Module 1 General Chemistry PDF

MODULE 1: GENERAL CHEMISTRY Burning of wood o Combustion I. Matter...

MODULE 1: GENERAL CHEMISTRY Burning of wood o Combustion I. Matter ▪ CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O Distillation of water a. Classifications of Matter o Water (l) –removal of impurities→ Water (l) b. Phase Change c. Properties of Colloid E. Fundamental Laws of Chemistry d. Physical vs Chemical Change FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF CHEMISTRY e. Fundamental Laws of Chemistry Law of Total mass of materials CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O Conservation present after a chemical C=1 C=1 of Mass reaction is the same as the H = 4x1 H = 4x1 A. Classifications of Matter (Lavoisier) total mass before the reaction O = 4x16 O = 4x16 MATTER Pure substance Mixture Mass cannot be created nor =80g Element Homogenous destroyed but it can be -found in the periodic table -solution (uniform in appearance) transformed; it is always Correctly balancing a chemical equation -components cannot be distinguished constant Compound Heterogenous Law of In one given compound, the H2O -2 or more elements combined [suspensions, colloids] Definite relative numbers and kinds of H=2x1 -different phases can be distinguished Proportions atoms are constant O = 16 x 1 -can be separated by physical means (Proust) 2:16 = 1:8 Chemical compounds contain the exact amount of elements in a fixed ratio B. Phase Changes Law of When two elements can make CH4 → C=1x12 DIFFERENT PHASE CHANGES Multiple multiple products, their H = 4x1 Gas → Plasma Ionization Proportion masses in all can be simplified = 16 g/mol Plasma → Gas Recombination (Dalton) to a ratio of whole numbers Gas → Solid Deposition Solid → Gas Sublimation II. Atoms Gas → Liquid Condensation Liquid → Gas Vaporization a. Atomic models Solid → Liquid Melting b. Atomic subparticles Liquid → Solid Freezing A. Atomic models Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass ATOMIC MODELS o Mass – measure of the amount of matter Democritus Indivisible particles o Volume – space occupied by matter John Dalton (1804) Solid sphere Pure substance – matter that does not change its property from Billiard ball sample to sample; it follows the rule of constant composition J.J. Thomson (1904) Plum pudding Raisin bread o Element – a pure substance that cannot be further Embedded positive and divided unless subatomic particles are taken into negative charge consideration Ernest Rutherford (1911) Nuclear model Mixture – matter that changes properties from sample to sample Discovered protons Niels Bohr (1913) Planetary model and does not follow constant composition Nucleus – protons and neutrons Erwin Schrodinger (1926) Quantum mechanical model C. Properties of Colloids Electron cloud a. Brownian motion – zigzag motion of particles suspended in a fluid B. Atomic sub particles b. Tyndall effect – light scattering of particles x → atomic mass/mass number = p + n c. Electrically charged E z → atomic number = # of protons = # of electrons Examples of colloids: ATOMIC SUBPARTICLES COMPUTATION ▪ Gel Atomic mass Protons + neutrons ▪ Sol Atomic number # of protons # protons # of electrons ▪ Emulsion # neutrons Atomic mass – atomic number SUBPARTICLES D. Physical vs Chemical Change Electron Negatively charged Physical Chemical A (solid) → A (solid, liquid, gas) Possible Evidences of Chemical Discovered by JJ Thomson through Change: the use of a cathode-ray tube Color Protons Positively charged Formation of gas Formation of ppt Discovered by Ernest Rutherford Production of odor through the Gold-Foil experiment Production of sound Neutrons Charge-less and light Change in temperature Discovered by James Chadwick Fermentation of milk o Milk → Curd (lactic acid) Neutralization o acid + base → salt and water  III. Periodic Table and Quantum Theory QUANTUM THEORIES a. Development of Periodic Table Pauli’s Exclusion Principle No 2 electrons will have the same set of quantum numbers; exclusive/fingerprint b. Quantum numbers Heisenberg Uncertainty It is impossible to predict or accurately c. Electron configuration Principle determine the particle’s velocity (position and d. Periodic trends momentum of the electron) Hund’s Rule Orbitals are filled singly first before pairing up e. Metals vs Non-metals Aufbau Principle Lower energy levels are occupied first A. Development of Periodic Table C. Electron Configuration a. JW Dobereiner – triads Paramagnetic i. Fe, Co, Ni o At least 1 unpaired electron ii. Ru, Rh, Pd ▪ Example iii. Os, Ir, Pt Carbon (1s2 2s2 2p2) b. John Newlands – periods and octaves o n=2 i. Law of octaves – every 8th element has o l=1 similar physicochemical properties when o ml = -1,0,1 arranged according to atomic weight Diamagnetic c. Dmitri Mendeleev – arranged the periodic table o No unpaired electron according to atomic mass i. Father of Modern Periodic Table D. Periodic Trends d. Meyer and Henry Moseley – arranged the periodic table according to atomic number DEFINITIONS i. Created the modern periodic table Atomic size Size of the atom Ionization energy Energy required to remove an electron from a neutral THE PERIODIC TABLE atom Groups – 18 Electron affinity Energy change that occurs o Group # = valence electrons when an electron is added to Periods/Rows – 7 a neutral atom GROUPS Electronegativity Ability of an atom to attract Group A Representative elements an electron to itself s p o All increases from bottom to top & left to right except Group B Transition elements atomic radius and metallic property d block o Highest EA and EN = Fluorine Inner transition elements o Highest Ionization Energy = Noble gases f block Multivalent – more than 1 charge E. Metals vs Nonmetals Properties Metals Nonmetals B. Quantum Numbers Oxides BASIC ACIDIC QUANTUM NUMBERS RA OA Principal (n) Main energy level/size/distance of Conductivity / X electrons from the nucleus Malleability / X n = 1 to 7 Ductility / X Rows/periods of the Luster / X periodic table State at room temp Solid at room S, L, G temp. Except Hg The farther the electron, the atom increases in size Principal sublevels (orbitals) Metalloids s-1 Si p-3 d-5 Ge f–7 Po Every sublevel has an equivalent orbital Sb Each orbital can handle 2 electrons at maximum As Azimuthal (l) Momentum and shape of orbitals Te Angular level l = n-1 B Shape of orbitals electrons n l ml s – spherical handled IV. Naming p – dumbbell S 2 1 0 0 d – clover leaf p 6 2 1 -1,0,1 a. Molecular compounds f – complex d 10 3 2 -2,-1,0,1,2 b. Ionic compounds f 14 4 3 -3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3 Magnetic (ml) Orientation and charge of orbitals a. Molecular Compounds ml = -l to l Involves two nonmetals l = 1 (ml = -1, 0, 1) Nomenclature of XY = XY-ide with prefixes for both (i.e. mono, Spin (ms) Magnetic momentum di) Do not use prefix if the first atom is only one CW = +1/2 CCW = -1/2 Example: SO2 = Sulfur dioxide CO2 = Carbon monoxide  b. Ionic Compounds ▪ IO4 – periodate Involves a cation and anion Their formulas perform a crisscross of charges (same charge = Fe4[Fe(CN6)]4 – Ferric ferricyanide cancel) o Ferricyanide – Fe(CN6)^-3 Nomenclature is based on simply reading the name of cation and ▪ Ferric = 3+ then the name of anion (prefixes not used) o Ferrocyanide – Fe(CN6)^-4 ▪ Ferrous = 2+ o Fe = 3+ = 3 Example: o CN = -1 x 6 = -6 Na + Cl = (+1)x(-1) = NaCl ▪ -3 = ferricyanide Mg + Cl = (+2)x(-1) = MgCl2 Fe4[Fe(CN6)]3 – Ferro ferricyanide MONOVALENT +1 Group 1A and 1B (Ag only) V. Intramolecular and Intermolecular Force +2 Group 2A and 2B (Zn and Cd) a. Intramolecular force -2 Group 6A (Sulfides and 1. Ionic oxides) 2. Covalent -1 Halogens (7A) 3. Polarity b. Intermolecular Forces MULTIVALENT +1, +2 Hg, Cu A. Intramolecular Forces of Attraction +1, +3 Au +2, +3 Fe, Co, Ni Intramolecular Forces of Attraction Ionic – transfer of electrons +2, +4 Sn, Pb Metal + Nonmetal +3, +5 Bi, As, Sb Cation + Anion POLYATOMIC ANIONS ACIDS ED: > or = to 2.0 ClO3 Chlorate HClO3 Chloric acid Covalent – sharing of electrons ClO-2 Chlorite HClO2 Chlorous acid Nonmetal + Nonmetal ED: < or = to 0.4 (almost zero) ClO Hypochlorite HClO Hypochlorous acid Polar Nonpolar ClO-4 Perchlorate HClO4 Perchloric acid -between 0.4 and 2.0 NO3- Nitrate HNO3 Nitric acid NO2- Nitrite HNO2 Nitrous acid SO4^-2 Sulfate H2SO4 Sulfuric acid Electronegativity difference: determines how polar the bond is SO3^-2 Sulfite H2SO3 Sulfurous acid Lower ED = stronger bond = nonpolar CH2H3O2 Acetate MONOATOMIC ANIONS Higher ED = weaker bond = polar Cr2O7^-2 Dichromate H Hydride CrO4^-2 Chromate F Fluoride Bond Strength MnO4 Permanganate Cl Chloride Nonpolar covalent > Polar covalent > Ionic CN Cyanide I Iodide Polarity O2^-2 Peroxide Ionic > Polar covalent > Nonpolar covalent SUMMARY Mercurous chloride (Hg2Cl2 or HgCl) Increased number of bonds Mercuric chloride (HgCl2) o Increased number of electrons shared o Increased bond energy o Decreased bond length H = bi Hydrogen bonds NaHPO4 o Increased polarity o Sodium biphosphate o Increased water solubility o Sodium secondary phosphate ▪ Primary = H2PO4^-1 ▪ Secondary = HPO4^-2 B. Intermolecular Forces of Attraction ▪ Tertiary = PO4^-3 dipole – polar; induced dipole – nonpolar o Dibasic sodium phosphate INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION ▪ Monobasic = NaH2PO4 Ion-dipole e.g. NaCl in H2O ▪ Dibasic = Na2HPO4 →NaCl – ion ▪ Tribasic = Na3PO4 →H2O – polar # of metals :D Hydrogen bond Only binds with electronegative elements Na3PO4 S o Sodium phosphate N o Sodium tertiary phosphate O o Tribasic sodium phosphate X Keesom (Dipole-dipole) e.g. H2O to alcohol →Both polar Zn(BrO2)2 →Dipole-dipole o Zinc bromite Debye (Dipole-Induced dipole) e.g. Water and benzene ▪ BrO2 – bromite →H2O – polar →Benzene – nonpolar →dipole-induced dipole HIO4 London Dispersion (induced dipole- e.g. Benzene to benzene o Periodic acid induced dipole) →nonpolar, nonpolar ▪ IO3 – iodate →induced dipole-induced dipole VI. Bond Angle and Geometry B. Gas Laws BOND ANGLE AND GEOMETRY GAS LAWS Boyle’s Law P1V1=P2V2 Temperature #BP (X) #LP (E) Mol. Geometry Charles’ Law T1/V1=T2/V2 Pressure 2 0 Linear Volume Gay-Lussac’s Law P1/T1=P2/T2 3 0 Trigonal planar Combined Gas Law P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2 2 1 Bent Avogadro’s Law V1/n1=V2/n2 @STP: equal volume 4 0 Tetrahedral of different gases has the same number of 3 1 Trigonal pyramid moles Same number of moles = same 2 2 Bent number of molecules 5 0 Trigonal Henry’s Law Increased pressure = increased solubility of gas in liquid bipyramidal Increased temperature = decreased gas in liquid 4 1 Seesaw Increased T, increased KE, increased mobility 3 2 T-shaped Decreased temperature = increased gas in liquid 2 3 Linear Dalton’s Law Total pressure = P1+P2+P3+P4… 6 0 Octahedral 5 1 Square pyramid Mixture of different non-interacting gases exerts a pressure that is the sum of their individual pressures 4 2 Square planar Effusion and diffusion rate of two gases are inversely Graham’s Law AX2E2 proportional to the roots of their density, providing that o A – central atom temperature and pressure are constant o X – bonds present The lighter, the faster :D o E – lone pair The heavier, the slower :D C. Stoichiometry VSEPR Model Example: Given the equation C2H2 + O2 → CO2 + H2O, if 8g of Model of molecules based on the fact that they produced shapes O2 was present. What amount of ethyne could have reacted with due to bond angles all that O2 and how much Co2 could have been produced? (Use AW in whole number) Bond angles o 2 C2H2 + 5 O2 → 4 CO2 + 2 H2O Deciding factor for the shape/geometry of a compound ?g 8g ?g Dictated by the repulsion of electrons in achievement of 8 g O2 x 1 mol O2/32g O2 x 2 mol C2H2/5 mol O2 x 26 g/mol C2H2/1 mol C2H2 intramolecular stability =1/4 x 2/5 x 26/1 =2.6 grams C2H2 Examples: 8 g O2 x 1 mol O2/32 g O2 x 4 mol CO2/5 mol O2 x 44g/1 mol CO2 1. Chlorine molecule – LINEAR =1/1 x 4/5 x 11/1 = 44/5 2. Water – BENT =8.8 g CO2 3. Carbon dioxide -LINEAR a. 2 bond pairs o Ethyne (C2H2) b. No lone pairs ▪ C = 2 x 12 c. Count double bonds as one ▪ H=1x2 ▪ Total: 26 g/mol 4. Sulfur tetrachloride – SEESAW o Oxygen a. 4 bond pairs ▪ 2 x 16 = 32 g/mol b. 1 lone pair o Carbon 5. Sulfur hexafluoride - OCTAHEDRAL ▪ C = 1 x 12 = 12 a. 6 bond pairs ▪ O = 2 x 16 = 32 b. No lone pairs ▪ Total: 44 g/mol 6. Chloride trifluoride – T-SHAPED N, S, C, P, Mn, Cr, H, O, F, Cl, I, Br, Na 7. Chlorine pentafluoride a. 5 bond pairs VIII. Reaction Basics and Thermochemistry b. 1 lone pair 8. PBr5 – TRIGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL a. Types of Reaction b. Reactivity Series VII. Gas Laws and Stoichiometry c. Law of Thermodynamics a. Must-know constants d. State functions b. Gas Laws 1. Gibbs Free Energy c. Stoichiometry 2. Enthalpy 3. Entropy A. Must-know constants 1 ATM A. Types of Reaction o 760 mmHg TYPES OF REACTION o 760 torr Combustion fuel o 1.01 x 10^5 Pa CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O UNIVERSAL GAS CONSTANT Neutralization Acid + Base → Salt + H2O o 0.08205 L-atm/mol-K Combination/Synthesis A+B → AB o 0.0831 L-bar/mol-K Decomposition/Analysis AB → A+B o 8.314 J/mol-K Single Displacement A + BC → B + AC o 8.3145 L-kPa/mol-k Double Displacement/Metathesis AB +CD → AC + BD  B. Reactivity Series Li > K > Ba > Na > Mg > Al > Mn > Zn > Cr > Fe > Co > Ni > Sn > Pb > H2 > Cu > Ag > Hg > Pt > Au Examples: Mg (s) + ZnCl2 → MgCl2 + Zn Co + MgCl → NO REACTION Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu C. Law of Thermodynamics LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Zeroth Law If 2 systems are in equilibria respectively with a third system, they must be in thermal equilibria with each other A=B B=C A=B=C 1st Law (Law of Energy cannot be created nor destroyed but Conservation of Energy) can be transformed from one form to another IX. Chemical Kinetics Hess’ Law a. Factors affecting reaction rate Change of enthalpy (H) b. Activation energy and Catalyst Enthalpy change is independent of reactions that occurred Additional: FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS A. Factors Affecting Reaction Rate Endothermic (positive H) Nature of Reactants (reactivity series) o System absorbs heat from surroundings Exothermic Concentration o System releases heat to the surroundings o Increase in concentration = increase in reaction rate ▪ More concentrated = FASTER TYPES OF SYSTEM MATTER EXCHANGE HEAT EXCHANGE Open / / Surface area Closed X / o Increased SA = increased reaction rate Isolated X X o Decrease in particle size = increased SA = increased Adiabatic / X 2nd Law (Law of Entropy For an isolated system, entropy can never reaction rate 😊 [s]) decrease over time Catalyst o Presence of catalyst = faster reaction Entropy – degree of disorderliness or randomness Temperature Positive entropy – increased o Increased temperature = increased reaction rate Negative entropy - decreased 3rd Law The entropy of a pure, crystalline solid B. Activation Energy and Catalyst approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero Catalyst – speeds up the reaction rate by lowering the activation energy o It does not participate in chemical reactions :D D. State Functions ▪ It only speeds up the reaction 😊 Entropy (S) o Only for irreversible reactions!!! Enthalpy (H) Activation energy – energy that needs to be overcome for the Gibb’s Free Energy (G) reaction to proceed o Predicts whether the reaction will be spontaneous or not X. Chemical Equilibrium and LCP ▪ Favors spontaneous reactions: a. Le Chatelier’s Principle - 𝜟H (EXOTHERMIC)* +𝜟H (Inc. ENTROPY)* b. Factors affecting chemical equilibrium *energetically favorable conditions 1. Concentration -𝜟G 2. Temperature o 𝜟G = 𝜟H + T𝜟S 3. Volume and Pressure o -𝜟G = 𝜟H + T𝜟S A. Le Chatelier’s Principle ENTROPY: G>L>S States that if an external stress is applied to a system at o Gas – highest entropy 😊 equilibrium, the system adjusts such that the stress is partially offset as it tries to re-establish the equilibrium o Solid – lowest entropy ☹ o Chemical Equilibrium Spontaneous ▪ System in which two opposing reactions are proceeding at constant rate; governed -𝜟G by Le Chatelier’s Principle ▪ A+B→AB (forward, to the right) Nonspontaneous ▪ ABA+B (backward, to the left) +𝜟G B. Factors Affecting Chemical Equilibrium Concentration Amphiprotic – either accept/donate protons o (increased stress) A+B → AB Amphoteric – act as acid/base ▪ Shift to the right to attain balance Aprotic – no protons o Where stress is not existent, the shift will head Protogenic – yields protons towards it 😊 D. Buffer Volume and Pressure A mixture of weak acid or weak base + conjugates o Only applicable in GAS Stabilizes pH o Adding pressure will decrease the volume on the side Resists pH change upon addition of acid or base 😊 with lesser volume and causes a shift to that side; vice-versa Conjugate acid o Example: o Adds 1 H with respect to a compound ▪ 2A + 5C 6F Conjugate base Reactants = 7 moles o Minus 1 H with respect to a compound Products = 6 moles In this case, if pressure if applied, the Example: reaction will shift towards the right If the pressure is relieved, the NH4 → NH2 → NH3 Conjugate base Conjugate base reaction will shift towards the left conjugate acid Temperature o The nature of the reaction should be first known XII. Others ▪ If ENDOTHERMIC a. Ion Product vs Ksp Heat will be on the reactant side b. Radioactive Decay ▪ If EXOTHERMIC Heat will be on the product side o Thus, increase in temperature will shift the reaction A. Ion Product vs Ksp towards its opposite side of the reaction, and o Ion Product < Ksp = Unsaturated decrease in temperature will shift the reaction ▪ No precipitate towards its side of the reaction o Ion Product = Ksp = Saturated ▪ Increase in temperature will shift the reaction ▪ No precipitate towards the left, vice-versa o Ion Product > Ksp = Supersaturated ▪ Increase in temperature will shift the reaction ▪ With precipitate towards the right, vice-versa B. Radioactive Decay XI. Acids, Bases, and Buffers Half-life a. Definition according to Arrhenius, Bronsted- o Zero order Lowry, and Lewis ▪ T ½ = 0.5 x Co/Ko b. pH calculation o First order c. Strong Acids and Strong Bases ▪ T ½ = 0.693/Kq d. Buffer A. Definition according to Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis ACIDS BASES Arrhenius H+ OH- Bronsted Proton (+) donor Proton (+) acceptor Lewis Electron acceptor Electron donor B. pH Calculation pH = -log[H+] POH = -log[OH-] pH + pOH = 14 pH = -log[H+] antilog 6 = -log[H+] antilog C. Strong Acids and Strong Bases Oxides o Metal = basic o Nonmetals = acidic Strong Acids o H-CBNIPS ▪ Where: P – perchloric :D Strong Bases o Group IA GROUP CLASSIFICATION GROUP 1A ALKALI METALS HYDROGEN - inflammable air - NOT alkali metal, NOR a metal - Required for HYDROGENATION, BALLOONS, and production of HIGH TEMPERATURE LITHIUM - Lithos, “earth” - Used in majority of BATTERIES - Melting point: 180.5 degrees Celsius Lithium carbonate For bipolar disorder ADR: Polyuria, Nephrogenic DI (inc. Li, dec. ADH) SODIUM - NATRIUM - Primary extracellular cation - Pale yellow in Co/Mg/Zn (triple acetate) Sodium chloride Sodium bicarbonate Sodium tartrate Aka: table salt, soler salt Aka: baking soda Use: standard for Karl-Fischer reagent Uses: Use: systemic alkalizer for Vehicle (NSS, weak acids Sodium nitrite bacteriostatic NSS) Use: antidote for cyanide poisoning Sodium carbonate Nasal drops/spray – for Use: alkalizing agent Sodium thiosulfate moisture and loosening Decahydrate (Na2CO3 · 10 Use: antidote for cyanide poisoning of mucus H20) = Washing soda BEQ: reducing agent of iodine ◍ Combination electrolyte fluid Anhydrous (Na2CO3) = Soda ash Sodium polystyrene sulfonate (KAYEXALATE) 1. Ringer’s Use: cation-exchange resin for solution/injection Sodium citrate hyperkalemia a. NaCl Use: anticoagulant b. KCl Sodium sulfate c. CaCl2 Aka: Glauber’s salt Monosodium glutamate (MSG) Use: laxative Use: gives umami flavor 2. Lactated Ringer’s Solution/Hartmann’s Sodium potassium tartrate Chinese restaurant syndrome Solution Aka: Rochelle salt o Manifestation: Lightheadedness a. Ringer’s Use: copper sequestration in due to increased glutamate b. Na lactate Fehling’s reagent Sodium hydroxide 3. Darrow’s solution Aka: caustic soda, hard soap Soda lime a. NaCl Uses Use: CO2 absorber for b. KCl anesthesia machines o Saponifying agent c. Na lactate o Drain cleaner (liquid sosa) Sodium nitrate Aka: Chile Salt Peter Sodium bisulfite and metabisulfite Use: meat preservative → Use: antioxidants Carcinogenic (nitrosamines) BEQ: BISULFITE METHOD ◍ - quantifies aldehyde in a sample POTASSIUM Primary extracellular cation Most diuretics disrupt the balance of K in the body o (Hypokalemia → muscle weakness, paralysis) Potassium chloride Potassium hydroxide Potassium nitrate Use: for hypokalemia (IV drip) Aka: caustic potash, soft soap Aka: salt peter KCl/IV push/bolus → lethal/death → Use Use: preservative Lethal injection o Saponifying agent o Dehydrohalogenating agent Potassium bitartrate Potassium carbonate Aka: cream of tartar Aka: Pearl ash Use: Use: alkalizing agent o Food stabilizer and thickener Occasional purgative (short-term use)  RUBIDIUM CESIUM FRANCIUM First element discovered by Least electronegative element spectroscopy GROUP 2A ALKALINE EARTH METALS BERYLLIUM Aka: Glucinum Most toxic metal o Berylliosis: causes granulomas due to inhalation MAGNESIUM Lightest structurally important metal (found in chlorophyll) Produced via Dow process 2nd most abundant intracellular cation Natural calcium channel blocker Component of Grignard reagent (R-Mg-X) ◍ Magnesium carbonate/Magnesia Magnesium hydroxide Uses: Aka: Milk of Magnesia o Laxative Use: antacid o Antacid Dispensed in blue containers Mg carbonate: laxative = DIARRHEA [MagTAE] o Aluminum carbonate: CONSTIPATION [AlaTAE] o Cancels out laxative and constipation effect :D Magnesium oxide Magnesium sulfate Component of UNIVERSAL ANTIDOTE Aka: Epsom salt o Components (1:2:1) Use: ▪ Magnesium oxide o PO: cathartic ▪ Activated charcoal o IM: anticonvulsant ▪ Tannic acid ▪ Pre-eclampsia or eclampsia Reduces the bitterness of Cascara sagrada CALCIUM Component of HYDROXYAPATITE Important for blood clotting Aka: clotting factor IV Necessary for neurotransmitter release Calcium carbonate Calcium chloride Uses: Aka: Muriate of Lime o Prevention of osteoporosis (e.g. Calci-aid) Uses: o Antacid o Electrolyte source for hypocalcemia ▪ WOF: Rebound hyperacidity o For road de-icing Calcium hydroxide Calcium oxide Calcium sulfate Aka Component of: Calcium sulfate hemihydrate (CaSO4 · ½ H2O) o Slaked lime o Bordeaux mixture o Plaster of Paris o Milk of Lime o Vleminckx’s o Uses: o Lime Water solution ▪ Surgical cast (Sulfurated lime) ▪ dentistry Calcium sulfate dihydrate (CaSO4 · 2H2O) o Gypsum o Use: tablet diluent STRONTIUM Compound: a. Strontium ranelate Use: for osteoporosis BARIUM Baris, “heavy” Barium sulfate a. Use: radiopaque for contrast media b. ADR: constipation RADIUM Isolated from pitchblende ore by Curie 😊  GROUP 3A BORON GROUP/ICOSAGENS BORON Component of borosilicate glass Used in the hydroboration of alkenes Borate + methanol = green-bordered flame ◍ Sodium tetraborate (BORAX) Boric acid For laundry and cleaning Ophthalmic antiseptic @ 2-4% [Eye Mo Green] ALUMINUM From bauxite or cryolite 3rd most abundant element on earth With Na cobaltinitrite → Thenard’s Blue ◍ o ThenAld’s blue 😊 Aluminum excess from fumes = causes Aluminum toxicity [Shaver’s disease or Bauxite fibrosis] ◍ Alum/Tawas Aluminum acetate topical solution Double salts of Aluminum Aka: Burrow’s solution Na or K Aluminum SO4 · 12 H2O For poison ivy irritation (urushiol) Main components of: o Antiperspirants o Deodorants Gallium nitrate o For correction of hypercalcemia GALLIUM ▪ Decreases Calcium levels INDIUM Gallium nitride Used for lasers and transistors 😊 THALLIUM Budding twigs o Produces green spectral lines Similar to arsenic :D Used as rat and ant poisons (rodenticide and insecticide) GROUP 4A CARBON GROUP/CRYSTALLOGENS CARBON Forms: o Crystalline ▪ Diamond Hardest mineral known ▪ Graphite o Amorphous ▪ Bituminous Soft coal o Example: Activated charcoal → adsorbent for diarrhea ▪ Anthracite Hard coal ▪ Coke Impure carbon Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Respiratory stimulant Respiratory poison Component of dry ice o Hgb → O2 o Uses: ▪ Hgb →→→CO ▪ Quick freezing Affinity of hemoglobin ▪ Elimination of warts 😊 o CO > O 😊 o Decreased oxygen in the body → RESPIRATORY DEPRESSION → DEATH ☹ Treatment of CO poisoning o 100% Oxygen o Artificial air ◍ ▪ 80% He, 20% O2 o Hyperbaric oxygen  SILICON 2nd most abundant element on earth (metalloid) Widely used as semiconductors and in electronics Silica Major component of glass o Types of glass TYPES OF GLASSES TYPE I Borosilicate glass TYPE II Treated soda lime glass TYPE III Soda lime glass TYPE IV General purpose soda lime glass/Non-parenteral GLASS ADDITIVES Manganese oxide (MnO) Masks the blue-green color of Fe Borate Decreases coefficient of expansion (expansion of glass when exposed to heat) Borosilicate glass – heat-resistant 😊 Potassium Imparts amber color of glass Amber color – for light-sensitive materials Lead Increases refractive index of glass Rare earth Polarization of glass 😊 ADDITIONAL: Kiesulguhr/Celite o Diatomaceous earth primarily of silica Simethicone o Polymeric dimethylsiloxane o Use: antiflatulent Silicates Magnesium Aluminum o Talc (Soapstone) o Bentonite → soap clay → NATIVE COLLOIDAL ▪ Softest mineral known ALUMINUM SILICATE (NCAS) o Uses: ▪ Use: suspending agent ▪ Dusting powder o Kaolin → China clay → NATIVE HYDRATED ALUMINUM ▪ Clarifying agent SILICATE (NHAS) ▪ Use: adsorbent for diarrhea o Pumice → mixture of silicates from volcanic origin ▪ Use: abrasive for dead skin GERMANIUM Used as semiconductors and optic fibers TIN STANNUM Major component of alloys o Solder – used for joining pipes and electric circuit o Pewter – for decorative material o Babbit – for bearings of machinery Compound: Stannous fluoride o Use: for dental caries LEAD PLUMBUM (Pb) Originally used for pipes and plumbing Used for batteries and bullets HIGHLY POISONOUS Lead acetate Lead subacetate solution Aka: Sugar of Lead Aka: Goulard’s extract Uses: Use: astringent o sweetener for wine (no longer used) o hair coloring Lead sulfide Lead monoxide Aka: Galena Aka: Litharge Greatest ore for lead extraction Used as pigment  GROUP 5A NITROGEN GROUP/PNICTOGENS NITROGEN Azote/Mephitic air Inert for pharmaceutical preparations o Also: ARGON Used in gas chromatography o Other gas used: HELIUM Nitrous oxide (N2O) Nitric oxide (NO) Nitric acid Aka: laughing gas Vasodilator Nitrating and oxidizing agent Used as inhaled anesthetic Stored in blue containers Ammonium (NH4) PREPARATIONS: Pseudo-alkali metal 1. Strong ammonia solution – 27-31% w/w NH3 Resembles potassium salt 2. Diluted ammonia solution – 10% w/w NH3 Haber process a. Used for jellyfish stings (disproven) Generally used as respiratory stimulant Ammonium carbonate Ammonium chloride Ammonium acetate Aka: Hartshorn, Baker’s Ammonia Aka: Muriate of Hartshorn Aka: Spirit of Mindererus Use: leavening agent Primarily used in fertilizers & as a Used in making buffers systemic acidifier for weak bases PHOSPHOROUS Light carrier, St. Elmo’s fire White phosphorus Black phosphorous Red phosphorous Phosphorous poisoning Graphite-like texture Used in safety matches and Antidote: copper sulfate (blue vitriol) Stable in air fireworks Phosphoric acid Hypophosporous acid Used as buffering agent Reducing agent for metals ARSENIC Toxic properties o Used for agriculture (i.e. pesticides and insecticides) o Similar to thallium (rodenticide) Chemical warfare agent ◍ o Antidote: British Anti-Lewisite (BAL/Dimercaprol) Father of Chemotherapy: PAUL EHRLICH o Discoverer of ARSPHENAMINE/SALVARSAN/COMPOUND 606 ▪ DOC for Syphilis (in the past) Now: Penicillin G PREPARATIONS: Scheele’s Green Paris Green ▪ Cupric hydrogen arsenite o Copper acetoarsenite ▪ Use: pigment o Used as: pigment, rodenticide & insecticide Fowler’s solution Both used for the Donovan’s solution Potassium arsenite treatment of Arsenic & mercuric iodide Arsenic trioxide (TRISENOX) Leukemia Used for dermatologic conditions ANTIMONY STIBIUM Poison similar to Arsenic Used in alloys with Sn and Pb Antimony potassium tartrate o Aka: Tartar emetic ▪ Used for Schistosoma and Leishmania infections (BEFORE) → Replaced by Sodium stibogluconate BISMUTH BEAUTIFUL MEADOW, White Mass Produced as a byproduct of Pb refining Alloy: Rose metal o 50% Bi, 25% Sn, 25% Pb o Similar use to Solder (electric circuit) Bismuth subsalicylate QUADRUPLE THERAPY FOR H. PYLORI INFECTION Aka: PINK BISMUTH Tetracycline o Active ingredient of Pepto-bismol Omeprazole o Uses: Metronidazole ▪ Anti-inflammatory Bismuth subsalicylate ▪ Bactericidal* ▪ Antacid* ***used for H. pylori infection (ULCER)  GROUP 6A OXYGEN GROUP/CHALCOGENS OXYGEN Dephlogisticated air (Priestly) Empyreal air (Scheele) o Phlogisticated air: Nitrogen o Mephitic air: Nitrogen Used for: o Gas poisons (CO poisoning) o Support in patients with dyspnea SULFUR Aka: o Brimstone o Azupre/Asupre Extracted underground by Frasch Process PREPARATIONS: Sublimed sulfur/Flowers of Sulfur Precipitated sulfur Sulfur that was sublimated then collected from vapors Aka: o S –s→ G (collect from vapor) o Precipitated sulfur Addition of K carbonate → SULFURATED POTASH [Liver o Milk sulfur of Sulfur] o Lac sulfur o Liver of Sulfur Uses: as scabicide ▪ Chemically known as K polysulfide o Ointment ▪ Composition of white lotion for chronic o Lotion skin conditions S + CaO (lime) → boil → add HCl to precipitate Addition of lime [CaO] → SULFURATED LIME [Vleminckx’s solution] o Vleminckx’s Solution ▪ Use: dermatologics for scabies and acne Sulfur dioxide Sulfuric acid Irritant gas Sulfonating or dehydrating agent Can also be used as antioxidant SELENIUM Named after the moon Promotes the absorption of Vitamin E o FeCaDSeE ▪ Fe → Vitamin C ▪ Ca → Vitamin D ▪ Se → Vitamin E Cofactor of GSH peroxidase (antioxidant) Selenium sulfide (Selsun blue) Used as 2.5% topically for SEBORRHEA DERMATITIS ◍ TELLURIUM o Previously: Cadmium sulfide POLONIUM Found in pitchblende ore Commonly used element in nuclear reactors (along with Uranium)  GROUP 7A HALOGENS FLUORINE Most electronegative atom Compound used for: o Dental caries o Osteoporosis Frequently found in inhaled anesthetics Freon-12 [Dichlorodifluoromethane] One of the freons banned in the Montreal Protocol Also used as aerosol propellants and refrigerants CHLORINE Described as greenish gas Used as a water disinfectant 😊 o Most commonly used halogen in treating municipal sewage Sodium hypochlorite (Bleach) Dakin’s solution (0.4-0.5% NaHClO) Labarraque’s solution (4-6% NaHClO) Hydrochloric acid (HCl) CONCENTRATED FORM: used for cleaning DILUTED FORM (10% HCl), previously: used for gastric achlorhydria [no/devoid of HCl in the stomach] BROMINE Reddish brown liquid All bromides → CNS depressants Also used as common reagent for testing: o Tannins (Hydrolyzable vs Condensed) o Alkenes ▪ Reddish brown liquid: retained if not alkenes 😊 IODINE Dark violet solid PREPARATIONS: Found in thyroid hormones Iodine solution (aq) [NaI] o 2% iodine in H2O Iodine poisoning: IODISM Iodine tincture (alc) [NaI] o Antidote: o 2% iodine in 50% ethanol ▪ Starch [iodo- Strong iodine solution (aq) [KI] starch o 5% iodine in H2O complex] Strong iodine tincture (alc) [KI] ▪ Na thiosulfate o 7.5% iodine in 88.5% ethanol [reduces Potassium iodide saturated solution [KISS] (aq) iodine] o 100% potassium iodide o Used for thyroid problems and fungal infections [i.e. sporotrichosis/rose gardener’s disease] Iodophors KHgI4 (Nessler’s reagent) Organic preparation of iodine Test for ammonia PVP – Polyvinylpyrrolidone [+] orange color ASTATINE Radioactive halogen GROUP 8A NOBLE GASES HELIUM 2nd lightestelement Donald Duck Sound :D Used in gas chromatography NEON Dominant noble gas in light ARGON Lazy Most abundant noble gas Nitrogen substitute for pharmaceutical inerts KRYPTON Hidden Least abundant noble gas With anesthetic properties XENON Investigational anesthetic RADON Inert gas emitted by radium salts Proposed for cancer treatment (cervical) o But resulted to higher chances of cancer ☹ Currently used for earthquake detection  1B COINAGE METALS Toxicity: Wilson’s disease Antidote: Penicillamine Alloys o Bronze = Cu Sn COPPER o Brass = Cu Zn ▪ Gun metal (Cu Zn Sn) ▪ German silver (Cu Zn Ni) ▪ Monel = Cu Ni Cupric sulfate [blue vitriol] Component of: o Benedict’s o Barfoed’s o Fehling’s o Bordeaux mixture ▪ CaO + CuSO4 ▪ Used as algicide/fungicide in swimming pools Argentum Oligodynamic property o Germicidal action!!! SILVER Sterling silver Most commonly used alloy of silver o 92.5% Ag o 7.5% Cu Silver nitrate Ammoniacal silver nitrate Silver proteinates 1% ophthalmic solution (gonorrhea (Howe’s solution) Use: topical antiseptics ophthalmia neonatorum) Component of o NOW: ERYTHROMYCIN Tollen’s reagent Argyrol (mild Ag protein) – 19- For titration o (+) Silver 23% for vaginitis o Argentometry mirror o Volhard’s titration Use: dental Collargol (colloidal Ag protein) – Preparation: 18-22% as germicide protective o Silver nitrate pencil ▪ Lunar caustic Protargol (strong Ag protein) – ▪ 94.5% AgNO3 + AgCl 7.5-8.5% used as antiseptic ▪ Use: removal of warts [throat, bladder, ears] and canker sores in the mouth Aurum Aqua regia King of all metals o Royal water Very malleable o 3 HCl: 1 HNO3 GOLD Selenic acid o Only single acid that could dissolve gold Obsolete compounds: Auranofin* Aurothioglucose* Aurothiomalate* ***for rheumatoid arthritis Cornerstone therapy for rheumatoid arthritis: METHOTREXATE ◍  2B VOLATILE METALS - Low melting point ZINC Present in insulin 2nd most abundant trace element in humans With Na cobaltinitrite → Rinmann’s green (ZINCMANN’S GREEN) ◍ Toxicity: metal fume fever ◍ Deficiency: Parakeratosis ◍ Zinc oxide (Zinc white, Philosopher’s wool) Zinc sulfate (white vitriol) Physical sunblock Used in white lotion Preparations: o Zinc sulfate + Sulfurated Potash o Lassar’s paste o Astringent and protectant ▪ Topical antiseptic and protectant o Calamine lotion ▪ ZnO + Ferric oxide ▪ For itchiness Component of older batteries [NiCad batteries] Cadmium toxicity: Itai-itai disease CADMIUM o Renal insufficiency o Painful bones Antidote: BAL (Dimercaprol) ◍ Cadmium sulfide Yellow sulfide o All sulfides are black except: ▪ Cadmium – yellow ◍ ▪ Manganese – pink ◍ ▪ Zinc – white ◍ ▪ Arsenic – yellow ◍ o Used as antiseborrheic HYDRARGYRUM QUICKSILVER ASOGE MERCURY Liquid at room temperature Source: HgS (Cinnabar) Toxicity: Minamata disease o Methylmercury :D Antidote: chelators (BAL, EDTA) Ammoniated mercury Mercurous chloride, HgCl Mercuric chloride, HgCl2 Aka: white precipitate Aka: Calomel Aka: Corrosive sublimate Used as topical antiseptic Cathartic Used as a disinfectant Component of electrodes for Was used for syphilis pH meters 3B SCANDIUM SUBGROUP SCANDIUM YTTRIUM -the red color of cathode ray tubes in television  4B TITANIUM SUBGROUP TITANIUM Titanium dioxide Has high strength UV blockers HAFNIUM Used for surgical implants Opacifying agent ◍ ZIRCONIUM Was used for allergies caused by poison ivy o No longer used because it caused granuloma 5B VANADIUM SUBGROUP VANADIUM NIOBIUM 6B CHROMIUM SUBGROUP CHROMIUM Aka: glucose tolerance factor Glucose deficiency o Causes diabetes Chromates: good oxidizing agents Dichromate method ◍ o Redox titration for ethanol MOLYBDENUM lead-like Ammonium molybdate Phosphomolybdic acid Reagent for phosphate test Used in Sonnenscheim’s reagent Alkaloidal reagent Component of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent Test for phenols TUNGSTEN Wolframite (main ore) Heavy stone Highest melting point among all elements Used in light bulb filaments Heaviest element used by bacteria 7B MANGANESE SUBGROUP MANGANESE Obtained from pyrosulfite o MnS → Pink COMPOUND: Potassium permanganate (Mineral chameleon) o Powerful oxidizing agent ◍ o Used in qualitative testing of alkenes: BAYER’S TEST o Pharmacologic uses: ▪ anti-infective ▪ astringent ▪ cleanser TECHNETIUM First artificially produced element Technetium-99 One of the most used radiopharmaceutical RHENIUM Dvi-Manganese o Dvi – not yet discovered (2nd element with respect to a discovered element) o Used for super alloys in jets and rockets  8B TRIAD IRON TRIAD Most abundant trace element STEEL – strengthened alloy of Fe + C o + >2% C = CAST IRON Presence of iron in the GIT = causes DARK STOOLS [melena] IRON PREPARATIONS Basham’s mixture o Combination of Fe + Ammonium acetate o Hematinic (increases RBC, usually used by anemic px) Monsel’s solution o Ferric subsulfate solution o Styptic (stops bleeding) COMPOUNDS Hematite: Iron oxide Pyrite: Iron sulfide Ferric chloride o Can purify water o Catalyst for Friedel-Crafts Reaction o For differentiation of tannins Turnbull’s Blue – Ferrous ferricyanide Prussian Blue – Ferric ferrocyanide Ferrous sulfate – Green vitriol Ferrous gluconate – Fergon Ferrous fumarate – Toleron Iron dextran Qualitative test: VOGEL’S RXN o Reaction between cobalt and ammonium cyanate → Co(SCN)2 → Beautiful Blue COBALT Part of vitamin B12 (cobalamin) Important for development of erythrocytes (RBCs) Deficiency → Macrocytic anemia o IDA → Microcytic hypochromic Used in fancy jewelry Component in battery (NiCad) NICKEL Qualitative test: DIMETHYL GLYOXIME o (+) cherry red ppt LIGHT TRIAD RUTHENIUM RHODIUM PALLADIUM Catalyst in organic reactions HEAVY TRIAD Heaviest and densest metal (22.59g/cc) Asymmetric dihydroxylation of alkenes OSMIUM COMPOUND Osmium tetroxide o Used for staining in electron microscopy IRIDIUM PLATINUM  ELEMENT PROCESS Hydrogen Messerschmidt Lane Sodium bicarbonate Solvay Magnesium Dow Ammonium Haber Sulfur Frasch MUST KNOWS Hydrogen (H) Lightest element Most abundant element in the universe Lithium (L) Lightest metal Magnesium (Mg) Lightest structurally important metal Beryllium (Be) Most toxic metal Oxygen 1st most abundant gas on earth Silicon 2nd most abundant metalloid on earth Aluminum 3rd most abundant metal on earth Helium 2nd lightest element Gold King of all metals Carbon King of all elements Zinc