The philosophers must return periodically into the cave (society) and rule there. Aristotle says that education is essential for complete self realization as he says, “The supreme good to which we all aspire is the happiness. A happy man is the one who is educated. A happy man is virtuous, virtue is gained through education.” Plato says that Education is for the individual’s personal betterment and that of the society. Idealism and stages of education Plato has also divided the process of education into five major steps; 1. Age 7 to 18; study general mathematic, music, astronomy and so on, 2. Age 18 to 20; considers best for physical training, 3. Age 20 to 30; study of logic, knighthood, and mathematics 4. Age 30 to 35; study of dialectics 5. Age 35 to 50; practice of dialectics in various official affairs in the state 6. 50 years +; a person can become a philosopher or king as his tern comes. Plato says that in each step the person is given with different sort of education. He suggests screening those in each step who cannot perform well. The ones who can successfully pursue all the six stages can be called philosophers who have the understanding of the form of good. Idealism and method of teaching 40 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 idealism is traditional philosophy of education in which teacher has centeral role who has to be role model so that the students will adopt his model to become good citizen. In idealism the lacture method is considered the most important one in which a delivers lecture and students listen to the teacher. Teacher selects any topic or issue for teaching first he teaches the topic then asks the questions about that topic. Students answer the asked questions, Teacher provides the feedback and students improve themselves according to the teacher’s feedback. This is teacher centered approach therefore students do not participate in a well manner and do not understand the taught content. This method of teaching is not suitable for young or elementary level of students because they are not habitual for listening long time. This method is only used for adults. Because their mind is mature and they can understand easily. The second method that suits idealism the most is the Socratic Method in which the teacher involves the students in learning activities. The teacher raises an issue and the students are encouraged to discuss it in a dialogue form and reach to a conclusion. Realism If a tree falls in the woods and no one hears it, does it make a sound? You've probably heard that question asked before and may have thought about it for a few minutes before coming to an answer. Or you may have taken it as a silly question and laughed at it. But the fundamental question behind that question is simple: is there a true reality, which exists outside of human perception or is reality only what we perceive? Realism is a philosophy started by the ancient Greek writer, Aristotle. It states that there is a true reality, and things exist whether humans perceive them or not. Educational realism is the belief that we should study logic, critical thinking, and the scientific method to teach students to perceive and understand reality. As you might 41 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 imagine, there is a heavy emphasis on math and science, though the humanities can also be influenced by educational realism. What does educational realism look like in a classroom? To figure that out, let's imagine a teacher, Henry, who is trying to plan his curriculum for the upcoming school year. Henry is a realist and believes that Aristotle was on the right path all those years ago. So how can Henry plan a year of learning to help students perceive and understand reality? The first thing that Henry, as a realist, is likely to do is to include lots of opportunities to study the natural world. Realists believe that the job of schools is to teach students about the world around them. This means that Henry wants to teach his students how to use logical processes to find truth in the natural world. For example, instead of teaching his students about gravity from a textbook, Henry might take them outside and recreate Sir Isaac Newton's moment of clarity when he saw the apple fall. Henry can climb a tree and drop objects of different masses to allow students to figure out how gravity and mass work together. Meaning of Pragmatism: The word Pragmatism is of Greek origin (pragma, matos = deed, from prassein = to do). But it is a typical American school of philosophy. It is intimately related with the American life and mind. It is the product of practical experiences of life. 42 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 Pragmatism means action, from which the words practical and practice have come. The idealist constructs a transcendental ideal, which cannot be realised by man. The pragmatist lays down standards which are attainable. Pragmatists are practical people. They face problems and try to solve them from practical point of view. Unlike idealists they live in the world of realities, not in the world of ideals. Pragmatists view life as it is, while idealists view life as it should be. The central theme of pragmatism is activity. According to existentialism: Existence is always particular and individual—always my existence, your existence, his existence, her existence. Existence is primarily the problem of existence (i.e., of its mode of being); it is, therefore, also the investigation of the meaning of Being. That investigation is continually faced with diverse possibilities, from among which the existent (i.e., the human individual) must make a selection, to which he must then commit himself. Because those possibilities are constituted by the individual’s relationships with things and with other humans, existence is always a being-in-the- world—i.e., in a concrete and historically determinate situation that limits or conditions choice. Humans are therefore called, in Martin Heidegger’s phrase, Dasein (“there being”) because they are defined by the fact that they exist, or are in the world and inhabit it. Learning Exercises / Activities I. Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the correct answer. 43 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 1. This philosophy places the highest priority on students directing their own learning. Learning is self-paced and includes a lot of individual contact with the teacher. A. Essentialism B. Existentialism C. Progressivism D. Social Reconstructionism 2. True or False: Teachers must reflect on societal values in order to target student learning and behavior effectively. A. True B. False 3. Which of the following philosophies emphasizes personal choice and individual freedom? A. Realism B. Idealism C. Existentialism D. Pragmatism 4. According to Realism, human beings are rational beings and are expected to behave accordingly. A. True B. False 5. Teacher A always starts her lessons with a real-life problem which the students have to solve collaboratively by the end of the class period. What is the philosophy Teacher A is possibly adhering to? A. Existentialism B. Pragmatism C. Idealism D. Realism 6. Which of the following is important to an Existentialism? A. Purpose B. Reason C. Ideas D. Individuality 7. According to Pragmatist, education is ___________ life. A. Preparation for B. To support C. Analysis of D. Part of 8. Which of these is emphasized by Pragmatic education? A. Abstract thinking B. Practicality C. Values formation D. Discipline 44 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 9. What should be the characteristics of teachers according to Confucianism? A. Gentle and caring B. Firm and autocratic C. Intellectual and scholarly D. Loving and committed 10. Which of the following virtues does Confucianism give a high regard? A. Uprightness B. Tolerance C. Courage D. Curiosity Week 13 – 15. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning:Reading Approach Learning Objectives. 1. To define approach. 2. To understand why reading is important in language acquisition. 3. To determine the different reading approaches in language. Discussion. Approach describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught. Approach is a set of correlative assumption based on nature of language teaching and language learning. Approach is axiomatic. Approach is not practical. Why Reading is Important in Language Acquisition? 45 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 1. Reading offers a wide range of vocabulary and grammar, it essentially supports and feeds the brain with the correct language structure. 2. As learning is facilitated with learning cues, reading helps the brain to remember these language structures as the learner will connect an image to the world it represents. 3. Reading improves and develops your communication skills, it helps you learn how to use the language creatively. 4. Reading is important because it is an active skill which involves referencing, guessing, predicting, and etc. Reading Approach Brief History 1. Reading approach or reading method was first devise for English Learners in India and French or German learners in the United States of America. 2. It has been advocated in England for pupils of inferior language-learning ability. 3. Reading approach is like GMT (Grammar, Translation, Melody), only grammar necessary for reading comprehension and fluency is taught. Reading Approach Theory of Language  Reading approach is a way to start teaching beginning readers. The Three Main Theories 1. Traditional Theory 2. Cognitive view 46 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 3. Metacognitive View Different Approaches to Teaching Reading Phonics Approach- Tries to create an association in the child minds between the ‘graphemes’ (written symbols) and phonemes (sound) of language. Described as bottom- up approach which build towards comprehension through a journey from the smallest elements of the text. Whole Language Approach Focuses on comprehension from the outset, with children being given continuous texts to read in order to build an understanding of vocabulary and meaning. Identified as the top-down approach which places less emphasis on the rules and minuute of language. Reading Approach Types of Teaching Learning Activities Skimming It is an activity to read shorter texts to extract accurate detailed information. Used to quickly identify the main idea of a text. Done at the speed three to four times faster than normal reading. This technique is useful when the students are seeking specific information rather that reading for comprehension. Works well to find dates, names, and places. Scanning A technique that often used when looking up a word in the telephone book or dictionary. 47 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 Involves moving eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. Also used when the reader first find a resource to determine whether it will answer the questions. The students look for the author’s used of organizers such as numbers,letters, steps, or the words, first, second or next. Extensive Reading/ Vocabulary Reading A reading longer text , usually for pleasure. Extensive reading is an approach to language learning, including foreign language learning, by the means of a large amount of reading. Extensive reading is the free reading of books and other written materials that is not too difficult nor too easy. Extensive reading will help the students to motivate them and enjoy reading and learning independently. The Role of Extensive Reading in Language Learning 1, It can provide comprehensible input. 1. It can enhance learner’s general language competence. 2. It increases the student’s exposure to the language. 3. It can increase knowledge of vocabulary. 4. It can lead to improvement in writing. 5. It can motivates learner to read. 6. It can consolidate previously learned language. 7. It helps to build confidence. 8. It encourage the exploitation of textual redundancy. 9. It facilitates the development of prediction skills. Learning Exercises / Activities 48 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 I. Essay: Answer the following briefly: 1. How does a person learn to communicate their thoughts? 2. How does reading helps learners to acquire language? Enumeration 1. List down at east 5 role of Extensive Reading in Language and Learning. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 2. Give the 2 types of reading teaching strategies. 1. 2. NEEDS CRITERIA EXCELLENT SATISFACTORY IMPROVEMENT CONTEXT / IDEAS The ideas are full, There are ideas but There is no idea and Include verifiable detailed and well not detailed and collaboration at all. ideas and elaborated. slightly elaborated. elaboration of answers. (10 Points) (8 Points) (6 Points) ORGANIZATION The ideas are well The ideas are The ideas have not Include organized and slightly organized organized and chronological presented. and have good presented. presentation of presentation. 49 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 ideas. (5 Points) (4 points) (2 Points) There are no There are slight There are lots of GRAMMAR AND grammar errors, an grammar errors, has grammar errors and PUNCTUATION excellent choice of good choice of poor choice of Include correctness words and words and some words. Punctuation of grammar, choice punctuation marks misuse of marks are of words and use are appropriately punctuation marks. inappropriately used. of appropriate used. punctuation marks. (5 Points) (3 points) (2 Points) TOTAL SCORE Week 15 - 18. Approaches to Language Teaching Learning Objectives. 1. To define language and language learning. 2. To analyze different views on language teaching and learning. 3. To detect the influence of the views on the language teaching methodology. Discussion. Language is a means of communication among human beings. We communicate with each other using some meaningful sounds or symbolism a systematic way. According to Aristotle, language is speech which is produced by human beings in order Exchange their experiences, ideas, and emotions Language Learning is a process by which we can develop our ability to use language for communication to others. Purposes of Language Learning 50 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 1. To develop the ability to understand and produced language. 2. To express functional activities. 3. To create and maintain social relations between / among people. Views on Language Teaching-Learning 1. Structural View 2. Functional View 3. Interactional View Structural View of Language Structural view considers that language is a system of all systems. It means that language is a linguistic system that has some subsystems such as; Phonological units (e.g. phonemes) Grammatical unit (e.g. sentences, phrases, clauses) Grammatical operations (e.g. adding, shifting, joining, or transforming elements) Lexical items (e.g. function words and content/structure words) Each language has a finite number of such structural elements. The structural view of language generates the language teaching-learning methods such as: 1. Audio-lingual method 2. Total physical response 3. Silent way Functional view of Language 51 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 As per the functional view, language is not only a linguistic system but also a means f doing things Language is used to express our emotions, feelings, attitudes, etc. Language involves our day to day functional activities or notions such as: Inviting Advising Suggesting Making an appointment Apologizing Asking for directions Agreeing, disagreeing and etc. This view language is also called communicative view. Therefore learning language is learning how to combine grammatical rules and vocabulary to express our notions. Methods in Teaching-Learning Functional Language Views 1. Functional- Notional Syllabuses 2. Communicative approaches 3. Natural approach 4. English for specific purposes Interactional View of Language According to interactional view, language is a means of creating and maintaining social relations or social transactions between people. Learning Exercises / Activities. 52 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 I. Essay: Answer the following briefly. 1. Explain what is functional view. 2. What are the purposes of language learning? 3. What do you mean when we say structural view of language? Cite an example. RATING GUIDE (This Rating Guide will be utilized in scoring individual output and performance. Take time to read and understand the content of the rating guide.) NEEDS CRITERIA EXCELLENT SATISFACTORY IMPROVEMENT CONTEXT / IDEAS The ideas are full, There are ideas but There is no idea and Include verifiable detailed and well not detailed and collaboration at all. ideas and elaborated. slightly elaborated. elaboration of answers. (10 Points) (8 Points) (6 Points) ORGANIZATION The ideas are well The ideas are The ideas have not Include organized and slightly organized organized and chronological presented. and have good presented. presentation of presentation. ideas. (5 Points) (4 points) (2 Points) There are no There are slight There are lots of GRAMMAR AND grammar errors, an grammar errors, has grammar errors and PUNCTUATION excellent choice of good choice of poor choice of Include correctness words and words and some words. Punctuation of grammar, choice punctuation marks misuse of marks are of words and use are appropriately punctuation marks. inappropriately used. of appropriate used. punctuation marks. (5 Points) (3 points) (2 Points) 53 Downloaded by ROMAR ALPAJANDO ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39208261 TOTAL SCORE Rated by: _______________________ Date Rated: ___________ Score: _______ REFERENCES A. Books Principles of Language and Learning Douglas Brown Principles and Practice in second Language Acquisition by Krashen Stephen Cruz, Neal. “As I See It: Philippine mythological monster