British Administration in India PDF

16. British Administration in India – II (1858-1947) Lord Stanley, the President of the Board of Control, 16.1. Administrative Changes After 1858 and it became the G...

16. British Administration in India – II (1858-1947) Lord Stanley, the President of the Board of Control, 16.1. Administrative Changes After 1858 and it became the Government of India Act, 1858. The company's economic and administrative policies The Act transferred the power to govern India from caused widespread dissatisfaction, which, along with the East India Company to the British Crown and de- various other factors, led to the 1857 revolt. clared Queen Victoria as the sovereign of British In- Although the revolt of 1857 was completely sup- dia. pressed, it shook the foundations of British rule in  In actual practice, the power of the crown was ex- India. It forced the British to reorganise their admin- ercisable by the Secretary of State for India, a Min- istration and change their policies regarding Indian ister of Cabinet rank, who was to be assisted by an society, government, and economy. undersecretary and a council of fifteen members. As a result, significant changes were made to the The various changes introduced by the Act of 1858 structure and policies of the Indian government in the were formally announced by a proclamation of following decades. Queen Victoria on November 1, 1858. Lord Canning, Other reasons for the administrative changes were: at Allahabad, announced Queen Victoria’s proclama- 1. Intensification of the Industrial Revolution: Dur- tion to "the Princes, Chiefs and Peoples of India." ing the latter half of the 19th century, industriali- The Queen's proclamation, known as the Magna sation occurred in European nations, the USA Carta of the Indian people, disclaimed territorial ex- and Japan. This led to intense global competition tensions, promised religious toleration, guaranteed for markets, sources of raw materials and outlets the rights of Indian princes, and pledged equal treat- for capital investment. ment to Indians and Europeans. The proclamation  As newcomers emerged, Britain faced a chal- declared that: lenge to its dominant position in world capi-  Those who laid down arms by 2 January 1859 talism. In response, it made a vigorous effort would be pardoned except those directly in- to consolidate its control over its existing volved in the murder of British subjects empire and to expand it further.  Official service would be open to all 2. British Capital: After 1850, a significant amount  Due regard would be given to the ancient usages of British capital was invested in railways, loans and customs of India to the Government of India, tea plantations, coal  The Revolt of 1857 ended an era of annexations mining, jute mills, shipping, trade, and banking. and expansion and guaranteed the support for British rule in India needed to be strengthened “native princes”. It declared that princes could and enforced more strictly to ensure this British adopt any heirs they desired as long as they capital was safe from economic and political pledged their undying allegiance to the British risks. crown.  The year 1857 marks a significant shift in Indian Queen's Proclamation (1858) history, with British paramountcy in the first half On August 2, 1858, the British Parliament passed the and the growth of Indian nationalism in the sec- bill for the Better Government of India, introduced by ond half of the 19th century. PMF IAS British Administration in India – II (1858-1947) MIH – 201 MIH – 202 British Administration in India – II (1858-1947) PMF IAS Government of India Act 1858 Viceroy: The central administration in India re- mained in the Governor-General’s hands, who was As the Charter Act of 1853 did not give the EIC the also given the title of Viceroy or Crown's representa- right to govern India for another 20 years, it gave the tive. The viceroy was also responsible for diplomatic British Government an opportunity to step in and relations with the princely states. take the place of the EIC in India.  Lord Canning, the Governor-General, became the Changes brought by the Act of 1858 first Viceroy. He had the unique opportunity to be- come both the Governor-General and the first Transfer of Power: The Government of India passed Viceroy. from the hands of the English EIC to the crown, and Executive Council: An executive council of five mem- the company's armed forces were also transferred to bers was formed to help the Governor-General. The the crown. executive council members were to act as the heads  The Crown was empowered to appoint a Gover- of the departments and advisors to the Governor nor-General and the governors of the presiden- General. cies.  The Council discussed all important matters and Secretary of State: The Board of Control and Court of decided them by a majority vote, but the Gover- Directors were abolished and replaced by the Secre- nor-General had the power to override any im- tary of State of India and his India Council. The dual portant decision of the Council. control of the President of the Board of Control and In matters of policy and execution, the viceroy was in- the Directors of the Company was abolished, and all creasingly reduced to a subordinate position in rela- the authority was centred on the Secretary of State. tion to the British Government. The Government of The Secretary of State was a member of the British India was directly controlled by the Secretary of State Cabinet and, as such, responsible to British Parlia- from London. The viceroy was directly responsible to ment. Thus, the ultimate power over India remained the secretary of state for India. with Parliament. Control from London The Secretary of State was to be assisted by a Council of fifteen members, of whom at least nine would Before 1858 have served in India for not less than ten years and Through the various acts, the Government of India left India not more than ten years before their ap- was effectively controlled from London. But, the pointment to the Council. power to make important policy decisions rested  Lord Stanley was India's first Secretary of State for with the Governor-General, as instructions from India. London could take weeks to arrive. Therefore, control by the authorities in London Secretary of State: De facto Ruler was more of a post-facto evaluation and criticism The Secretary of State had the authority to override than actual direction. They supervised the admin- the decisions made by the India Council. However, istration of India but did not run it. the Council's approval was essential in financial mat- After 1858 ters. By 1870, a submarine cable was established The Secretary of State was given the power to send through the Red Sea, connecting England and In- and receive secret messages and dispatches from the dia. With this new means of communication, or- Governor General without communicating them to ders from London could be transmitted to India in the India Council. hours. After 1870, the Secretary of State controlled the mi- This allowed the Secretary of State to have con- nute details of administration and effectively be- stant and detailed control over the administration came the de facto government of India. This was pos- of India. sible because of the following developments: [UPSC 2014] What was/were the object/objects of  The Suez Canal was opened in 1869. Queen Victoria's Proclamation (1858)?  A direct cable line was laid between England and India in 1870. 1. To disclaim any intention to annex Indian  The voyages between the two countries were states shortened by the introduction of steam vessels. 2. To place the Indian Administration under the British Crown Central Administration 3. To regulate East India Company's trade with In- Government of India Act 1858 dia PMF IAS British Administration in India – II (1858-1947) MIH – 203  Select the correct answer from the following op- 2. Unrepresentative: The Indian members of the legis- tions. lative council were few and were not elected by the Indian people but were nominated by the Governor- a) 1 and 2 only General. b) 2 only  The earlier non-official members were mostly c) 1 and 3 only ruling princes, their diwans, or big landlords. d) 1 2 and 3 They were unrepresentative of the Indian peo- Answer: a)1 and 2 only ple or the growing nationalist opinion. The Indian Councils Act of 1861  In 1862, Lord Canning nominated three Indians to the council, namely, Maharaja Sir Narendra Singh The Indian Councils Act of 1861 increased the number of Patiala, Raja Sir Deo Narayan Singh of Benaras of members in the Governor-General's Executive and Sir Dinkar Rao of Gwalior. Council from 4 to 5. For legislative purposes, the Governor-General was Indian Councils Act of 1892 authorised to add six to twelve members to his Exec- In its first session, the Indian National Congress de- utive Council for two years. This expanded Council manded several changes in the administration, was called the Imperial Legislative Council. which resulted in the passage of the Act of 1892. In the expansion of the council: By the Act of 1892, the number of members in the  At least half had to be non-officials, both Euro- legislative council was increased from 10 to 16, but pean and Indian, not in the service of the Crown. the official majority was maintained. It empowered  The viceroy should nominate some Indians as the Council: non-official members.  To ask questions to the executive.  To indulge in a free and fair criticism of the gov- Executive Council ernment's policy. After the Regulating Act of 1773, the Governor-  To discuss the annual financial statement General was assisted by a council of four members. (budget). Pitt’s Act reduced the number of members of the Under this Act, the council had no right to vote on the Governor-General's Council to three. budget. The Charter Act of 1833 added one Law Member Thus, the act gave rights to the council, which were and expanded the number of members to Four. Parliamentary in nature. After the Government of India Act of 1858, the ex- Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley–Minto Reforms) ecutive council had five members because, for the The Indian Councils Act of 1909 was passed due to time being, the Commander-in-Chief was a mem- the increasing pressure from early Congress (moder- ber of the Governor General's Council. ates) to introduce reforms. It was named after Secre- The Indian Councils Act of 1861 increased the tary of State John Morley and Viceroy Lord Minto. number of members in the Governor-General's Ex- It increased the strength of the imperial legislative ecutive Council from four to five. council from 16 to 60, but the official majority was Expansion of the Governor-General’s legislative maintained. The additional members were both power nominated and elected. The approval of the Governor-General was required It made the provision for separate representation for for the bill passed by the legislature to become an act. Muslims, which was the beginning of communal rep- Governor-General’s Ordinances had the validity of an resentation, which logically led to the partition of the Act. country on a communal basis. It empowered the Governor-General to nominate Limitations of the Imperial Legislative Council one Indian Member to his Executive Council. 1. Toothless Body: The Imperial Legislative Council was It empowered the Council: merely an advisory body with no real powers.  To ask supplementary questions (though re-  It had no control over the executive and the stricted): The member who asked the original Budget. question was given the right to ask supplemen-  It could not discuss the administrative decisions; tary questions. the members could not even ask questions about  To vote on some part of the budget (the votable them. part).  The Secretary of State had the power to invali-  To move the resolution on the matters of public date any Act passed by the Legislative Council. interest. MIH – 204 British Administration in India – II (1858-1947) PMF IAS  17. Indian Nationalism and Indian National Congress Every class and every section of Indian society grad- 17.1. Birth of Indian Nationalism ually discovered that its interests were suffering at The second half of the 19th century witnessed the the hands of the foreign rulers. This led to the devel- rise of national political consciousness and the opment of an anti-imperialist movement. This was a growth of an organised national movement in India. national movement because it united people from Indian nationalism emerged both in response to and different classes and sections of society who sank as a result of colonial policies. their mutual differences to unite against the com-  Response to British Policies: British rule affected mon enemy. the Indian people and helped the growth of na- Recognising the Impact tional consciousness. Peasants  Result of British Policies: The uniform system of The peasant saw that: administration, development of post and tele-  The government took away a large part of his pro- graph, railways, printing press and educational duce as land revenue. institutions developed by the British provided fa-  The government and its machinery favoured and vourable conditions for the rise and growth of protected the zamindars and landlords. the national movement. Artisan and Handicraftsman Factors Contributing to National Consciousness The artisan or the handicraftsman saw that the for- The following factors were responsible for the devel- eign regime had helped foreign competitors to ruin opment of national consciousness among Indians. them and had done nothing to rehabilitate them. 1. Foreign domination Workers 2. Administrative and economic unification of the In the 20th century, the workers in modern factories, country mines, and plantations found that the government 3. Western thought and education sided with the capitalists, especially the foreign cap- 4. Socio-religious reform movements italists. 5. Role of press and literature The workers realised that rapid industrialisation 6. Rediscovery of India’s past could curb growing unemployment, but it could only 7. Racial discrimination happen with an independent government. 8. The reactionary regime of Lord Lytton and Ilbert Educated Indians Bill controversy The rising intelligentsia (educated Indians) used their Consequence of Foreign Domination newly acquired modern knowledge to understand the The very foreign character of the British rule pro- poor economic and political condition of their coun- duced patriotic sentiments and helped the growth of try. national consciousness among the Indian people. Economic Condition: The educated Indians recog- The British rule and its direct and indirect conse- nised that: quences provided conditions for developing a na-  Britain was reducing India to the status of an tional movement in India. The national movement economic colony, a source of raw materials for was the product of the conflict of interests between British industries, and a market for British manu- Britain and India. factures. MIH – 216 Indian Nationalism and Indian National Congress PMF IAS   Economic exploitation by Britain was increasing The destruction of the rural and local self-sufficient India's poverty. economy made India’s economic life interdependent. Moreover, the Indian intelligentsia suffered from For example, if there is a famine or scarcity in one growing unemployment. Thus, educated Indians part of India, it affects the prices and availability of found that the economic development of the country foodstuffs in all other parts of the country. and its freedom from foreign control alone could pro- The presence of foreign rule acted as a unifying fac- vide them with better employment opportunities. tor. All over the country, people saw that they were Political Condition: The educated Indians discovered suffering at the hands of the same enemy - British that the British had abandoned their previous claims rule. As a result, anti-imperialist sentiment became a of guiding India towards self-government. They de- unifying factor in the country, leading to a common clared Indians unfit for democracy or self-govern- national outlook. ment and justified British rule in India. Western Thought and Education  The educated Indians also found the government increasingly restricting freedom of speech, As a result of the spread of modern Western educa- press, and person instead of increasing it. tion and thought during the 19th century, many Indi- Capitalist Class ans imbibed a modern, rational, secular, democratic, and nationalist political outlook. The rising Indian capitalist class was slow to develop These educated Indians recognised the true nature a national political consciousness. However, it grad- of the British rule and were the first to feel the hu- ually realised that it was suffering due to imperialism. miliation of foreign subjection. Over time, the best It found that that:  The government trade, tariff, taxation, and among them became the leaders and organisers of transport policies severely checked its growth. the national movement.  The Government and its bureaucracy favoured However, the modern educational system did not cre- foreign capitalists. ate the national movement. The national movement Therefore, Indian capitalists recognised a contradic- was the product of the conflict of interests between tion between imperialism and their independent Britain and India. The modern educational system growth. They realised that only a national govern- only enabled the educated Indians to learn Western ment could create conditions for the rapid develop- values and ideas, which helped them to assume the ment of Indian trade and industries. national movement's leadership and give it a demo- cratic and modern direction. Zamindars, Landlords and Princes In other Asian countries such as China and Indonesia Zamindars, landlords, and princes supported the for- and all over Africa, modern and nationalist ideas eign rule because their interests coincided with those spread even though modern schools and colleges ex- of the foreign rulers. However, many individuals from isted on a much smaller scale. these classes joined the national movement as patri- otism appealed to them in the prevailing nationalist English: A Common Language atmosphere. Modem education also created a certain uniformity. Administrative and Economic Unification of the The English became the medium for the spread of Country modern ideas. It also became the medium of com- munication and exchange of ideas between educated Nationalist sentiments grew easily among the people Indians from different linguistic regions of the coun- because India was unified and welded into a nation try. during the 19th and 20th centuries. However, it is important to note that this should not Administrative Unification be overemphasised. Historically, educated Indians The British gradually introduced a uniform and mod- shared a common language in the form of Sanskrit ern system of administration (ICS, Police, Military, and later in Persian. Unified Judiciary) throughout the country, thus unify- English: A Barrier to the Spread of Knowledge ing it administratively. English soon became a barrier to the spread of mod- The introduction of the railways, telegraphs, and uni- ern knowledge among the common people. In reality, fied postal system (though for their interest) brought the spread of modern ideas among the common the different parts of the country together and pro- people in India was largely facilitated by the growth moted mutual contact among the people, especially of literature in Indian languages and, most im- among the leaders. portantly, the widespread presence of the Indian lan- Economic Unification guage press. PMF IAS Indian Nationalism and Indian National Congress MIH – 217   The modern ideas spread faster and deeper in society. This weakened the struggle against social many countries where they were propagated and cultural backwardness. through indigenous languages.  The tendency to acknowledge the ancient heritage of India, ignoring the significant achievements of the Socio-religious Reform Movements medieval period, led to the growth of communal ten- In the 19th century, the social reform movements of sions between Hindus and Muslims. leading intellectuals removed evil practices and Racial discrimination bridged the gap between different sections of Indian society. They worked towards abolishing untoucha- The British, driven by racial arrogance, labelled all In- bility and caste rigidity, which greatly contributed to dians as inferior and often prohibited them from national unity and the awakening of national con- sharing train compartments with Europeans. This sciousness. made Indians conscious of national humiliation and led them to think of themselves as one people when Role of Press and Literature facing Englishmen. This discrimination contributed to The press played an important role in developing na- the growth of national consciousness. tional consciousness among the Indians. Immediate Factors The nationalist-minded Indians used the press to spread the message of patriotism and created an all- Reactionary Regime of Lord Lytton India consciousness. In their columns: Lord Lytton was the Governor-General of India from  The official policies were constantly criticised. 1876-80. He viewed the aspirations of educated Indi-  The Indian point of view was put forward. ans with contempt and followed openly reactionary  The ideas of self-government, democracy, indus- and anti-Indian policies. During his viceroyalty from trialisation, etc., were popularised. 1876-80: Art and Literature  Most of the import duties on British textile im- National literature in the form of novels, songs, and ports were removed. Indians saw this action as plays also played an important role in arousing na- evidence of the British intention to destroy In- tional consciousness. Through these songs and plays: dia's small textile industry.  Nationalism and patriotism were propagated  The Second War against Afghanistan was fought.  Indigenous arts and crafts were promoted This aroused agitation against the heavy cost of  British policies were blamed for deteriorating this imperialist war. the economic conditions of the people  The Arms Act of 1878 and The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 were enacted. These laws were dis- Examples: Neel Darpan highlighted the atrocities criminatory and thus condemned by the politi- committed by indigo planters. cally conscious Indians.  Bankim Chandra Chatterji’s Anandmath contains the patriotic song 'Bande Mataram’.  Under the Arms Act, Indians were made to pay a license fee in order to possess a weapon, but Eu- Rediscovery of India’s Past ropeans and Eurasians were exempted from doing Many British officials and writers constantly advanced so. Special concessions were also given to land- the thesis that Indians had never been able to rule holders. themselves in the past. Many Indians had fallen so  The imperial Durbar at Delhi was held in 1877 low as to have lost confidence in their capacity for when the country was suffering from a terrible self-government. famine. This led people to believe that rulers Many of the nationalist leaders countered this prop- cared very little. aganda to arouse the people's self-confidence and  In 1878, the maximum age limit for sitting in the self-respect. They pointed to India's cultural heritage Indian Civil Service Examination was reduced and the political achievements of rulers like Ashoka, from 21 years to 19. It was seen as a step to pre- Chandragupta, Vikramaditya, and Akbar. This gave vent Indians from appearing in the examination. the Indians confidence that they could govern them- The Indians realised that the British had no inten- selves. tion of relaxing their monopoly of the higher Negative Impact grades of services in the administration. Thus, Lytton’s viceroyalty intensified discontent  Some of the nationalists went to the other extreme against foreign rule and contributed to the growth of and began to glorify India’s past, uncritically ignoring national consciousness. its weakness and backwardness. A false sense of pride prevented Indians from looking critically at their Ilbert Bill Controversy MIH – 218 Indian Nationalism and Indian National Congress PMF IAS  In 1883, Ripon tried to pass a law to enable Indian themselves on a national scale and agitate continu- district magistrates and session judges to try Europe- ously and unitedly. ans in criminal cases. It was a very meagre effort to Lord Ripon remove a glaring instance of racial discrimination. Lord Ripon was the Governor-General of India The Europeans in India organised a vehement agita- from 1880-84. He wanted to harness the talents of tion against this Bill. They declared that even the most the educated classes to strengthen British Rule. highly educated among the Indians were unfit to try Ripon repealed the Vernacular Press Act, pro- a European. Ultimately, the Government of India moted local self-government institutions, encour- bowed before the Europeans and amended the Bill to aged the spread of education, and ended the Af- meet their criticism. ghan War. Indians organised an all-India campaign in favour of However, Ripon’s policy could not proceed beyond the Bill. They learned that to get their demands ac- certain limits because of the constraints imposed cepted by the government, they must organise by the very character of British rule in India. 17.2. Predecessors of the Indian National Congress Before 1858 Raja Rammohun Roy was the first Indian leader to start an agitation for political reforms in India. Many public asso- ciations were started in different parts of India after 1836. These include: Political Associations Year of Foundation Region Founders Bangabhasha prakasika sabha 1836 Bengal Presidency Associates of Raja Rammohun Roy Landholders’ Society / 1837 Bengal Presidency Zamindari association Bengal British Indian Society 1843 Bengal Presidency British India Association 1851 Bengal Presidency Madras Native Association 1852 Madras Presidency Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty Bombay Association 1852 Bombay Presidency Jagannath Shankar Sheth Landholders’ Society / Zamindari Association (1837) which only represented the interests of the landed aristocracy, the Bengal British India Society had a Zamindari Association, established in 1837, is consid- broader objective, i.e., to protect and promote gen- ered the first political association of modern India. eral public interests. Later, it was renamed the Landholders' Society. It was an association of the landlords of Bengal, Bi- Political Organisations After 1850 har, and Orissa. Raja Radhakant Deb, Dwarkanath Ta- The Charter of the British EIC was due for renewal in gore, Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Rajkamal Sen, and 1853. The educated Indians felt the need to express Bhabani Charan Mitra were among its prominent their views to the authorities in London, which re- members. sulted in the establishment of new associations in dif- Its objective was to promote the class interests of the ferent parts of the country. landlords through petitions to the government and 1. British India Association (1851) was formed by discreet persuasion of the bureaucracy. It also de- merging the Zamindari Association and the Ben- manded an extension of the permanent settlement gal British Indian Society. of land all over India and reforms in the judiciary, the 2. Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty founded the police, and the revenue departments. Madras Native Association (1852). Though it failed to take root in areas outside the Ben- 3. Jagannath Shankar Sheth founded the Bombay gal Presidency, the Landholders' Society inaugurated Association (1852). a new course of modern institutional politics in India. These associations sent petitions suggesting changes Bengal British Indian Society (1843) in EIC’s Charter. The petitioners demanded:  Appointment of Indians in the legislative bodies. The Bengal British India Society was established in  Abolition of the Company's monopoly on salt Calcutta in 1843. and indigo. Like the Zamindari Association, it was a loyalist or-  Bigger share for the Indians in the administra- ganisation based on limited Indo-British collabora- tion. tion. However, unlike the Zamindari Association,  Improvement in the condition of peasants. PMF IAS Indian Nationalism and Indian National Congress MIH – 219  18. Moderate Nationalism (1885-1905) political action of the Indian people and the strength 18.1. Moderate Nationalism of the Indian people themselves. The history of the Indian National Movement can be Who were the Moderates? studied in three phases: During the early years (1885-1905), the Indian Na- 1. The phase of moderate nationalism (1885-1905) tional Congress (INC), though represented the entire 2. The phase of militant nationalism (1906-1916) nation, members of some classes, castes, occupa- 3. The Gandhian era (1917-1947) tions and provinces were more conspicuous than During The first twenty years (1885-1905), moderate others. The INC was dominated by: leaders dominated the Congress. This phase of the  Members of the educated middle class Congress is known as the Moderate phase.  Members of the Brahmin caste During this period, the leaders were cautious in their  Members from Bombay, Bengal and Madras demands. They did not want to annoy the govern- presidencies ment and incur the risk of suppression of their activ-  Lawyers ities. In short, the Congress was by and large a middle-class Not all the nationalists of this period belonged to the affair, and it was but natural that the majority of the moderate trend. Some were extremists or radical na- members of the INC belonged to the middle class dur- tionalists. Tilak and numerous other leaders repre- ing the early years since it was this class that took to sented this trend. They had no faith in the British's modern education and played a pioneering role in its good intentions. They believed in depending on the foundation. The Programme and Activities of the Early Nationalists Early nationalist leaders believed that the immediate moderate constitutional reforms, economic relief, goal was not direct political emancipation but rather administrative reorganisation and defence of civil arousing national sentiment, bringing Indians into rights. national politics, and training them in politics and po- Constitutional Reforms litical agitation. The early nationalists made an effort:  To organise public opinion in the country. From the beginning, the moderates (early national-  To formulate popular demands country-wide so ists) believed that India should eventually move to- that the emerging public opinion might have an wards democratic self-government. However, they all-India focus. were extremely cautious and did not ask for the im- mediate fulfilment of their goal. The early leaders of India were fully aware that India had just begun the process of becoming a nation. The moderates hoped to win freedom through grad- Therefore, Indians had to be carefully united into a ual steps. Their immediate demands were extremely single nation, disregarding their regional, caste or re- moderate. They wanted a larger share in the govern- ligious differences. The economic and political de- ment of their own country and demanded the expan- mands of the early nationalists were formulated with sion and reform of the Legislative Councils. a view to unifying the Indian people. The British Government was forced by their agitation and passed the Indian Councils Act of 1892. By this Demands of Moderates Act: The Congress programme during the first phase  The number of non-official members of the Im- (1885-1905) was modest. Moderates demanded perial Legislative Council and the provincial PMF IAS Moderate Nationalism (1885-1905) MIH – 225  councils was increased, but the official majority 1. Indianisation of the higher grades of administra- was retained. tive services: The early nationalists made this de-  The councils were allowed to discuss the annual mand on economic, political, and moral budgets, though they could not vote on them. grounds. The nationalists were dissatisfied with the Act of  Economically, the European monopoly of 1892 and declared it a hoax. They demanded: higher services was harmful on two grounds:  Majority of Indians in the councils I. Europeans were paid at very high rates,  Wider powers to the councils making the Indian administration very  Indian control over the public purse (budget) costly. Indians of similar qualifications and raised the slogan ‘No taxation without rep- could be employed at lower salaries. resentation’. II. Europeans sent a large part of their sal- By the beginning of the 20th century, the nationalist aries and pensions to England, which leaders advanced further. They put forward the claim contributed to the drain of wealth from for swarajya or self-government within the British India. Empire on the model of self-governing colonies like  Politically, the Indianisation of these services Australia and Canada. would make the administration more re- Gokhale demanded self-government from the Con- sponsive to Indian needs. gress platform in 1905 (at Banaras), which was later  Morally, the Indianisation of services would explicitly stated by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1906 (at Cal- limit the discriminatory policy of the British, cutta). who kept Indians out of higher posts. 2. Separation of the judiciary from executive pow- Economic Reforms ers. The early nationalists explained how the British were 3. Greater opportunities for Indians in higher posts exploiting Indians. Dadabhai Naoroji, in his book by holding the Indian Civil Service examination “Poverty and un-British Rule in India,” put forward simultaneously in England and India. the “drain theory” to explain the British exploitation 4. The spread of primary education among the of India. masses and Greater technical and higher educa- Dadabhai showed how India’s wealth was going tion facilities. away to England through salaries, savings, pensions, 5. The extension of medical and health facilities. payments to British troops in India and profits of the 6. Development of agricultural banks to save the British companies. This forced the British Govern- peasants from the clutches of the moneylender. ment to appoint the Welby Commission, with Da- 7. A large-scale irrigation extension programme for dabhai as the first Indian to be its member, to enquire the development of agriculture and to save the about the matter. country from famines. The early nationalists blamed the policies of the Brit- 8. The better treatment for Indian labour abroad in ish rulers for: other British colonies, where they faced oppres-  Growing poverty and economic backwardness sion and racial discrimination.  Failure of development of modem industry and 9. Improve the police system to make it honest, ef- agriculture. ficient, and popular.  Destruction of India’s indigenous industries. The early nationalists opposed the official policy of Their proposed solution for ending poverty in India disarming the people and asked the government to was to develop modern industries rapidly. They trust them and grant them the right to bear arms. wanted the government to promote modern indus- They also opposed the aggressive foreign policy tries through tariff protection and direct government against India’s neighbours. aid. They popularised the idea of swadeshi (use of In-  Under the Arms Act of 1878, Indians were made dian goods) and the boycott of British goods to pro- to pay a license fee to possess a weapon, but Eu- mote Indian industries. ropeans and Eurasians were exempted from doing The early nationalists demanded: so. Special concessions were also given to land-  Abolition of the salt tax. holders.  Reduction of land revenue. Defence of Civil Rights  Reduction of high military expenditure. From the beginning, the politically conscious Indians Administrative Reforms had been powerfully attracted not only to democracy The following were the demands of the early nation- but also to modern civil rights, namely, the freedoms alists in the administrative sphere. of speech, the Press, thought and association. They MIH – 226 Moderate Nationalism (1885-1905) PMF IAS  put up a strong defence of these civil rights whenever India's interests at that stage of history, and the time the Government tried to curtail them. was not yet ripe to challenge the foreign rulers di- Methods of Political Work rectly. Later, when British rule did not accept most of their demands, many stopped talking about loyalty to Moderates dominated the Indian national move- British rule and started demanding self-government ment up to 1905. The political methods of the Mod- for India. erates can be summed up briefly as constitutional ag- Role of Masses itation within the four walls of the law. They believed that if public opinion was created and The moderate phase of the national movement had popular demands were presented to the authorities a narrow social base. It did not penetrate the masses, through petitions, meetings, resolutions, and and the masses played a passive role. This was be- speeches, they would concede these demands grad- cause the early nationalists lacked political faith in ually and step by step. Therefore, their political work them. had a two-pronged direction: The early nationalists felt that society was divided 1. To build strong public opinion in India into many groups, and these different groups had to 2. To persuade the British Government to intro- be welded into a nation before entering the political duce reforms along the directions laid down by sphere. However, they overlooked the fact that these the nationalists. distinct groups could only come together during a The moderate nationalists believed that the British freedom struggle. people and Parliament wanted to be just to India but Because the moderates failed to actively involve the they did not know the true state of affairs there. masses, they could not gain their support and, there- Therefore, next to educating public opinion, the mod- fore, could not adopt a more militant political stance. erate nationalists worked to educate British public However, the narrow social base of the early national opinion. For this purpose, they carried on active movement did not mean that it fought for the nar- propaganda in Britain. row interests of the social groups which joined it. Its  A British Committee of the Indian National Con- programme and policies championed the cause of all gress was founded in 1889. In 1890, this Commit- sections of the Indian people and represented the in- tee started a journal called India. terests of the emerging Indian nation against colonial  Dadabhai Naoroji spent most of his life and in- rule. come in England, popularising India's case Attitude of the Government among its people. He got elected to the British House of Commons and formed a strong Indian From the beginning, the British authorities were hos- lobby in that House. tile to the rising nationalist movement and had be- To sum up, the political work of the Moderates was come suspicious of the National Congress. In the be- based on the hard reality of the life of the people ra- ginning, this hostility was not openly expressed. It ther than on narrow appeals to religion, mere emo- was perhaps hoped that Hume’s leadership would tion or shallow sentiments. make the national movement and its organ, the Na- Press and the Annual Sessions of Congress tional Congress, harmless to British rule. But soon, the National Congress emerged as a prom- The early nationalists believed in the power of peace- inent force for Indian nationalism, and British offi- ful and constitutional agitation. They relied on the cials began to criticise and condemn the Congress press and the platform at the annual sessions to and other nationalist spokesmen openly. They la- spread their message. belled the leaders as disloyal babus, seditious brah- However, since the Congress sessions lasted only mins, and violent villains. In 1887, Dufferin publicly three days each year, the press was the only means of attacked the National Congress and mocked it as rep- disseminating Congress propaganda throughout the resenting only a microscopic minority of the people. year. When the growing unity of the Indian people posed Loyalty to the British Rule a major threat to their rule, the British authorities It is believed that moderates were loyal to the Brit- used the policy of 'divide and rule'. ish. However, the professions of loyalty to British rule  They encouraged Sayyid Ahmed Khan, Raja by prominent moderate leaders do not mean that Shiva Prasad of Benaras, and other pro-British in- they were not patriots. dividuals to start an anti-Congress movement. Moderates genuinely believed that the continuation  They tried to drive a wedge between Hindus and of India’s political connection with Britain was in Muslims. PMF IAS Moderate Nationalism (1885-1905) MIH – 227  19. Nationalist Movement 1905-1918 parallel to those of the British at the level of vil- 19.1. Militant Nationalism lages, talukas and districts. The rise of militant nationalism in India was evident The extremists saw the struggle against foreign rule in the movement against the partition of Bengal in as a full-time activity and devoted their whole lives 1905. However, this extremism did not emerge sud- to it. denly in the early 1900s. Instead, it had been slowly They also used popular symbols like Shivaji and reli- growing since the Revolt of 1857. gious symbols like God Ganapati and Goddess Kali to Unlike moderates, the extremist leaders did not be- mobilise the people. lieve in the goodness of British rule or their sense of Role of Masses justice and fair play. The extremists emphasised the role of the masses. There were three groups of the Extremists (militant They aimed to prepare the masses for the struggle to nationalists or radical nationalists): gain ‘Swaraj’ by educating, uniting, and instilling a 1. The Maharashtra group, headed by B.G. Tilak sense of self-respect, self-reliance, and pride in their 2. The Bengal group, represented by B.C. Pal and ancient heritage. Aurobindo The extremists believed in the capacity of people and 3. The Punjab group led by Lala Lajpat Rai demanded self-sacrifice from the youth. Methods of Work Nationalism and Indian Religious Traditions The extremists' method of agitation went beyond pe- titions and speeches. They advocated persistent op- The extremists' concept of nationalism was emotion- position to the Government and put forward a mili- ally charged and based on a rich interpretation of In- tant programme of passive resistance and boycott of dian religious traditions. foreign goods, courts, education and so on. The Extremist leaders tried to reorient Indian reli- The extremists advocated the following activities: gious traditions to worldly life and link them with the 1. Boycott of foreign goods and promotion of Swa- national liberation struggle. deshi goods to give impetus to the growth of in-  Aurobindo Ghose reinterpreted Vedanta philos- digenous industry and commerce. ophy, which advocated the unity of man and God 2. Non-cooperation with the bureaucracy, including and based his concept of nationalism on it. To a ‘boycott’ of governmental activities. him, national work was the work of God, which 3. The establishment of schools and colleges that should be done in the spirit of Karma Yoga be- provided education in the Indian languages and cause the true nationalist was an ideal Karma Yogi instilled in the students pride in India's glorious who performed his functions in the spirit of self- heritage and made the students nationalistic, lessness. public-spirited, knowledgeable, self-reliant, and  Tilak reinterpreted the Gita's message in his fa- independent in spirit. mous book, Gita Rahasya. According to Tilak, the 4. Passive resistance to British rule by non-pay- Gita emphasises the importance of selfless ac- ment of revenue and taxes and by organising tion with full self-knowledge rather than Bhakti separate ‘indigenous administrative institutions’ or Sanyasa. He believed that national work MIH – 236 Nationalist Movement 1905-1918 PMF IAS  aimed at promoting general welfare was a form religion and politics. Their concept of nationhood en- of selfless action. compassed all religions in India.  The extremists conceived the nation as ‘Mother Though the ‘Dharma’ advocated by leaders like Tilak India’, which represented a united power or and Lajpat Rai looked like it had a Hindu connotation, Shakti of millions of her children. for the extremists, it meant ‘universal moral law’ un- The Extremist leaders used religious symbols to der whose unifying influence the different religions arouse the masses; however, they did not mix and communities in India would coexist peacefully. Moderates Extremists Perspectives Believed in the appeals to Did not Believe in the appeals to the British. on British the British. Denied that India could progress under the benevolent Rule Believed that British rule guidance and control of the English. could be reformed within. Demands Initial: Constitutional reforms Complete independence for India, having no connection with and a greater share of Indians in Britain. the administration. Later: Self-government within the British Empire. Influence Western political ideas and Indian history, culture and tradition. practices, especially the liberal philosophy. Methods of Constitutional agitation within Passive resistance and boycott of foreign cloth, courts, educa- Political Work the four walls of the law. tion and so on. Role of the Lacked political faith in the Believed in the capacity of people and demanded self-sacri- Masses masses. fice from the youth. Connection Believed that India's connection Believed that British rule was responsible for India's economic with the Brit- with the British would benefit ruin and that India's connection with the British would perpet- ish India. uate the British exploitation of India. Reasons For the Rise of Militant Nationalism action and methods than those of meetings, peti- tions, memorials, and speeches in the legislative The following factors were responsible for the rise of councils. militant nationalism: Recognition of the True Nature of British Rule 1. Failure of Moderate Politics 2. Recognition of the True Nature of British Rule The politics of the moderate nationalists were 3. Growth of Education and Unemployment founded on the belief that British rule could be re- 4. Growth of Self-respect and Self-confidence formed from within. However, the spread of 5. Existence of a Militant Nationalist School of knowledge regarding political and economic ques- Thought tions gradually undermined this belief. Politically con- 6. International Influences scious Indians were convinced that the purpose of 7. Administration of Lord Curzon British rule was to exploit India economically. The political events of 1892 to 1905 also disap- Failure of Moderate Politics pointed the nationalists and made them think of In its early days, moderates exposed the evil charac- more radical politics. ter of British rule and increasingly made a large num-  The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was a complete ber of people conscious of the evils of foreign domi- disappointment. nation.  The Natu brothers were deported in 1897 with- The moderates presented popular demands before out being tried; even the charges against them the government; however, the British Government were not made public. did not accept any important demands. Hence, the  In 1897, Lokamanya Tilak and other newspaper people were disillusioned with the principles and editors were sentenced to long terms of impris- methods of the moderates. onment for arousing the people against the for- At the end of the 19th century, a strong feeling arose eign government. among the people that more radical political action  In 1898, a law made it an offence to excite feel- was needed to force the British to accept popular de- ings of disaffection towards a foreign govern- mands. They demanded more vigorous political ment. PMF IAS Nationalist Movement 1905-1918 MIH – 237  All these events convinced the people that it was use- Several events abroad during this period exploded less to expect any political and economic advance as the myth of European superiority and encouraged long as Britain ruled India. Thus, an increasing num- the growth of militant nationalism in India. These in- ber of Indians were convinced that self-government clude: was essential for the country's economic, political,  The defeat of the Italian army by the Ethiopians and cultural progress. in 1896 Growth of Education and Unemployment  The Boer War in South Africa (1899-1902), where the British faced reverses By the end of the 19th century, the number of edu-  The defeat of Russia by Japan in 1905 cated Indians had increased perceptively, but em- All these events convinced the Indians that a united ployment opportunities were few. As a result, many people willing to make sacrifices could challenge educated Indians worked in the administration on ex- even the most powerful despotic governments. tremely low salaries, while many others increasingly faced unemployment. Administration of Lord Curzon The economic plight of educated Indians made them Lord Curzon believed in the despotic imperialism. His look critically at the nature of British rule. They recog- administration increased the anger of the national- nised that British rule was responsible for their suf- ists. Here are some of the administrative decisions he fering and that only the Indian government could made. bring prosperity. Many of them were attracted by 1. Calcutta Municipal Amendment Act of 1899: In 1899, radical nationalist politics, which demanded self- Lord Curzon reduced the number of elected mem- rule. bers in the Calcutta Corporation, deeply hurting the The educated Indians became the best propagators city's citizens. and followers of militant nationalism because they 2. An assault on the autonomous character of Calcutta were low-paid or unemployed and educated in mod- University: Curzon passed the Universities Act ern thought, politics, and European and world history. (1904), which cut down the number of elected sen- Growth of Self-respect and Self-confidence ate members (mostly Indians).  It also transferred the ultimate power of affiliat- By the end of the 19th century, Indian nationalists had ing colleges and schools along with providing acquired faith in their capacity to govern themselves. them grants-in-aid to Government officials. Leaders like Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal preached the  The nationalists saw the Indian Universities Act message of self-respect and asked the nationalists to of 1904 as an attempt to bring Indian universities rely on the character and capacities of the Indian under tighter official control and to check the people. growth of higher education. They taught the people that the remedy to their sad 3. The Indian Official Secret Amendment Act of 1904 condition lay in their own hands. The belief in self-ef- restricted the freedom of the press. People found fort also created an urge to extend the national that instead of giving more political power to Indians, movement to the masses instead of relying on a few they were taking away their existing rights. upper-class, educated Indians. 4. Partition of Bengal: In July 1905, Curzon announced Existence of a Militant Nationalist School of Thought the partition of Bengal. Bengali nationalists firmly op- From the beginning of the national movement, a posed the partition. They saw it as a deliberate at- school of militant nationalism existed there. This tempt to divide the Bengalis and weaken national- school was represented by leaders like Rajnarain ism in Bengal. Bose, Ashwini Kumar Dutt and Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar. The most outstanding leaders of militant 19.2. Partition of Bengal nationalism were Lokamanya Tilak, Bipin Chandra The Bengal region was originally made up of Bengal, Pal, Aurobindo Ghose, and Lala Lajpat Rai. Bihar, Orissa, and Assam. However, with a popula- The militant nationalists had deep faith in the tion of approximately 80 million, it had become too strength of the masses. They believed that Indians large and difficult to manage administratively. A ter- themselves must work out their salvation. They ritorial reorganisation of Bengal was necessary to en- aimed to attain Swaraj through mass action and de- sure equal development of all areas and administra- clared it as the ultimate objective of the national tive ease. movement. On 19 July 1905, Lord Curzon issued an order dividing International Influences the province of Bengal into two parts: MIH – 238 Nationalist Movement 1905-1918 PMF IAS  1. Eastern Bengal and Assam, with a population of The nationalists pointed out that administrative effi- 31 million ciency could have been better secured by separating 2. The rest of Bengal (Western Bengal, Bihar, and the Hindi-speaking Bihar and the Oriya-speaking Orissa) with a population of 54 million (18 million Orissa from the Bengali-speaking part of the prov- Bengalis and 36 million Biharis and Oriyas). ince. The official reason for the decision was that the exist- The Motive Behind the Partition ing province of Bengal was too big to be efficiently ad- The partition of the state intended to: ministered by a single provincial government, and  Curb Bengali influence by placing Bengalis under partition would help develop Assam. two administrations and reducing them to a mi- Opposition by Nationalists nority in Bengal itself (18 million Bengalis and 36 million Biharis and Oriyas). The Indian National Congress (INC) and the national-  Divide Hindus and Muslims and make use of the ists of Bengal firmly opposed the partition. They saw Muslims to counter-balance the Hindus. the act of partition as a deliberate attempt to divide  Weaken the nerve centre of Indian nationalism, the Bengalis and weaken nationalism in Bengal. i.e. Calcutta. The Anti-Partition Movement (Swadeshi and Boycott Movement) The Anti-Partition Movement was the work of the The decision by the British government to divide Ben- entire national leadership of Bengal and not of any gal was announced in December 1903. This news one section of the movement. sparked immediate protests from the public. From The most prominent leaders of the movement at the 1903 to 1905, the movement was led by moderates initial stage were moderate leaders like Suren- such as Surendranath Banerjee, K.K. Mitra, and Prith- dranath Banerjee. Militant and revolutionary nation- wishchandra Ray. alists took over in the later stages. In fact, both the The moderates’ methods included submitting peti- moderate and militant nationalists cooperated during tions to the government, organising public meetings, the movement. writing memoranda, and spreading propaganda through pamphlets and newspapers. The goal was to Movement under Moderates (1903-05) create enough pressure on the government through PMF IAS Nationalist Movement 1905-1918 MIH – 239  20. Gandhi's Formative Years and Early Activism sugar plantations and a few merchants with their 20.1. Emergence of Gandhi clerks and assistants. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on 2nd Oc- They were subjected to all kinds of racial discrimina- tober 1869 at Porbandar in Gujarat. In 1882, he mar- tion in their daily life: ried Kasturba Makanji, and they had five children to-  Every Indian in South Africa was contemptuously gether. a 'coolie', which meant a labourer. Hence an In- dian doctor was a coolie doctor, and Gandhiji Gandhi in London (1888-91) himself was a coolie barrister. Gandhi wanted to go to London to study law, but his  The Indians could not walk on footpaths or be caste was upset because they thought travelling out without a permit at night. across the ocean would make him impure. Despite  They were prohibited from travelling in first and their objections, Gandhi reached Southampton, Eng- second-class railway compartments. land, on September 29, 1888, at the age of 18.  They were not permitted to enter hotels exclu- In 1889, Gandhi encountered the Theosophical Soci- sively reserved for Europeans. ety, where he met two theosophist brothers. They in-  In Transvaal, Indians were asked to reside in ar- troduced him to Sir Edwin Arnold's English transla- eas with highly unhygienic surroundings and no tion of the Bhagavad Gita. During this time, Gandhi proper arrangements for light, water supply and was also introduced to Annie Besant. drainage. Besides his law studies, Gandhi passed the University  The ex-indentured labourers had to pay a poll tax of three pounds. of London matriculation examination in June 1890. In London, Gandhi did not participate in the newly Gandhi’s First Instance of Racial Discrimination established British Committee of the Indian National On 26 May 1893, in the court in Durban, the Magis- Congress. trate asked Gandhi to remove his Turban; Gandhiji In 1891, Gandhi returned to India after qualifying as denied it and left the court. a barrister. He started his legal career in Bombay but St. Pietermaritzburg Incident made little headway and decided to settle at Rajkot in Gujarat to make a modest living. While travelling to Pretoria, a white man objected to Gandhiji's presence in a first-class carriage, demand- Gandhi in South Africa (1893-1914) ing he move to the van compartment at the end of In 1893, Dada Abdullah, an Indian merchant in Natal, the train. Gandhiji had a first-class ticket and hence offered to engage Gandhi for a civil suit in South Af- refused to go. As a result, Gandhi was thrown off the rica. Gandhiji accepted the offer and reached Dur- train at Pietermaritzburg railway station on the night ban, Natal, on May 25, 1893. of 7 June 1893. Shivering through the winter night in the waiting Condition of Indians in South Africa room of the station, Gandhi made the momentous Most of the Indian population in South Africa com- decision to fight the racial discrimination against In- prised indentured and freed labourers working in dians and others. PMF IAS Gandhi's Formative Years and Early Activism MIH – 271 Real Cause of Discrimination 1100 volunteers in support of the British in the An- Before Gandhi, Indians accepted racial discrimina- glo-Boer War of 1899-1902. tion as a way of life. Gandhi thought that support for the British would translate into better conditions for Indians in Trans- Gandhi, the son of Dewan of Indian states, had never vaal and South Africa. However, his hopes were be- experienced racial insults in India. Similarly, he faced lied. no racial discrimination during his three-year stay in London. Hence, when he encountered racism in Gandhi and Boer War South Africa, he felt uncomfortable and decided to Boer is an Afrikaans word for Farmer. fight against this injustice. The two Boer wars were fought between the Brit- Before Gandhi, many Indians did not have the cour- ish Empire and the two independent Boer repub- age to ask for their rights. They believed that discrim- lics, the Orange Free State and the South African ination was due to their perceived lack of Westerni- Republic (Transvaal Republic), from 1880 to 1902. zation or civilisation. Second Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902) Educated Gandhi, the first of a westernised Indian in Gandhi wished to support the British in the hope South Africa, felt justified in asserting certain rights that the conditions of Indians would improve and demanded first-class train tickets and hotel later. Gandhi set up the Indian Ambulance Corps, a rooms. But the denial of rights to Gandhi, the British- unit of 1,100 volunteers who served for less than educated barrister in South Africa, clearly showed two months. that the real cause was the White rulers' assumption Gandhi sympathised with the Boers and ex- of racial superiority. pressed great admiration for their leaders and for Extension of Stay the heroism of the Boer women. He justified his In June 1894, when his contract concluded, Gandhi action in organising the ambulance corps by argu- was set to return to India. However, at a farewell ing that Indians who claimed rights as members of party, he learned from the newspaper that the Natal the British Empire were obliged to contribute to Legislative Assembly was considering a bill to re- the war effort. move Indians' voting rights. The British bestowed Gandhi with the title of ‘kai- Upon the request of the Indian community, Gandhi ser-i-Hind’ for his work in the Boer War. decided to stay and assist in the cause. Consequently, Gandhi's Indian Expedition he postponed his return to India by a month. During his visit to India in 1901-02, Gandhi travelled Gandhi wrote petitions to the Natal Legislature and extensively in India. He attended the Calcutta session British government, signed by hundreds of Indians. of INC in 1901. Gandhi returned to South Africa in Despite his efforts, he failed to prevent the passage 1902 and stayed there continuously for twelve years, of the disfranchisement bill (Franchise Amendment fighting against racial discrimination. Bill). However, Gandhi succeeded in drawing the at- Phoenix Settlement tention of the public and the press in Natal, India, and England to the Natal Indians' grievances. In 1904, Mahatma Gandhi founded Phoenix Settle- Gandhiji felt the need for a permanent organisation ment in Durban for community living. Along with a to look after the interests of Indians and founded the selected band of associates, he shifted there, lived Natal Indian Congress in 1894. with utmost simplicity and led community life. The importance of Phoenix was that later, all its in- Transformative Years habitants became the main participants in Gandhi's In 1896, Gandhi returned to India for six months to Satyagraha. bring his wife and two children back to Natal. During Satyagraha to Fight Oppression this second period in South Africa, Gandhi’s mode of living underwent a sea change. Gandhi deeply believed in the British love of Justice Gandhi began to reduce his wants and his expenses. and fair play until 1906. From 1894 to 1906, he fo- He became his washerman, ironed his clothes, and cused on moderate methods like petitions and me- learned to cut his hair. Not satisfied with self-help, he morials to address issues faced by South African Indi- volunteered for two hours a day as a compounder in ans. a charitable hospital. Gandhi attempted to unite the different sections of Indians and give their demands wide publicity. For Indian Ambulance Corps this, he founded the Natal Indian Congress in 1894 The Boer War broke out in 1899. With Dr Booth's and started a weekly journal, Indian Opinion, in help, Gandhi founded an Ambulance Corps of around 1903. MIH – 272 Gandhi's Formative Years and Early Activism PMF IAS  By 1906, Gandhi found that the British audience was- and the vision of self-rule. In 1910, the Government n't listening to his appeals. Satyagraha (passive re- of India proscribed Hind Swaraj. sistance or civil disobedience) became his last resort  In 1906, believing that family life was taking away to help his fellow countrymen with their problems. from his full potential as a public advocate, Gandhi He used this novel method of fighting oppression for took the vow of brahmacharya. the first time in 1906. Volkrust Satyagraha (1913) Thus, the political activities of Gandhi in South Africa can be divided into two phases: In 1913, the Supreme Court judgement invalidated 1. Moderate Phase (1894-1906) all marriages which had not been performed accord- 2. Passive Resistance Phase (1906-1914) ing to Christian rites and registered by the Registrar of Marriages. In other words, all Hindu, Muslim and Advent of Satyagraha Parsi marriages became illegal, and their children In 1906, the Transvaal government introduced an or- were illegitimate. dinance requiring Indian citizens to carry passes and In response, Mahatma Gandhi launched the Volkrust register with fingerprints. At any time, an Indian Satyagraha. This time, the movement was widened could be asked to produce his registration certificate, to include abolishing discriminatory pass laws, the and police officers were permitted to enter an Indi- Registration of Marriages Act, and the three-pound an's house to check his papers. poll tax imposed on all ex-indentured Indians. In response, Gandhiji organised Satyagraha for the Women, including Kasturba Gandhi, played a promi- first time on 11 September 1906. The Indian commu- nent role, with many being sent to prison. Gandhi nity pledged to defy the ordinance, accepting all con- himself was put behind bars. sequences of their resistance. Thus, satyagraha was The culmination of these efforts was the Gandhi- born, a new method of redressing wrongs and Smuts agreement in 1914. The Government of South fighting oppression without hatred and violence. Africa accepted all major demands of Indians and Despite vehement opposition by the Indians, the passed the Indian Relief Act (1914), abolishing dis- Transvaal legislature passed the Asiatic Registration criminatory laws. Bill. The agitation continued, and in January 1908, According to the Indian Relief Act: Gandhi was ordered to leave Transvaal. When he re-  The principle of voluntary registration was ac- fused, he was arrested and sentenced to two months cepted. imprisonment for disobeying the pass laws.  The term 'Asiatic' was removed from immigra- This was Gandhi’s first of four prison terms in South tion laws. Africa; the other three were in Volkrust , Pre-  The poll tax of three pounds on non-indentured toria , and Volkrust. labourers was abolished. Gandhi was released on January 30 after making an  The marriages solemnised according to Indian agreement with General Jan Smuts, Secretary for Col- rites were legitimised. onies. General Smuts assured Gandhi that the regis- Having accomplished his mission, Gandhi sailed back tration law would be repealed if Indians registered to India from Cape Town on July 19, 1914, and arrived voluntarily. in Mumbai on January 9, 1915, greeted by a large, Unfortunately, Smuts didn't keep his promise. In re- cheering crowd at Apollo Bunder. sponse, on August 16, 1908, Mahatma Gandhi carried out a large-scale pass-burning campaign to express Indian Volunteer Corps in London his discontent and opposition. Before returning to India, Gandhi visited London Meanwhile, new legislation, The Immigration Re- in August 1914 to visit his friend and mentor, G. K. strictions Act, was introduced that imposed re- Gokhale. But Gokhale had already left for Paris. strictions on Indian immigration and the migration of With Gokhale gone, Gandhi met the poetess Saro- Asians from one province to another. Many Indians, jini Naidu instead. including Gandhi, protested and defied the law. All of In the meantime, the First World War broke out. them were jailed. Gandhi considered it his duty to help the British In June 1909, Gandhi went to England as a member government in this situation and established the of the Indian Delegation to talk to authorities, but it Indian Volunteer Corps in London. However, after didn't achieve much. On his voyage back to South Af- some time, due to differences with the British offi- rica, Gandhi wrote his book Hind Swaraj, or Indian cials, Gandhi dissociated himself from it. Home Rule, in which he wrote about his increasing Gandhi's Evolution in South Africa discontent with the West, the power of non-violence PMF IAS Gandhi's Formative Years and Early Activism MIH – 273  Gandhi, who left South Africa in 1914, was very differ- When Annie Besant asked Gandhi to join her in es- ent from the youth who had arrived at Durban tablishing a Home Rule League, he refused because twenty-one years earlier. The challenges and difficul- he did not wish to create difficulties for the British ties faced in South Africa shaped Gandhiji signifi- government during the war. cantly. South Africa was ‘the making of the Ma- Gandhi’s first major public appearance was at the hatma.’ opening of the Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in  Birth of Satyagraha: The unequal struggle against ra- February 1916. Gandhiji was relatively unknown. He cial discrimination helped Gandhi evolve a novel Sat- had been invited because of his work in South Africa yagraha technique based on truth and non-violence. rather than his status within India.  The struggle in South Africa realised the necessity and Gandhi’s Speech at BHU (1916) possibility of Hindu-Muslim unity.  During this period, Gandhi realised the immense ca- In February 1916, in Banaras, Gandhi criticised the pacity of the common people to fight. Indian elite for neglecting the poor. He pointed  The struggle in South Africa made Gandhi the leader out that Indian nationalism was mainly driven by of the Indian people and not of any region or reli- the elite, such as lawyers, doctors, and landlords. gious community. Gandhi emphasised that the salvation of India lies Gandhi and Leo Tolstoy with the farmers, not the lawyers, doctors, or rich landlords. This marked Gandhi's intention to make In 1893, Gandhi read Tolstoy's 'Kingdom of God is Indian nationalism more inclusive and representa- Within You'. It left an abiding impression on Gan- tive of the entire population. dhi. Tolstoy manifested independent thinking, pro- found morality, and truthfulness. Entry into Indian Politics In 1910, Gandhi sent Tolstoy a copy of Joseph Gandhi's entry into Indian politics occurred in 1917- Doke's biography on himself and an English trans- 1918 when he was involved in three local issues. lation of a pamphlet, Hind Swaraj (Indian Home In 1917, Gandhi was involved in Champaran Satya- Rule). graha, seeking to obtain for the peasants security of In 1910, Gandhi founded the Tolstoy Farm on the tenure and the freedom to cultivate the crops of outskirts of Johannesburg to prepare satyagrahis. their choice. This was the precursor of the Satyagraha Ashram, In 1918, he was involved in two campaigns in Guja-