Module 1-5 PDF

Module 1 Human Development: Meaning, Concepts, and Approaches Image source: Teacher’s Alley, 2017 June 01 Intended Learning Outcomes At the end of the module, you must have: a. defined human development in your own words;...

Module 1 Human Development: Meaning, Concepts, and Approaches Image source: Teacher’s Alley, 2017 June 01 Intended Learning Outcomes At the end of the module, you must have: a. defined human development in your own words; and b. distinguished between the traditional and life-span approaches of development. Introduction Every living creature is called to become what it is meant to be. The caterpillar is meant to become a butterfly; a seed into a full-grown herb, bush, or tree; and a human baby into a mature person, the person “who is fully alive, the glory of God” in the words of St. Irenaeus. In this module, you will be acquainted with how human development as a process takes place. You will also appreciate the different approaches which may enable you to understand better the development of your future students. That, like you, each of them is also a bundle of possibilities. 1 Abstraction Development is the systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death or “from womb to tomb”. Changes are systematic if they are orderly, patterned, and relatively enduring thus, temporary and unpredictable changes such as mood swings are excluded. We are also interested in the continuities of development. The systematic changes and continuities of human development fall into three broad domains: a. Physical development refers to the growth of the body and its organs during childhood, the functioning of physiological systems and the appearance of physical signs of aging during adulthood; there are also gains, losses, and continuities in motor abilities; and so on. b. Cognitive development deals on the changes in perception, language, learning, memory, problem-solving, and other mental processes. c. Socio-emotional development is a child's ability to understand the feelings of others, control his or her feelings and behaviors, get along with other children, and build relationships with adults. Even though child development experts often specialize in one or another of these three aspects of development, they appreciate that humans are whole beings and changes in one area affect the others. The baby who develops the ability to crawl now has new opportunities to develop her mind by exploring the contents of shelves and cabinets and to hone her social skills by accompanying her parents from room to room. How do you think humans typically change from birth to old age? Many people picture the life span this way: First, there are tremendous positive gains in capacity from infancy to young adulthood; then there is little change at all during young adulthood and middle age; and finally, there is only loss of capacities – a process of deterioration – in the later years. This stereotyped view of the life span is large, although not entirely, false. It has some truth for biological and physical development. Traditionally, biologists have defined growth as the physical changes that occur from conception to maturity. We do indeed become biologically mature and physically competent during the early part of the life span. Aging, in a biological sense, is the deterioration of organisms (including human beings) that leads inevitably to their death. Biologically, then, development does not involve growth in early life, stability in early adulthood, and the declines associated with aging in later life. 2  However, most developmental scholars today have rejected this simple model of the life span. Development, for them, means more than positive changes that occur in infancy, childhood, and adolescence. They believe that developmental change consists of both gains and losses or may simply represent a difference between earlier and later behavior (as when a four- year-old who once feared loud noises comes to fear hairy monsters under the bed instead). Also, child development experts today use the term aging to refer to a wide range of changes, both positive and negative, in the mature organism. They maintain that both positive and negative changes – gains and losses – occur in every phase of the life span, and so we should not associate aging only with loss. Consider this: a. From early childhood to young adulthood, although we certainly do gain many new abilities, we also experience negative changes such as increased rates of depression and suicide. b. From our teenage years to our 40s, when we are supposedly not changing much, we are typically gaining self-confidence and other psychological strengths, and we are aging as well. c. Although many elderly adults do find themselves becoming somewhat slower mentally, many are also still acquiring knowledge and expertise that young people lack. In short, development involves gains, losses, just plain changes, and sameness in each phase of the life span. Above all, one should abandon the idea that aging involves only deterioration and loss, such that maturation and learning are two important processes underlying the developmental change. The former is the biological unfolding of the individual according to a plan contained in the genes (the hereditary material passed from parents to the child at conception); while the latter is the process through which experience brings about relatively permanent change in thoughts, feelings, or behavior. Two Approaches to Human Development If you believe that children will show extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood, and decline in late old age, your approach to development is traditional. In contrast, if you believe that even in adulthood developmental change takes place as it does during childhood, your approach is termed the lifespan approach. Paul Baltes, an expert in life- span development, gives the following characteristics: a. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. b. Development is plastic. Plasticity refers to the potential for change. Development is possible throughout the lifespan. No one is too old to learn. There are no such things as “I am too old for that...” 3  c. Development is multidimensional. The development consists of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional dimensions. d. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing being in a changing world. Individuals respond to and act on contexts. These contexts include the individual’s biological makeup, physical environment, cognitive processes, and historical, social, and cultural contexts. e. Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation. f. Growth, maintenance, and regulation are three (3) goals of human development. The goals of individuals vary among developmental stages. For instance, as individuals reach middle and late adulthood, concern with growth gets backstage while maintenance and regulation take the center stage. Application Name: Section: Professor’s name: 1. State five characteristics of human development from a lifespan perspective and their implications for child care, education, and parenting. Characteristics of human The educational implication to Child development from a lifespan Care, Education, and Parenting perspective 1. 2. 4 References Books Acero, V., Javier, E., & Castro, H. (2008). Child and Adolescent Development. First Edition. Manila: Rex Book Store. Corpuz, B., Lucas, M., Borado, H., Lucas, M. R. & Lucido, P. (2018). Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles. OBE - and K to 12 – Based. Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Lucas, M. R., Borabo, M., Bilbao, P. and Corpuz, B. (2020). Field Study. Observations of Teaching-Learning in Actual School Environment. OBE- and PPST- Based. Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Sigelman, C. K. (1999). Life-Span Human Development. 3rd Edition. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Webpages Defining human development. (n.d.). Lumen lifespan development. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/chapter/defining- human-development/ What is human development and why is it important. (n.d.). Maryville University. https://online.maryville.edu/online-bachelors-degrees/human-development-and- family-studies/resources/stages-of-human-development/ Online video The Royal Ocean Film Society. (2017, May 2). Some Kind of Connection- the Up Series. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VVQ96wfbf_0 Image Teacher’s Alley. (2017, June 01). Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development. [Infographic]. http://myteachersalley.blogspot.com/2017/06/eriksons-theory-of- psycosocial.html 10  Module 2 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles Image source: MIT Technology Review, 15 October 2020 Intended Learning Outcomes At the end of the module, through your self-reports, you must have: a. advocated the use of the 14 principles in the teaching-learning process; and b. applied the 14 principles to the implementation of the teaching- learning process. Introduction The Board of Educational Affairs (BEA) of the American Psychological Association (APA) elucidated in their report how “psychology” has a long history of providing crucial knowledge for the development of educational systems based on theory and research on human learning, development, and motivation. Over the past ten years, psychological research that is pertinent to education has produced several very useful findings. The teaching, learning, and educational process as a whole can all benefit from advances in thinking, memory, and cognitive and motivational processes. Educators who are concerned about the rising rates of school dropout, low academic achievement, and other signs of school failure are pushing for more learner- centered forms of instruction at the same time. These methods consider student diversity and make use of it to enhance learning and achieve outcomes in the context of recent changes in education (APA, 1997). Numerous good programs seen in today's schools share and implicitly acknowledge the learner-centered psychological concepts, which are consistent with more than a century of study on teaching and learning. 11  Additionally, they combine theory and application in the fields of developmental, educational, experimental, social, clinical, organizational, community, and school psychology. Additionally, these ideas are based on accepted science and customary wisdom. They include not just learner- centered ideas that have been thoroughly investigated and are still being developed, but also learner-centered principles that can promote the productivity and mental health of our country's children, their teachers, and the systems that support them. A framework for creating and incorporating the elements of innovative educational designs is provided by learner-centered psychological principles. These guidelines provide a focus on how learners and learning are both active and reflective processes. When the educational system is restructured with the student as the major focus, educational practice will most likely improve from this standpoint. Abstraction There is an obvious plethora of literature about the importance of materializing the so-called learner-centered teaching in a 21st-century classroom, by extension in pursuit of the promise of Education 4.0, describing the ideal learning process for the present-day learners. All thanks to the COVID 19 Pandemic, paradoxically, that shifted in a fraction of time the landscape of teaching and learning in the emergence, assimilation, and accommodation of online learning. Source after source, learner-centered teaching is an offshoot of several theories and concepts carefully and critically designed by academicians of pedagogy, andragogy, and the vast areas of humanities and behavioral sciences. For instance, the term “scaffolding” from Lev Vygotsky’s Socio- cultural learning theory, as cited by Fani and Ghaemi (2011), contends that in implementing the practice of teaching to the learners the teacher must be able to assist them on tasks that are still emerging to them (the Zone of Proximal Development) until they would be able to perform it with ease and mastery independently (the Zone of Actual Development). Hence, learner-centered teaching is not the traditional way of teaching wherein learners are chained to their chairs. Instead, this approach is about making learners experience something beyond the 4 corners of the classroom (vis-à-vis experiential learning). 12  Stimulus or 'motivation' is another important factor in education. Without it, not momentous or no learning at all will take place. Hence, it's a process of arousing and sustaining interest in an conditioning to achieve a thing. It's also the creation of a desire on the part of the learner to perform an exertion to satisfy a need. Generally, youngish learners don't completely realize the significance of performing well in the conditioning they're engaged in. The schoolteacher has to give the necessary motivating factors to achieve the asked objects. Bilbao, et al ( 2018), conveyed that the significance of counting ‘ provocation ’ in instigating psychologically- bounded literacy is that it directs conditioning towards the achievement of a thing; controls and directs mortal geste; inculcates spiritual and moral values; and gives satisfaction and happiness to the existent (especially to children during academy age). Supplemental: The Puzzle of Personality by Dr. Brian Little https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qYvXk_bqlBk Application In groups: 1. Administer the following questionnaires among the group members (age range: 18 to 25 years old); and carefully follow the steps found in the questionnaire (i.e., how to answer, analyze and interpret).  Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence-Based Questionnaire  Self-analysis Questionnaire Based on Erikson’s and Bronfenbrenner’s Theories 13 2. Write a written report discussing the results. Please note:  The report should be in A4-sized paper with normal margin; font- style: Arial (size 11); must be in single-spacing, with page numbers.  The report should have the following: Cover page The title of your report should capture the personal insight you gained from the results. Introduction A good introduction not only gives an overview but also cites underlying concepts of the subject matter, which in this case topics are Howard Gardner's MI theory, Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theory, and Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory. Results and Please present comprehensively the results Implication generated from the 2 questionnaires. Feel free to organize the data with your own style/ preference Explain the implications of the results to the individuals, based on the takeaways of the group about the results. Conclusion What has this activity taught you as a future educator? References Follow the 7th edition of APA style in citing the references. Hence, in-text citations must be observed in your introduction and results. Use “Scribbr” for accuracy. Appendices Results of plagiarism check, with at least 85% originality index Results of Grammarly checking  Run your paper to any free software/ applications for plagiarism checking and grammar editing (e.g., Grammarly, or try this: https://smallseotools.com/login). 14 Tools: 1. Adapted questionnaire based on Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence 2. Self-report questionnaire based on Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory 3. Software/ apps. for grammar and plagiarism checking 4. Rubric for the written report: Above Excellent Sufficient Minimal Category average Poor (10) % *WA (50) (30) (20) (40) Introduction, In-depth Comprehe Acceptable The Discussion 60% Results, and and nsive quality of discussion needs Implication comprehens discussion discussion is too short improvement ive written and too discussion general Conclusion In-depth Convincing Acceptable The Conclusion 40% conclusion conclusion quality of conclusion needs and conclusion is too short improvement convincing and too conclusion general *WA Weighted Average Perfect points: 50 References Book Corpuz, B., Lucas, M., Borado, H., Lucas, M. R. & Lucido, P. (2018). Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles. OBE - and K to 12 – Based. Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Documents Board of Educational Affairs. (1997). Learner- Centered Psychological Principles: A Framework for School Reform and Redesign. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/learner-centered.pdf Escabusa, M. (n.d). Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Test [Shared questionnaire]. https://www.academia.edu/35168075/Howard_Gardner_Multiple_Intelligence_T est Journal Fani, T., & Ghaemi, F. (2011). Implications of Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD) in teacher education: ZPTD and self-scaffolding. Procedia- Social and Behavioral Sciences, 29, 1549-1554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.396. Online video Little, B. (2016, July 20). Who are you, really? The puzzle of personality. Ted Talks. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qYvXk_bqlBk 15  Webpage Bernbaum, J. (2022, February 03). Building the cognitive budget for your most effective mind. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Sloan Management Review. https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/building-the-cognitive-budget-for- your-most-effective-mind/ Image Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (2020, October 15). Artificial general intelligence: Are we close, and does it even make sense to try? [Picture]. MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/10/15/1010461/artificial-general- intelligence-robots-ai-agi-deepmind-google-openai/ 16  Module 3 Learning Principles in the Context of the Developmental Theories Image source: Sean Jackson, Online Psychology Degree Guide Intended Learning Outcomes At the end of the module, you must have: a. explained and saw the translations of developmental theories to the actual learning process; and b. drawn the implications of the theories towards child care and the teaching-learning process. Introduction Learning principles are important in the context of developmental theories, which seek to understand how people grow, develop, and learn across time. These ideas lay the groundwork for understanding how learning takes place and how it affects cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development. One fundamental idea is that learning is an active process in which people develop meaning and knowledge via their interactions with their surroundings. Furthermore, prior information and experiences, as well as desire and involvement in the learning process, influence learning. Furthermore, developmental theories emphasize the impact of social interactions and cultural environments in shaping learning experiences, emphasizing the roles of caregivers, instructors, and peers in supporting and scaffolding learning opportunities. Educators and researchers may construct successful learning environments and interventions that support optimal development and growth across several domains by understanding and applying these learning principles within the context of developmental theories. 17 Abstraction In the framework of developmental theories, learning principles are significant because they offer insightful information about how people gain knowledge and abilities throughout the course of their lives. The goal of developmental theories is to comprehend how learning happens and how it affects cognitive, social, and emotional development. Examples of such theories are Piaget's cognitive development theory and Vygotsky's sociocultural theory. These theories stress that learning is a dynamic and active process that is influenced by both internal and external variables. Researchers and educators can better understand the processes behind human growth and create efficient instructional strategies to maximize learning outcomes by exploring learning principles within developmental theories. The idea of scaffolding is a key learning principle in the context of developmental theories. Scaffolding, according to Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, is the process by which more competent people, like parents or teachers, encourage and direct students while they work through difficult tasks. Scaffolding encourages the learner's acquisition of new abilities and information by providing assistance and gradually diminishing support over time. This principle emphasizes the dynamic interaction between people and their environment and acknowledges the value of social connections and teamwork in learning. Jean Piaget's concept of assimilation and adaptation is another essential learning component within developmental theories. According to Piaget's cognitive development hypothesis, individuals actively form their understanding of the world through these two processes. Assimilation is the process of assimilating new information into existing mental structures, whereas accommodation is the process of altering current schema to accommodate new experiences. This principle emphasizes the necessity of cognitive flexibility and adaptation in learning, as people constantly assimilate and adjust new information in order to make sense of their surroundings. Another important learning principle in developmental theories, particularly in Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, is the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The gap between a learner's current level of ability and their prospective degree of development with suitable help is referred to as the ZPD. Learning occurs most successfully, according to Vygotsky, when individuals are challenged just beyond their existing capacities, with the supervision and assistance of more competent colleagues. This principle emphasizes the importance of offering sufficiently difficult tasks and individualized education in order to promote optimal learning and intellectual progress. 18  Finally, in the framework of developmental theories, the concept of reinforcement and punishment, drawn from behaviorist theories, is relevant. While developmental theories emphasize cognitive and socioemotional aspects of learning, behaviorist ideas emphasize the importance of outside stimuli in determining behavior. Punishment discourages bad actions while reinforcement, such as prizes or positive feedback, increases preferred behaviors. Although applied only to complex human learning, behaviorist principles provide insights into the function of consequences in influencing behavior and can be linked with other learning concepts within a holistic developmental framework. Domain Theories/ Developmental Major Stages Concepts Cognitive Piaget’s Sensory Pre- Concrete Formal Typical Stages of Motor (0-2) operational Operational Operational Devt. Cognitive (2-7) (7-11) (11- onwards) Development Physical This stage is During this During this motor skills, characterize stage, stage of object d by an children begin cognitive permanence, increase in thinking development, immature playing and logically about skills such as usage of pretending. concrete logical thought, symbols and Characteristics events but deductive language. of this stage have difficulty reasoning, and include ego- understanding systematic centrism and abstract or planning begin difficulty hypothetical to emerge. understanding conservation. concepts. Vygotsky’s The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social Socio- interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cultural cognition. He developed the scaffolding theory. Scaffolding theory Learning describes social and instructional support for students learning new concepts, comparable to structures erected alongside newly constructed buildings. The scaffolding supports the construction (the introduction of new material) and is taken away after completion (or when the lesson is understood). 19 Social/ Erikson’s 0-1 Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust Emotional Psycho-social (Hope) Chronologically, this is the period of infancy Typical Theory of through the first one or two years of life. The child, Development Development well-handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and security, and a basic optimism. Badly handled, he becomes insecure and mistrustful. 1-3 Learning Autonomy versus Shame (Will) The "well- parented" child emerges from this stage sure of himself, elated with his newfound control, and proud rather than ashamed. Autonomy is not, however, entirely synonymous with assured self- possession, initiative, and independence but, at least for children in the early part of this psychosocial crisis, includes stormy self-will, tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism. For example, one sees many 2-year-olds resolutely folding their arms to prevent their mothers from holding their hands as they cross the street. Also, the sound of "NO" rings through the house or the grocery store. 3-6 Learning Initiative versus Guilt (Purpose) The "play age," or the later preschool years (from about 3½ to, in the United States culture, entry into formal school). During it, the healthily developing child learns: (1) to imagine, to broaden his skills through active play of all sorts, including fantasy (2) to cooperate with others (3) to lead as well as to follow. Immobilized by guilt, he is: (1) fearful (2) hangs on the fringes of groups (3) continues to depend unduly on adults, and (4) is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination. 6-12 Industry versus Inferiority (Competence) Handled during what Erikson calls the "school age," presumably up to and possibly including some of the junior high school. Here the child learns to master the more formal skills of life: (1) relating with peers according to rules (2) progressing from free play to play that may be elaborately structured by rules and may demand formal teamwork, such as baseball and (3) mastering social studies, reading, arithmetic. Homework is a necessity, and the need for self-discipline increases yearly. The child who, because of his successive and successful resolutions of earlier psychosocial crises, is trusting, autonomous, and full of the initiative will learn easily enough to be industrious. However, the mistrusting child will doubt the future. The shame - and guilt-filled child will experience defeat and inferiority. 20 12-20 Learning Identity versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity) The child, now an adolescent, learns how to answer the question of "Who am I?" But even the most adjusted adolescents experience some role identity diffusion: most boys and probably most girls experiment with minor delinquency; rebellion against self-consciousness and self-doubt. He comes to experiment with different roles rather than adopting a "negative identity" (such as delinquency). He anticipates achievement, and achieves, rather than being "paralyzed" by feelings of inferiority or by an inadequate time perspective. In later adolescence, a clear sexual identity - manhood or womanhood - is established. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him), and gradually develops a set of ideals (socially congruent and desirable, in the case of the successful adolescent). Erikson believes that, in our culture, adolescence affords a "psychosocial moratorium," particularly for middle - and upper- class American children. They do not yet have to "play for keeps," but can experiment, trying various roles, and thus hopefully find the one most suitable for them. 20-40 Learning Intimacy versus Isolation (Love) The successful young adult, for the first time, can experience true intimacy - the sort of intimacy that makes possible good marriage or a genuine and enduring friendship. 40-65 Learning Generatively Versus Self-Absorption (Care) In adulthood, the psychosocial crisis demands generativity, both in the sense of marriage and parenthood and in the sense of working productively and creatively. Old Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom) Age If the other seven stages have been successfully resolved, the mature adult develops the peak of adjustment; integrity. He trusts, is independent, and challenges himself. He works hard, has developed a well-defined role in life, and has developed a self- concept with which he is happy. He can be intimate without strain, guilt, regret, or lack of realism; and he is proud of what he creates - his children, his work, or his hobbies. If one or more of the earlier psychosocial crises have not been resolved, he may view himself and his life with disgust and despair. 21 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Age Stage Erogenous Zone Conflict Development Outcome Theory 0-2 Oral Mouth: sucking, biting, swallowing Weaning away from mother's They are generally passive, needy, and breast sensitive to rejection. They will easily 'swallow' other people's ideas. The Oral aggressive personality is hostile and verbally abusive to others, using mouth-based aggression. 2-4 Anal Anus: defecating or retaining Toilet training The Anal retentive personality is stingy, with feces a compulsive seeking of order and tidiness. The person is generally stubborn and a perfectionist. The Anal expulsive personality is the opposite of the Anal retentive personality, and has a lack of self- control, being generally messy and careless. 4-5 Phallic Genitals Oedipus (boys), Electra (girls) At the age of 5 or 6, near the end of the phallic stage, boys experience the Oedipus Complex whilst girls experience the Electra conflict, which is a process through which they learn to identify with the same gender parent by acting as much like that parent as possible. Boys suffer castration anxiety, where the son believes his father knows about his desire for his mother and hence fears his father will castrate him. He thus represses his desire and defensively identifies with his father. Girls suffer penis envy, where the daughter is initially attached to her mother, but then a shift of attachment  occurs when she realizes she lacks a penis. She desires her father whom she sees as a means to obtain a penis substitute (a child). She then represses her desire for her father and incorporates the values of her mother and accepts her inherent 'inferiority' in society. 6-puberty Latency Sexual urges are sublimated into sports and hobbies. Same-sex friends also help avoid sexual feelings. Puberty- Genital Physical sexual changes reawaken Social rules If development has been healthy through this onwards repressed needs. stage, a mature sex instinct is satisfied Direct sexual feelings towards through marriage and children. others lead to sexual gratification. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory Microsystem- The immediate settings that the person encounters. Claim: Mesosystem- The interconnections among an individual’s immediate settings. Natural environments are major influence on Exosystem- Social systems that children and development. adolescents do not directly experience but that may nonetheless influence their development. Macrosystem- The larger cultural or subculture context in which development occurs. Chronosystem- In ecological systems theory, changes in the individual or the environment that occur over time and influence the direction development takes. Moral Reasoning Lawrence Kohlberg’s Level 1- Pre- conventional Typical Development Stages of Moral Development 1. Obedience and punishment orientation At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment. 2. Self-interest orientation (What's in it for me?) Paying for benefits At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. Level 2- Conventional 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity (Social norms) The good boy/good girl attitude This stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships. 4. Authority and social order maintaining orientation (Law and order morality) At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules. Level 3- Post-conventional 5. Social contract orientation (What makes a good society?) 24  At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society. 6. Universal ethical principles (Principled conscience) At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules. Jean Piaget’s Theory Premoral Period of Moral Development In the first 5 years of life, when children are said to Position: have little respect for or awareness of socially defined rules. Respect for rules and conceptions of justice. Heteronomous Morality The first stage of moral development in which children view the rules of authority figures as sacred and unalterable. Autonomous Morality The second stage of moral development in which children realize that rules are arbitrary agreements that can be challenged and changed with consent of the people they govern. Information Processing Theory A psychological framework called the “Information Processing Theory” aims to comprehend how people process, store, and retrieve information. It first appeared in the middle of the 20th century and has since influenced educational psychology and cognitive psychology. The theory proposes that mental processes can be understood in terms of information flow via a number of phases and is motivated by the comparison of the mind to a computer. Attention, perception, encoding, storage, and retrieval are some of these steps. According to the hypothesis, attention, which entails concentrating on particular environmental stimuli, is the first step in the processing of information. Perception takes place after attention is focused on pertinent information, when sensory material is analyzed and arranged into meaningful patterns. The information is then converted into a mental image that may be kept in memory during the subsequent stage of encoding. Processes like rehearsal, chunking, and elaboration can be used in encoding to improve information structure and retention. 25  Information moves into the memory storage stage once it has been encoded. According to the Information Processing theory, the human brain has three types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long- term memory. Short-term memory only stores a little quantity of information for future use, while sensory memory retains a brief, unprocessed copy of sensory information. The enormous repository of information and experiences that can be accessible over a long period of time is known as long-term memory. Retrieval, the last phase of information processing, involves accessing stored data and bringing it back into conscious awareness. The intensity of the memory trace and the presence of the proper retrieval signals are just a couple of the variables that can affect recollection. Our knowledge of cognitive processes, learning, problem-solving, and decision-making has benefited by the Information Processing theory. It has also influenced educational methods by emphasizing the significance of instructional strategies that support attention, encoding, and retrieval of information. Examples of these instructional tactics include chunking material into meaningful units and offering efficient retrieval cues. Supplemental discussion videos on the different developmental theories and other relevant theories: a. Piaget’s Cognitive Development: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IhcgYgx7aAA b. Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8I2hrSRbmHE c. Erikson’s Psycho-social Theory of Development: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aYCBdZLCDBQ d. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lT4wQ02sALE e. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P9ND3kbBw3o f. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bounwXLkme4 g. Information Processing Theory-Attention and Memory: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aURqy9BEJO4 26 References Book Corpuz, B., Lucas, M., Borado, H., Lucas, M. R. & Lucido, P. (2018). Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles. OBE - and K to 12 – Based. Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Online video Bright Ideas of HJD. (2020, November 3). Bronfenbrenner's Bio- ecological Model: Structure of Environment (Video). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P9ND3kbBw3o Learn My Test. (2019, May 27). Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Explained. (Video). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lT4wQ02sALE Learn My Test. (2019, May 19). Information Processing Theory Explained.(Video). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aURqy9BEJO4 Sprouts. (2018, August 1). Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development. (Video). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IhcgYgx7aAA Sprouts. (2020, February 28). Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development in Social Relationships. (Video). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8I2hrSRbmHE Sprouts. (2019, November 29). Kohlberg’s 6 Stages of Moral Development. (Video). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bounwXLkme4 Sprouts. (2017, April 23). 8 Stages of Development by Erik Erikson. (Video). YouTube..https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aYCBdZLCDBQ Webpage MentalHelp.net (2022). Developmental Theories. https://www.mentalhelp.net/selfhelp/developmental- theories/ Image Sean Jackson. (nd). Online Psychology Degree Guide. [Picture]. https://www.onlinep sychologydegree.info/lists/5-theories-of-child-development/ 29  Module 4 Prenatal Development Image source: Sonulkaster, 2013 Intended Learning Outcomes At the end of the module, you must have: a. traced the course of prenatal development; and b. explained the most common hazards to prenatal development appreciative of the gift of life as manifested in an antiabortion stand. 30 Introduction The process of growth and development occurring in the womb from fertilization until birth is known as prenatal development. The zygote develops during this process into an embryo, then a fetus. A male sperm cell and a female ovum (egg) combine during fertilization in the female fallopian tube to create a new life. The 38-week prenatal period is often divided into three periods: the germinal period (the time of the zygote), the embryonic period (the period of the embryo), and the fetal period (the period of the fetus). Utilizing 3-month time periods, known as "trimesters," immediately following fertilization is another way to depict the passage of time during pregnancy (Dean & Grizzle, 2011). Abstraction The images are extracted from the Digital Press of Iowa State University on Parenting and Family Issues. Rightful citation is credited to: https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/parentingfamilydiversity/chapter/prenatal-development/ Take a look at some of the changes that take place during each of the three periods of prenatal development: the germinal period, the embryonic period, and the fetal period. The Germinal Period (Weeks 1-2) Sperm and ovum at conception When a sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote, which begins as a one-cell structure, conception occurs. The DNA of the father and mother is passed on to the child at the moment of conception. At this point, the genetic makeup and sex of the baby are set. The germinal period is about 14 days in length and would last from conception to implantation of the zygote or fertilized egg. 31  In the first week after conception, the zygote divides and multiplies, from a one-cell structure to two cells, four cells, eight cells, and so on. The process of cell division is called mitosis. Differentiation of the cells begins to occur after the fourth cell division. These differentiated cells become more specialized as they form different organs of the body. There are 100 cells formed after 5 days of mitosis and turned into billions of cells after 9 months. Less than one-half of all zygotes will survive beyond the first two weeks. Hence, mitosis is considered a fragile process. The zygote travels down the fallopian tubes and implants itself in the lining of the uterus after it divides for about 7–10 days. An estimation of about 60 percent of natural conceptions fail to implant in the uterus. And the rate is higher for in vitro conceptions. The next stage begins once the zygote attaches to the uterus. The Embryonic Period (Weeks 3-8) Human embryo Once the zygote is implanted in the uterine wall, the embryonic period begins. It is from the third through the eighth week after conception. Upon implantation, this multi-cellular organism is called an embryo. Now blood vessels grow, forming the placenta. The structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord is called placenta. During this period, cells continue to differentiate. Basic structures such as the head, chest, and abdomen starts to develop in the embryo. In the embryonic stage, the heart begins to beat and organs form and starts to function. The neural tube forms along the back of the embryo, developing into the spinal cord and brain, at 22 days after conception. 32  Growth during prenatal development occurs in two major directions: from head to tail (cephalocaudal development) and from the mid-line outward (proximodistal development). Those structures nearest the head develop before those nearest the feet while those structures nearest the torso develop before those away from the center of the body (such as hands and fingers). The head develops in the fourth week while the precursor to the heart begins to pulse. Gills and a tail are apparent the early stages of the embryonic period. And at the end of this stage, they disappear. The embryo looks more human. and is approximately 1 inch in length. It weighs about 4 grams at the end of this period. It can move and respond to touch. About 20 percent fail during the embryonic period. This is usually due to gross chromosomal abnormalities. In the case of the germinal period, the mother does not usually know yet that she is pregnant. During this stage, the major structures of the body are taking form making the embryonic period the time when the organism is most vulnerable to the greatest amount of damage if exposed to harmful substances. Often, potential mothers are not aware of the risks they introduce to the developing child during this time. The Fetal Period (Weeks 9-40) A fetus at 10 weeks of development The embryo is called a fetus when the organism is about nine weeks old. It is about the size of a kidney bean. As the “tail” begins to disappear, it takes on the recognizable form of a human being. The sex organs begin to differentiate at 9–12 weeks. By the 12th week, all body parts of the fetus appear including its external genitalia. In the following weeks, the fetus will develop hair, nails, teeth, and excretory and digestive systems. And by the end of the 12th week, the fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs approximately 28 grams. 33  In 16 weeks, the fetus is about 4.5 inches long. Fingerprints are visible as fingers and toes are fully developed. The eyes become more sensitive to light and hearing develops at about 4-6 months. The respiratory system continues to develop while reflexes, such as sucking, swallowing, and hiccupping, develop during the 5th month. In addition, cycles of sleep and wakefulness can be observed. The brain continues to grow and develop, nearly doubling in size, from weeks 16 to 28. The majority of the neurons in the brain have developed by 24 weeks and fetus can feel pain. Viability, the first chance of survival outside the womb, is reached at about 22 to 26 weeks. The fetus at this time weighs up to 1.4 pounds. It can respond to sounds as the hearing has developed. The fetus born prematurely has a chance to survive outside the womb as the organs, such as the lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, have formed enough. The fetus is primarily preparing for birth between the 7th and 9th months. It is exercising its muscles while its lungs begin to expand and contract. It is also developing fat layers under the skin. The layer of fat the fetus gain serves as insulation and helps regulate body temperature after birth. At 36 weeks, the fetus weighs about 6 pounds and is about 18.5 inches long. It is almost ready for birth. By week 37, all of the organ systems are developed enough that it could survive outside the uterus without many of the risks associated with premature birth. The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in length until approximately 40 weeks. By then, there is very little room to move around and birth becomes imminent. This video, through the link below, on prenatal development presents many of the developmental milestones and changes that happen during each month of development for the embryo and fetus. https://www.youtube.com/embed/UA-Tk9qlG9A Environmental Risks Teratology It is essential that fetus will receive good prenatal care with it being most at risk for some of the most severe problems during the first three months of development. Unfortunately, most women at this time are unaware of their pregnancy. It is estimated that 10% of all birth defects are caused by prenatal exposure to teratogen. These are factors that can contribute to birth defects. It includes some maternal diseases, drugs, alcohol, and stress as well as exposures like environmental and occupational exposures. Fortunately, some teratogen-caused birth defects are potentially preventable. 34  There is a study on factors that contribute to birth defects. It is called teratology. Teratogens are usually discovered after an increased prevalence of a particular birth defect. For example, a drug known as thalidomide was used to treat morning sickness. Exposure of the fetus during this early stage of development resulted in cases of phocomelia. It is a congenital malformation in which the hands and feet are attached to abbreviated arms and legs. Alcohol One of the most commonly used teratogens is alcohol. It is recommended that women of child-bearing age take great caution against drinking alcohol when not using birth control and when pregnant. Alcohol consumption may lead to neurocognitive and behavioral difficulties that can last a lifetime. There is no acceptable safe limit for alcohol use during pregnancy. Binge drinking or having 5 or more drinks on a single occasion, or having 7 or more drinks during a single week, places pregnancy at a high risk. Alcohol consumption can also lead to fetal death or may result in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). It is a terminology used for effects of exposure to alcohol and replaces the term fetal alcohol syndrome. This is preferred because it recognizes that symptoms occur on a spectrum and that all individuals do not have the same characteristics. Children with FASD have common physical features such as flattened noses, small eye openings, small heads, intellectual developmental delays, and behavioral problems. They are F more at risk for lifelong problems such as criminal behavior, psychiatric problems, and unemployment. The terms alcohol-related neurological disorder (ARND) and alcohol-related birth defects (ARBD) have replaced the term Fetal Alcohol Effects to refer to those with less extreme symptoms of FASD. Tobacco Smoking is also considered a teratogen. It has been associated with low birth weight, placenta previa, birth defects, preterm delivery, fetal growth restriction, and sudden infant death syndrome. When the pregnant woman smokes, the nicotine travels through the placenta to the fetus. The fetus then experiences a reduction in blood oxygen levels. Drugs Prescription, over-the-counter, or recreational drugs can have serious teratogenic effects. In general, if medication is required, the lowest dose possible should be used. Combination drug therapies and first-trimester exposures should be avoided. Marijuana, cocaine, Ecstasy and other amphetamines, and heroin can cause low birth weight, withdrawal symptoms, birth defects, or learning or behavioral problems. Babies born with a heroin addiction need heroin just like an adult addicts. The child will need to be gradually weaned from the heroin under medical supervision, otherwise, the child could have seizures and die. 35  Environmental Chemicals Environmental chemicals can include pollution, organic mercury compounds, herbicides, and industrial solvents. Some environmental pollutants of major concern include lead poisoning, which is connected with low birth weight and slowed neurological development. The chemicals in certain herbicides are also potentially damaging. Radiation is another environmental hazard that a pregnant woman must be aware of. If a woman is exposed to radiation, particularly during the first three months of pregnancy, the child may suffer some congenital deformities. There is also an increased risk of miscarriage and stillbirth. A pregnant woman’s exposure to mercury can lead to physical deformities and intellectual disabilities. Watch this video for teratogen examples and exposures. https://study.com/academy/lesson/teratogen-in-pregnancy- definition-exposure-examples.html Sexually Transmitted Infections Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs), such as chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, trichomoniasis, and bacterial vaginosis, may have serious effects on both the pregnant woman and the developing fetus. Most prenatal care today includes testing for STIs. Early detection is important for treatment to be given. Pregnant women may be given antibiotics that are safe to take during pregnancy. STIs that are caused by viruses, like genital herpes, hepatitis B, or HIV cannot be cured. However, these infections can be treated with antiviral medications or other preventive measures to reduce the risk of passing the infection to the baby. Maternal Diseases Maternal illnesses increase the chance that a baby will be born with a birth defect or have a chronic health problem. Some of the diseases that are known to potentially harm the fetus include diabetes, cytomegalovirus, toxoplasmosis, rubella, varicella, hypothyroidism, and Strep B. If the pregnant woman contracts Rubella during the first three months of pregnancy, damage can occur in the eyes, ears, heart, or brain of the developing fetus. On a positive note, Rubella has been nearly eliminated in the industrial world due to the vaccine created in 1969. Diagnosing these diseases early and receiving appropriate medical care can help improve the outcomes. Routine prenatal care now includes screening for gestational diabetes and Strep B. 36 Maternal Stress Stress represents the effects of any factor which threaten the homeostasis of an organism; these could either be real or perceived threats and are referred to as the "stressors". These comprise of a long list of potential adverse factors and can be emotional or physical. It has been found that the stress the pregnant woman is experiencing can leave lasting effects on a developing fetus, even before birth, because of a link in blood supply between a pregnant woman and her fetus. Preterm birth and low birth weight are the best-studied outcomes of fetal exposure to maternal prenatal stress. Maternal prenatal stress is also considered responsible for a variety of changes in the child's brain. It is found out that this kind of stress is a risk factor for conditions such as behavioral problems, learning disorders, high levels of anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism, and schizophrenia. Furthermore, maternal prenatal stress has been associated with a higher risk for a variety of immune and metabolic changes in the child. This includes asthma, allergic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, and obesity. Application Tasks: This is a group activity and these are the things you need to do: a. Plan for a 20-minute presentation on the process and the most common hazards to prenatal development. b. Make an explainer video using Canva or PowerPoint. c. Show the video to the class. Tools: Criteria for Grading the Presentation: a. Content 50% b. Design, Creativity & Sound 30% c. References 10% d. Timeliness 10% Total 100% Be guided by the following questions when planning the lecture: a. What will be the objectives of the presentation? b. What do we know about this topic and what do we need to learn to teach it? c. What resources (books, audiovisuals, magazines, computer applications, websites, etc.) are available to support our presentation? Outputs: Present pictures of highlights and best points in your explainer video. You may also include pictures of the group working on the output. 37 References Article Dean, R. S., & Grizzle, R. (2011). Prenatal development. In Springer eBooks (pp. 1151–1152). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_2222 Webpage Cleveland Clinic. (2022). Pregnancy: Types of delivery. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/9675-pregnancy-types-of-delivery Iowa State University. (nd). Prenatal development. https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/parentingfamilydiversity/chapter/prenatal- development/ Sick Kids. (2009). Things to avoid during pregnancy: Teratogens. https://www.aboutkidshealth.ca/Article?contentid=341&language=English Media Solanki, Y. (2020, May). What is a teratogen [Video]. Study.com. https://study.com/academy/lesson/teratogen-in-pregnancy-definition-exposure- examples.html Sprouts. (nd). Prenatal development: What babies learn in the womb [Video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UA-Tk9qlG9A&t=15s Image Sonulkaster. (2013). Embryo month stage growth pregnancy fetal development [Online image]. Can Stock Photo. https://www.canstockphoto.com/embryo- month-stage-growth-pregnancy-50954169.html 38  Module 5 Infant and Toddler Development Image source: Health and Parenting Ltd, 2016 Intended Learning Outcomes At the end of the module, you must have: a. described the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional developments of infants and toddlers; b. identified factors that enhanced/impeded the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional developments of infants and toddlers; and c. drawn implications of these physical, cognitive and socio-emotional developmental concepts to child care and parenting. Introduction Compared to the first year, 3-year-olds' growth is still sluggish. The typical child no longer has a round toddler stomach and has slimmed down. The following is the typical growth for boys and girls who are 3 years old. All children may develop at a different rate. Children's weight and height might differ substantially among those of the same age after age 2. No cause for concern should exist as long as the youngster is continuing to grow at his or her natural rate. If you have worries, speak to the doctor who is treating your kid. You will observe the development of brand-new, fascinating skills as your child grows (Default - Stanford Medicine Children’s Health, n.d.). 39 Abstraction Physical Development When healthy babies are born, their ability to suck, swallow, and breathe, are developed and functional. To support the best possible physical development, all infants require care from loving adults, proper nutrition, and appropriately stimulating environments. The physical development of infants and toddlers can occur quickly so, it is essential to understand the various stages of physical development. Infants want to explore their world. While each has their schedule for development and mastering new skills, infants are often eager to move their eyes, mouths, and bodies toward people and objects that comfort or interest them. Infants develop physically from their head and neck or from the top down. At birth, infants experience difficulty holding up their heads because the neck muscles are not strong enough to provide support. As infants and toddlers grow, their determination to master movement, balance, and fine- and gross-motor skills remains strong. Rolling and crawling occur as infants develop skills in using large muscles. Grasping and picking up objects with fingers are signs of small muscle skill. Milestones Months Indications 2 a. Holds head up when on tummy b. Makes smoother movements with arms and legs c. Relaxes hands from fists for short periods d. Grasps adult finger e. Kicks legs and waves arms while on back f. Primitive reflexes present, including the rooting and sucking reflex 4 a. Holds head steady without support b. Brings hands to mid-line when laying on back c. Holds and shakes toys; swings at dangling toys d. Brings hands to mouth e. Pushes up on elbows when lying on tummy 6 a. Rolls from tummy to back & may begin rolling from back to tummy b. Pushes arms straight when on tummy c. Begins to sit with support d. Supports weight on legs when standing with support e. Holds a toy in both hands at once 9 a. Sits without support b. Moves into a sitting position without support c. Transfers items from one hand to another d. Stands, holding on to adult or furniture for support e. Squats to pick up a toy while holding onto furniture Picks up a toy using fingertips and thumb (pincer grasp) f. Picks up a toy using fingertips and thumb (pincer grasp) 12 a. Pulls up to stand and walks along furniture for support (“cruising”) b. May take a few steps without the support of an adult or furniture 40  Months Indications c. May stand alone d. Throws a ball with a forward arm motion e. Drinks from a cup without a lid with adult support 15 a. Takes a few steps independently b. Crawls over obstacles; including stairs c. Feeds themself finger foods d. Stacks several blocks e. Makes marks on paper using a crayon 18 a. Walks alone b. Climbs on and off furniture independently c. Tries to kick a ball after observing an adult d. Turns the pages of a book e. Drinks from a cup f. Eats with a spoon 24 a. Kicks a ball b. Walks up and down stairs while holding on for support c. Turns doorknobs d. Strings small items onto string or shoelace e. Runs f. Jumps with feet together Factors that enhanced/impeded physical development and implications to child care and parenting There are certain conditions necessary for an infant or toddler to grow and develop. A young child’s basic needs or physical needs include: a. Food (nutritious and age-appropriate) b. Shelter (protection from harm) c. Warmth d. Clean air and environment e. Health and dental care f. Activity and rest Other influences on infant and toddler physical growth and development are: a. Prenatal care and development, including genetic inheritance, family patterns, exposure to drugs and alcohol, birth experience b. Prematurity (birth before the 38th week of development) and low birth weight may result in respiration difficulties, vision problems, feeding, and digestive problems c. Temperament, or the ways an infant or toddler approaches his or her world d. Family’s composition, lifestyle, level of education, and housing e. Maturation, or the genetic or biological development that reflects a pattern of growth from conception through adolescence f. Developmental delays or disabilities, including health and medical concerns 41 Cognitive Development The thinking skills of infants and toddlers grow as they interact with the world and people around them. The key to healthy brain development is the nurturing and responsive care for a child's body and mind. The development of the brain is strongly influenced by a child's early experiences. Therefore, supporting a child's cognitive development with consistent nurturing experiences and interactions is critical for brain growth. The Brain in the First Two Years Some of the most dramatic physical change that occurs during the first two years is in the brain. At birth, the brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight, which is not true for any other body part. By age 2, it is at 75 percent of its adult weight, at 95 percent by age 6, and at 100 percent by age 7 years. Milestones Months Indications 2 a. Pays attention to faces b. Begins to follow things with eyes and recognize people at a distance c. Begins to act bored (cries, fussy) if the activity does not change 6 a. Looks around at things nearby b. Brings things to the mouth c. Shows curiosity about things and tries to get things that are out of reach d. Begins to pass things from one hand to another 12 a. Explores things in different ways, like shaking, banging, throwing b. Finds hidden things easily c. Looks at the right picture or thing when it is named d. Copies gestures e. Starts to use things correctly (like drinks from a cup, brushes hair) f. Bangs two things together 42  Months Indications g. Puts things in a container, takes things out of a container h. Lets things go without help i. Pokes with index (pointer) finger j. Follows simple directions like "pick up the toy" 18 a. Knows what ordinary things are; for example, telephone, brush, spoon b. Points to get the attention of others c. Shows interest in a doll or stuffed animal by pretending to feed d. Point to one body part e. Scribbles on his own f. Can follow one-step verbal commands without any gestures; for example, sits when you say "sit down" 24 a. Finds things even when hidden under two or three covers b. Begins to sort shapes and colors c. Completes sentences and rhymes in familiar books d. Plays simple make-believe games e. Builds towers of four or more blocks f. Might use one hand more than the other g. Follows two-step directions like, "Pick up your shoes and put them in the closet" 36 a. Can work toys with buttons, levers, and moving parts b. Plays make-believe with dolls, animals, and people c. Does puzzles with three or four pieces d. Understands what "two" means e. Copies a circle with a pencil or crayon f. Turns book pages one at a time g. Builds towers of more than six blocks h. Screws and unscrews jar lids or turns door handles Factors that enhanced/impeded cognitive development and implications to child care and parenting Possible warning signs for cognitive development issues for infants and toddlers: a. Does not watch things as they move b. Does not bring things to mouth Mobile Infants c. Does not try to get things that are within reach d. Has difficulty getting things to mouth e. Does not play any games involving back-and-forth play (e.g., peek-a- boo) f. Does not seem to recognize familiar people g. Does not look where you point h. Does not transfer toys from one hand to another i. Does not learn gestures like waving or shaking head j. Loses skills they once had k. Does not search for things they see you hide toddlers l. Does not copy others m. Does not point to showing things to others n. Does not know what to do with common things, like a brush, phone, spoon o. Does not follow simple directions 43  p. Does not play pretend or make-believe (at 3 years) q. Loses skills they once had Understanding developmental milestones will help you know what kinds of learning experiences to plan in your classroom. Based on your knowledge of development, you can ensure that your interactions and activities are appropriate for individual children. Remember, milestones are markers that let us know if a child is growing optimally. As an infant toddler caregiver, do the following to support developmental milestones: a. Give infants and toddlers the safe space they need for movement and discovery (areas for climbing, crawling, pulling up, etc.) b. Offer safe, developmentally appropriate materials for exploring (foam blocks, board books, musical instruments, containers for sorting and filling, etc.) c. Provide a consistent, nurturing relationship with each infant and toddler. d. Read about the stages of development, especially for the ages of the children you serve. e. Post developmental milestone charts for reference and visual reminders. f. Recognize that children need different things from you as they move through the developmental stages. g. Observe children and document their progress regularly to determine where they are developmentally so you can both support and challenge their emerging skills. h. Remember that children are unique and progress at different rates and that one area of development may take longer than other areas. i. Consult with your administrator or teacher if you feel that there might be a concern with how a child is developing. Socio-emotional Development Through early relationships with nurturing and responsive adults, infants and toddlers learn how to be in relationships, how to get their needs and wants to be met, and how to identify and regulate emotions. Since these skills develop together, this area of development is referred to as social- emotional development or what we refer to here as socio-emotional development. Emotional well-being during the early years has a powerful impact on social relationships. Emotionally healthy children are better able to establish and maintain positive relationships with adults as well as with peers. Social-emotional development is essential to a young child's sense of well- being. Their first relationships help shape who they are, who they become, and their understanding of the world. The important people in young children's lives help lay the foundation for a range of social-emotional skills such as self- regulation, empathy, turn-taking, and sharing and positive relationships with adults and peers. 44 Milestones Months Indications 2 a. Calms easily b. Smiles at others c. Reacts positively when spoken to d. Appears to recognize and react to bottle or breast 4 a. Smiles to get someone’s attention b. Moves or makes sounds to get a reaction c. Giggles, but not yet a full laugh d. Plays with their own hands and fingers e. Smiles or coos at self in a mirror 6 a. Recognizes families' voices and faces b. Laughs c. Interested in self in a mirror d. Plays with own feet e. Tries to get a toy that is out of reach 9 a. May be shy around strangers b. Elicits various facial expressions c. Knows own name and looks when called d. Reacts when familiar adults leave the room e. Laughs and smiles during peek-a-boo 12 a. Plays social games like pat-a-cake b. Offers a toy when asked for it, but may not let go c. Helps dress self by lifting arm or leg d. Rolls a ball to another person 15 a. Copies simple and pleasurable actions b. Claps when happy or excited c. Hugs or kisses to a stuffed doll d. Shows familiar adult affection e. Points to ask for something or get help 18 a. Uses familiar adults as a secure base when playing b. Points to show adults something interesting or ask for help c. Looks like pages in a book with adult d. Helps with dressing by pushing arms through sleeves or legs through pants e. Copies adult actions such as wiping a table or combing hair 24 a. Observes and react when others are upset b. Looks to adults to understand how to react to new situations c. Treat stuffed animals or dolls like a baby (rocks, feds, diapers, etc.) d. Refers to self as "I" or "me" more often than using their name 30 a. Plays near other children and sometimes plays with them b. Understands and follows simple routines c. Copies adults d. Dresses in loose clothing 36 a. Joins peers in play b. Separates easily from a familiar adult c. Takes turns d. Shows a wide range of emotions 45 Factors that enhanced/impeded socio-emotional development and implications to child care and parenting Every child is born with his or her unique way of approaching the world. This is called temperament. Some young children, for example, are constantly on the move while others prefer to sit and watch the world around them. Some young children enjoy new experiences. Rothbart (1989) defines temperament as the individual personality differences in infants and young children. As Murphy and Moon (2010) describe in Babies and Their Senses, "infants and young children vary greatly in their interest in different sensory areas, in the intensity of their attention to sensory stimuli, and in their sensitivity to feelings of comfort and discomfort, familiarity and strangeness, and the emotional context in which sensory experiences occurrences and meeting new people while others are slower to warm up in new situations. Strategies: a. Think about ways to maintain physical closeness and offer gentle touch to help struggling infants and toddlers maintain a sense of control. b. You should always talk with a child's parents to learn about any changes in the home or other routines. c. You may recommend that parents contact their healthcare provider and ask about completing a developmental screening for their child to identify any possible developmental delays. d. Stay informed about any additional community resources and specialists who may offer additional support to the family or you. e. Observe the infant's or toddler's cues and responses to environmental stimuli. Think about ways to limit noise levels, for example or visual stimuli. f. Look for patterns of increased frustration or irritability in the infant or toddler during particular routines or times of the day. g. Think about ways to maintain physical closeness and offer gentle touch to help struggling infants and toddlers maintain a sense of control. You can promote the socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers in several ways: a. Respond to infants’ and toddlers’ needs with caring. b. Acknowledge an infant or toddler who points to a picture of himself or his family: “That’s right, Bobby that is a picture of you and your dad!” c. Model caring behaviors and empathy during all interactions. d. Read stories about feelings and show infants and toddlers pictures of people experiencing different emotions, like anger, sadness, happiness, and contentment. e. Build strong relationships with the families of infants and toddlers in your care. 46 Shaken Baby Syndrome Shaken Baby Syndrome (SBS) is a severe form of physical child abuse. It may be caused by vigorously shaking an infant by the shoulders, arms, or legs. The "whiplash" effect can cause intracranial (within the brain) or intraocular (within the eyes) bleeding. Often there is no obvious external head trauma. Still, children with SBS may display some outward signs: a. Change in sleeping pattern or inability to be awakened b. Confused, restless, or agitated state c. Convulsions or seizures d. Loss of energy or motivation e. Slurred speech f. Uncontrollable crying g. Inability to be consoled h. Inability to nurse or eat SBS can result in death, mental retardation or developmental delays, paralysis, severe motor dysfunction, spasticity, blindness, and seizures. It can also cause death or permanent brain damage or can result in life-long disability. Healthy strategies for dealing with a crying baby include: a. Finding the reason for the crying b. Checking for signs of illness or discomfort, such as diaper rash, teething, tight clothing c. Feeding or burping d. Soothing the baby by rubbing its back; gently rocking; offering a pacifier; singing or talking e. Taking a walk using a stroller or a drive in a properly-secured car seat f. Calling the doctor if sickness is suspected 47 Application Tasks: 1. Observe an infant or toddler in action. Make a chart that displays the types of development observed or not observed at all. Make a pre-recorded report of your findings. 2. Watch the video “Exploring Dirt and Grass" https://youtu.be/88aW1LHc6vY. Write your observation and present this to the class. Tool: Criteria for Grading the Presentation: a. Content 50% b. Design, Creativity, Voice 30% c. References 10% d. Timeliness 10% Total 100% 3. Be guided by this observation template. You may modify this to fit your actual needs and observations. 48  Developmental Milestone Checklist for Infants and Toddlers Observe an infant or toddler in action. You may also verify your observation by interviewing the child’s parent. Make a chart that displays the types of development observed or not observed at all. Check the appropriate boxes. Present your observation to the class. Age of the child: ______ Physical Development Milestone Has Child Attained Rating based on: Milestone? Implications to Child Care and Parenting Yes No Inconsistent Direct Observation Parent’s Report Cognitive Development Milestone Has Child Attained Rating based on: Milestone? Implications to Child Care and Parenting Yes No Inconsistent Direct Observation Parent’s Report  Socio-emotional Development Milestone Has Child Attained Rating Based on: Milestone? Implications to Child Care and Parenting Yes No Inconsistent Direct Observation Parent’s Report References Webpages Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Developmental milestones. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/milestones/index.html default - Stanford Medicine Children’s Health. (n.d.). https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/default?id=the-growing-child-3-year- olds-90-P02296 Paris, J., Ricardo, A., & Rymond, D. (nd). Chapter 4: Physical development in infancy and toddlerhod. https://wtcs.pressbooks.pub/infanttoddlerdev/chapter/chapter-4- physical- development-in-infancy-toddlerhood/ Virtual Lab School. (2021). Cognitive development. https://www.virtuallabschool.org/infant- toddler/cognitive-development/lesson-2 Virtual Lab School. (2021). Physical development. https://www.virtuallabschool.org/fcc/physicaldevelopment/lesson-2 Image Health and Parenting. (2016). What you need to know about your baby’s growth chart measurements [Online photo]. Philips Consumer Lifestyle. https://philips- digital.com/understanding-babys-growth-chart-measurements/ 51