AQA A-Level History British Empire 1857-1967 Revision Guide PDF

AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 Part One (AS and A-Level): The high-water mark of the British Empire, c1857- 1914 Section 1: The development of imperialism, c1857-1890 What was the British empire like before 1857? a) What had caused the growth of the British Empire...

AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 Part One (AS and A-Level): The high-water mark of the British Empire, c1857- 1914 Section 1: The development of imperialism, c1857-1890 What was the British empire like before 1857? a) What had caused the growth of the British Empire before 1857? American colonies like United States and Canada had caused growth however loss of these prompted ‘Swing to the East’ as prominent historian Vincent Harlow had put it. o Concept that explained a shift of British imperial priorities to India, Asia, Africa and the East > Western hemisphere with more desire for trade rather than conquest and control Slave trade had led to growth in control in Africa Mercantilist policies that benefitted Britain over its colonies b) What were the territories of the British Empire in 1857? Much of Canada India Most of Australia British Guiana & Caribbean Sierra Leone, Gold Coast and Union of South Africa c) What were the differences between these territories? Territories like Britain, Canada and Australia were known as dominions o White-settler colonies that exerted a certain amount of self-governance and control India was governed under the Raj after the Indian Mutiny. o Governed under East India Trade Company on behalf of the British formerly Informal control in territories like Argentina and British Guiana Sierra Leone, Gold Coast and Union of South Africa governed as British colonies Why did the British expand in Africa from 1857 – 1890? Concept of ‘Swing to the East’ by Vincent Harlow o As a result of loss of American colonies, Britain grew with renewed interest to Africa and India. Industrial revolution o Production of steamships and weapons allowed for Britain to easily establish foothold in different continents. Scramble for Africa and ‘old diplomacy’ o Historian Dane Kennedy cites ‘growing political power’ of rivals and competitors for reasons in expanding in Africa. o Companies like the Royal Niger Company, the Imperial British East Africa Company and the British South Africa Company were chartered to protect the Crown’s interest in those areas. 1  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 ▪ Done to protect claims against other European companies and powers. Trade and economy o As a result of Industrial Revolution, prices plummeted due to ease of access and Empire was seen with ‘renewed interest’ as Dane Kennedy puts it. o New trading partners helped during The Great Depression of 1873-1896 ▪ Coal, iron and timber sought to feed demands of British industry. ▪ As British industry developed, need for trade partners developed. British bought resources from Africa to manufacture into goods such as weapons and textiles and sold them back to Africa. o Expansion in Africa led to opening of inland routes and discovery of mineral and resources. Investment opportunities followed. o British Foreign Office Memorandum cites interest in East Africa for reasons such as: ▪ ‘mineral wealth’ ▪ ‘unlimited capacity for the production of cattle’ ▪ ‘a European climate within easy reach of the coast’ ▪ ‘natives are more naturally industrious than most of the West Coast tribes’ ▪ ‘the establishment of any Government strong enough to enforce good order and prevent the raids of more turbulent tribes’ Strategic factors o Cape Colony had warm waters, deep ports - allowing for bigger harbours and giving access to Middle East, India, Australia, New Zealand and China. o Interests in West Africa protected by building coastal defences in Sierra Leone and Gambia. Idea of ‘moral superiority’ and religion o Christian missionaries saw it as a ‘duty’ to educate ‘heathen’ people ▪ David Livingstone is a prime example. ▪ Historian Lawrence James suggests there was ‘general agreement that the Empire was a powerful force for the spread of civilisation’ Adventurers, explorers and success stories o Explorers and adventurers told stories of gold and raw materials. o Merchants like George Goldie and Cecil Rhodes vetted success stories of business in Africa. British rule often followed. How did Britain expand into Egypt and why? a) Why were the British originally interested in Egypt? o Need for cotton during the American Civil War. British mills were starved of raw cotton, Egypt’s was of good quality. o British companies began investing in Egyptian cotton and in modernising programme of ruling Khedive, Isma’il Pasha. o By the 1870s, 40% of Egypt’s imports were coming from Britain. 2 AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 b) What was the Suez Canal and why was it important to the British? o Project led by a Frenchmen to construct a canal for international shipping with company known as The Suez Canal Company. Set up in 1858 and was completed in 1869. France and Egypt had ownership of shares. o Became crucial to the British due to the Panic of 1873 and interest grew. o Known as ‘The Great Depression’ of its time, British trade plummeted due to goods being transported around Cape of Good Hope and having to be stored in warehouses. o 5000 miles longer than with Suez Canal. o In 1875, Benjamin Disraeli bought Egypt’s shares in the Suez Canal for around £4 million. o This became of huge importance to the British because it gave them a passage to India and income from shipping tariffs. c) How did the British come to take control of Egypt? o Purchasing of Suez Canal sparked further interest. o Led to need for British interest in the region. o The British began to wield considerable influence over Egypt due to its failing economy. o In 1879, Ismail Pasha was deposed due to economic mismanagement and his son, Tewfiq, became new Khedive. British money and resources kept Egypt afloat and British Commissioner, Lord Dufferin, wielded considerable influence in Egypt. o To keep Egypt’s economy afloat, taxes were imposed on Egyptian food & goods, army reduced by two thirds  increased unemployment. o Therefore, nationalist rebellions under Arabi Pasha conducted in 1882 and British concerns grew due to the 100,000 Europeans living in Egypt and over the security of the Suez Canal. o In June 1882, in Alexandria, rebellions led to 50 Europeans killed; William Gladstone had to invade Egypt with British naval troops. ▪ Arabi forces defeated some British troops however Commander in- Chief, Sir Garnet Wolseley, had taken the Suez Canal. o This enabled the British to take control of Cairo and establish control of Egypt, installing Tewfiq as a puppet ruler and soon Major Evelyn Baring was installed as Consul-General. Egypt has been described as a ‘veiled protectorate’ and was annexed in 1885. d) How did the British come to control Sudan? British administrator Charles Gordon who was sent to Egypt to act as Governor - General of Egyptian administered Sudan faced opposition. The British intervened but were defeated and did not establish clear control over the Sudan until 1896. British adminstrators faced opposition from Sudanese Islamic cleric Muhammad Ahmad, who in June 1881, proclaimed himself to be the saviour of mankind. 3  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 o Drew on long-term hostility towards Egyptian rule, combined with recent resentment of British influence. In 1882, Mahdists took control over the area surrounding Khardoum. o In 1883, joint military expedition between the British and Egyptians under the command of Colonel William Hicks launched a counter-attack against the Mahdists. It failed and Hicks was killed. o Gladstone, reluctant to get into further conflict, ordered General Gordon to oversee the evacuation of British and Egyptian troops from Khartoum in 1884 however was overrun in 1885 with virtually the entire garrison killed and General Gordon beheaded. What departments oversaw the British Empire? Policy decisions regarding Empire lay with elected government and a separate Colonial Office department had been established to deal specifically with Empire. Formerly established in 1801 with War Office but functioned separately in 1854. o A separate office for India was established in 1858 after the Indian Mutiny. Office headed by Colonial Secretary. Dominions, where white-settlers were of a substantial representation, elected their own assemblies and ministers. o 1838 Durham Report established Canada, New Zealand and Australia into Dominions. How was India administered and defended? a) Who ran India before 1857? India was formerly run by the East India Company. They’d gained a monopoly over India and oversaw expansion of British influence. b) Why did this change in 1857? The East India Company became aggressively expansionist, provoking the Indian Mutiny, where sepoys in the East Indian Army revolted. Thousands were killed and after the Mutiny, government decided to cease the company and hand over all rule to the Queen. c) What was the Government of India Act 1858? The act established British rule in India through: o Passing territories of EIC  Queen (who became known as Empress of India in 1876) o Creating a position of Secretary of State for India, who received powers and duties formerly administered by the company’s directors. o Establishing council of 15 members who assisted the Secretary of State. Acted as an advisory body. The members were white British. o Crown appointed a Viceroy to replace Governor-General. o The Indian Civil Service was placed under control of Secretary of State. ▪ Anybody could apply to work in the Indian Civil Service however 4 AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 only chose white men chosen. British also used Indian Civil Service in ‘divide-and-rule’, choosing Sikh > Indians due to loyalty in the Indian Mutiny. d) How was India administered? The British had established clear hierarchy of rule. British prevailed. o Viceroy ruled India with a Legislative Council of 5 who held responsibility for finance, law, the army, economy and home affairs. o In provinces, Viceroy was represented by provincial governors with own Legislative Councils. On a day-to-day basis, district officers oversaw local councils and reported on practical issues. o Princely states, which Britain did not control under the EIC, relied on native rulers. ▪ The 565 nominally independent Princely states formerly passed onto the British after the line of descent had ended. This was stopped and helped ensure loyalty from PS to the Empire. ▪ 40% of India made up of Princely states and British installed ‘residents’ to maintain the interests of the Viceroy. In years after the Mutiny, British gradually began respecting Indians and also helped develop India. o Traditional Indian practices and customs were respected, particularly in regards to marriage and family law. o Christian missionaries were actively discouraged but the government accepted responsibility for the promotion of education and did so. o The British helped build a vast railway network. 288 miles in 1876  20,000 miles in 1890. e) What was the caste system? Caste system is a traditional Indian custom whereby people are divided at birth into particular social classes. There is a hierarchy of castes: o Lowest ranks are the Dalits or Untouchables who historically suffered from much discrimination, while the Brahmin are the highly or ‘priestly’ class. o Some historians believe caste system was intensified by British imperial rule as it institutionalised the treatment of different castes as part of the system of government. f) How was India defended? From 1858, efforts were made to strengthen the British presence in Indian Army which, at outbreak of Mutiny, numbered fewer than 40,000 British troops. o East India Company’s armies brought under control of the Crown and proportion of British to Indian troops raised to a ratio of roughly 1:2. There was an army of 70,000 British troops/125,000 native troops by the late 1880s. 5  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 o Native troops trained and stationed in own districts, cut off from one another to prevent sense of unity. Deliberately mixed by caste and religion. o Army enlisted a greater number of Gurkhas and Sikhs, who had been loyal to Britain during Mutiny, replacing Bengali troops who hadn’t. ▪ 62/74 Bengali regiments and high-class Brahmin regiments, which had acted independently disappeared. ▪ Many Hindu families took Sikh names to maximise career chances. o British officers increased and field artillery was handled by British. Indians also placed under British commanders and denied officer ranking. Growth of railways helped India’s defence with 3000 miles of track built in the decade following Mutiny. Exaggerated British presence and enabled swifter deployment of troops in the event of trouble. o An armoured gun train introduced for mobile enforcement purpose and first Viceroy Lord Canning set up Imperial Police Force as extra layer of security. Avoided over-reliance on the army. How did international relations affect expansion of the Empire before 1890? By end of late nineteenth century, Britain became increasingly concerned about its position in relation to other European powers. It began to face challenge from other expanding, industrialising powers. o In 1871, Germany united as a single country. Because of its vast natural resources, it began to expand and show its ships on the High Seas. o In 1871, France was defeated by Germany. France still transformed its armed forces and wanted to show ‘rightful place’ in the world. o Russia, though less industrially advanced, began transforming economy and extending borders into Central Asia. In 1884, it’d taken its empire to the borders of Afghanistan. Russia also began constructing railway network which British feared could challenge presence in India. ▪ Disraeli invaded Afghanistan in 1878 due to fear of Russian influence growing. Made Amir accept British control of Afghan foreign policy, showing influence of international pressure on colonial policy. Naval building programmes of France and Russia caused concern in 1880s. Threat from Germany become acute in last decade of the century, as this gave nations the means to explore other areas, for example Africa and Asia. o In South East Asia, French established themselves in Indo-China in 1860s pushing north, where they were joined by Germans seeking commercial concessions. o Russia also set on imperial expansion in north of China with work on Trans- Siberian Railway beginning in 1891. British response to the French activity in Indo-China was to annex territory in: o Malaya (1874), extending British influence from beyond Singapore (1819) o Sarawak, North Borneo (1881), Brunei (1885) and Upper Burma (1885), leaving Thailand as buffer between rival European powers. What was the Scramble for Africa and how did it affect imperial policy? 6 AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 a) What happened at the Brussels Conference? In 1876, King Leopold of Belgium hosted conference of explorers and leaders from geographical societies across Europe. Largely motivated by desire to protect Belgian interests in the Congo. It concluded: o Africans incapable of developing natural resources to be found in Central Africa: European intervention necessary. o Routes to Africa’s lakes needed developing by building roads/railways. o International African Association should be established to coordinate European efforts. Competition heightened as it became clear Leopold wanted to build empire. o Leopold hired surveyor H.M. Stanley to survey basin of Upper Congo River in order to establish own enclave in Central Africa. o In November 1879, the International African Association was named the International Association of the Congo, which provoked further fear. o Stanley signed over 450 treaties with local chiefs to establish sovereignty. o In retaliation, France and Germany hired own explorers to stake claims in region. ▪ France extended control from Senegal into Western Sudan in 1879. Portugal asserted its claims to control mouth of Congo River in 1884. b) What happened at the Berlin Conference in 1884? Conference’s initial task involved securing agreement that both basins and mouths of Congo and Niger rivers were to remain neutral and open to trade. Major powers negotiated territories into spheres of influence. Conference concluded with a signing of a General Act, which promised: o All nations be permitted to trade in basin of the Congo and its outlets. o Free trade should prevail in these regions. o Powers with influence should help protect indigenous people and suppress slave trade. o Powers should support and protect religious, scientific or charitable undertakings, Christian missionaries, scientists and explorers. o If any power took possession of further land on coasts of Africa, it should notify signatories of the Act, in order to enable them to assert any claims of their own. c) What impact did the Berlin Conference have? General Act triggered a scramble for territory across Africa. By 1900, 90% of continent was in European hands. Conference was a success in terms of European relations. o Enabled countries to expand empires in ordered fashion and without risk of conflict with one another. Historian A.J.P Taylor called Africa ‘safe arena’ for competing countries as they were unlikely to tread on other’s toes. Conference didn’t do much for indigenous peoples. 7 AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 o No African representation at Berlin Conference. Spheres of influence mapped out with little concern for geographic, ethnic, linguistic or religious divisions. o No concerted effort to combat African or Arab slave trade and well-being and customs of locals was overlooked. 8  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 What was informal empire and why was it important to Britain? a) What was it? Informal empire were places influenced by Britain. Usually economically, via free trade agreements or by British investment in the country. British influence also derived from commerce, financed by British capital, carried in British ships and providing profits for British companies, bankers and insurance firms. b) Where did Britain have informal empire and how did they maintain it? Commercial agreements and British investment influenced Latin America, in particular Chile, Argentina and Mexico. o British public capital in Latin America stood at over £80 million. o 10% of British exports went to Latin America in 1865. Free trade agreements also brought countries like Iran and Siam (Thailand) under British influence. Weak Chinese empire also under influence of British Empire. o Began with Britain’s need to sell opium to China to finance BEIC. Forced to make concessions to Britain, who used her naval power to threaten attempts to disrupt opium trade from India to China. o Treaties of Nanking (1842) and Tientsin (1858), which were after both Opium Wars, ensured Britain gained trading bases, for example in Shanghai and Hong Kong. Settled with British people and governed under British law. o 1863 – Robert Hart appointed head of Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Office. Acted as branch of gov. with purpose of protecting British interests. Parts of China joined British informal empire and British gained unhindered access to Chinese markets. British also used naval force in making sure informal empire upheld free trade treaties in Latin America. ▪ In 1861, Britain put naval pressure on Mexico to maintain trade. ▪ In 1857 and 1863, Peru and Chile (respectively) had naval threat to ensure compliance. Territories of strategic importance also fell under British influence due to diplomatic pressures and appointment of key advisers. o Sultanate of Zanzibar in East Africa, on coast of Indian Ocean, placed under British influence due to work of John Kirk. In 1891, British established a government there with John Kirk as Minister. o In Afghanistan, Treaty of Gandamak of 1879 provided British key strategic locations and control of foreign policy. c) What does it show us about the British reasons and/or justifications for Empire? British used empire for their own benefit, British had no ultimate control and were able to enjoy influence without responsibility. 9  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 How did trade and commerce develop for the British Empire in the years 1857-1890? a) What was Britain’s economy like in the late 19th century? By 1870, Britain was at height of commercial and industrial power. o Accounted for 1/2 of world’s trade in textiles and industrial goods. o Gross national product was greater than Russia and China combined. o Merchant fleet carried 1/2 the world’s sea borne trade. The world’s banking and investment system based in London. o About 40% of British investment went to imperial territories between 1870 and 1914. b) What was protectionism? Why had it been got rid of? Protectionism involved raising tariffs on international trade in Empire to benefit Britain. Colonies obliged to send most of produce to Britain, to buy British manufactured goods, and use British ships for imports and exports. c) What was free trade? Why was it preferred? Protectionism was dismantled as belief that wealth was indefinitely expandable and freedom was the only way to maximise prosperity grew. Britain being foremost trading nation enjoyed free trade as its economic dominance was sustained by a limited application of force, also known as ‘imperialism of free trade’. Prohibitive tariffs from Germany in 1879 and France in 1881 forced Britain to rely on Empire for trade. d) How important was trade with Empire? Why? In 3/4 of the 19th century, 20% of Britain’s imports came from its Empire. Empire provided a market for around 1/3 of Britain’s exports. Empire important to Britain’s trade as trading patterns were well established. Empire used common language, currency and shared system of commercial law. Growth of free-trade saw development of industrial empire in which colonies supplied raw materials and foodstuffs which Britain converted into finished goods which colonies often bought back. Free trade was prohibited between colonies as Britain turned it down in the Colonial Conference of 1887, showing how Britain often exploited Empire. How did the infrastructure of trade contribute to Empire? a) Ships and Shipping Reached highest efficiency in 1860s with clipper ships. Suited to low volume, high profit goods such as tea, opium, spices. Used to carry mail and people. Development of steamship allowed heavy goods to be carried overseas in 1850s. Reduced travel time between Great Britain and West Africa to less than 3 weeks and increased cargo capacity. Opening of Suez Canal in 1869 and development of triple expansion engine in 1870s further stimulated construction of steam carriers. Steamships also used in inland regions, for example travelling up River Niger. b) Railways 10  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 Railways key to economic development in Empire but also maintaining control. Allowed quick transport of goods. o British provided investment, engineers and rolling stock resulting in colonies depending on Britain. Allowed Britain to pressurise governments. ▪ Canada forced to accept British policies on defence in mid-1860s, as price of London capital guaranteed. Railways allowed Australia to export wheat and wool, South Africa to expand territories and commercial interests in region, India to link cotton & jute-growing areas of North with mills of Bombay and Calcutta and enabling rice to reach ports for export and, in West Africa, allowed for links between land and sea. c) Canals and rivers Canals and rivers allowed explorers to investigate Africa beyond accessible coast areas. In India, canals and rivers built waterways where there were none. Allowed avoidance of hazardous stretches of water. What were the products of trade and commerce? a) Give four examples of products/goods/raw materials that came from the empire, where they came from and why they were important: Tropical colonies like South Africa produced goods that weren’t available in Britain such as sugar, coffee, cocoa, groundnuts, copra and palm oil. Tea in India was important as it became most popular British drink by 20 th century. o In 1854, value was £24,000 by 1876, it was £2,429,000. Cotton from India also important as it was often used to convert goods to sell back to colonies. o In 1854, value was £1,642,000. In 1876, it was £5,875,000. ▪ Plantations built in India to grow products. Workers were often underpaid. Gold discovery in Transvaal was significant as it caused influx of migrants (near 30,000 from Cornwall) into region, securing British interests. What were chartered companies? Chartered companies were main way of organising trade before 1850. East India Company was chartered. British government allowed them to progress at own rate, seeing competition as sign of healthy capitalism. What role did they play in expansion? Economic depression of 1870s revived idea of chartered companies as way to expand British interests at 0 cost to government. o In 1881, North Borneo Trading Company received charter for means of administering territory and maintaining British influence against French. ▪ North Borneo benefited from deposits of coal, iron, copper and economic infrastructure development. North Borneo led to establishment of Royal Niger Company in 1886, Imperial British East Africa Company in 1888 and British South Africa Company in 1889. What were the overall pros and cons of trade, and for who in the years 1857-1890? 11  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 Pros Cons Trading with Empire benefitted Didn’t always benefit natives in colonies. Britain. They were often underpaid, overworked o From 1857-1890, 20% of and mistreated by British. British imports came from Trade between colonies was prohibited her Empire whilst Empire and Britain dominated trading provided Britain a market for environment. 30% of her exports. o Colonial Conference of 1887 Britain developed infrastructure in prohibited trade between her colonies. colonies. o London being financial Cecil Rhodes and Goldie benefitted centre of the world, around Britain from trade with Empire. 40% of British foreign Trade with Britain wasn’t always helpful investment went to her as many countries relied on protectionist colonies. Britain built tariffs to develop their own industries railways, telegraph lines, and economies. developed roads and the o Canada in 1850s and Australia in general economy in her 1860s imposed tariffs against regions. Britain. o In India, miles of railway track grew from around 288 in 1857  20,000 miles of track in 1890. During depression of 1870s, Britain’s reliance on her Empire led to growth of trade with her colonies, which ultimately benefitted them. o Value of tea soared in India from £24,000 in 1854  £2,429,000 in 1876. Cotton soared from over £1,500,000 in 1854  £5,500,000 and over in 1876. Led to glorification of Empire in Britain with Colonial and Imperial Conferences and Exhibitions. Why were explorers important to Empire? Give one example: Explorers like David Livingstone, John Kirk, Richard Burton and John Hanning Speke became household names. Their exploits were well published by missionary press and were eagerly read by British public. Helped open up the interior of Africa by producing maps and publishing their findings. Made Empire appear exciting. o DAVID LIVINGSTONE: ▪ Began travels as a missionary doctor in South Africa, 1841. Explored 12  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 deserts, lakes and rivers. Named infamous ‘Victoria Falls’. Crossed continent from West to East before returning to Britain and publishing books, conducting lectures at Cambridge University and recounting geography, mineralogy, diseases and languages he’d seen abroad. ▪ Received funding from British government in 1858 to return to Africa and ‘try to open up a path for commerce and Christianity’. ▪ Portrayed as a martyr who saved Britain when he was lost and found by Henry Stanley in 1871. o JOHN KIRK ▪ Helped explore waterways with Livingstone. Appointed chief medical officer for his Zambezi expedition. Collected many aquatic specimens which he wrote about and sent back to Britain. ▪ Returned to Africa in 1868 as medical officer and Vice-Consul of Zanzibar, which he helped keep as a client state of Britain. Initiated British treaties that ensured Sultan outlawed Zanzibar’s slave trade and with British aid, commerce grew. o SIR RICHARD BURTON ▪ Adventurer in 1850s famous for stories of Muslim life and mannerisms. Took visits to Islamic cities such as Mecca, where no western Christian had ever been. Took expeditions in Somaliland in 1855 and Zanzibar in 1857 & 1858. Competition between John Speke after he contracted malaria led to both debating source of Nile, which Speke thought to be Victoria Falls. ▪ Speke’s death made this impossible and Burton eventually went on to write several books and volumes about his exploration in Africa, particularly Western. Produced various translations of texts such as the Kama Sutra. Wrote essays on pornography, homosexuality and sexual education of women. Why were Christian missionaries important to Empire? Give one example: Missionaries helped open up territories to British rule by penetrating beyond colonial frontiers (for example, into the Congo in Africa or inland China in the 1880s) by establishing links with indigenous communities. Shared their geographical and strategic knowledge with the chiefs and British authorities. Wanted to open up the world to Christianity, saw populations amongst whom they worked as ‘in need’ of saving from ignorance and moral poverty. Contributed to imperialistic and jingoistic views in Britain, as many believed natives benefitted. They criticised imperial politics but weren’t starkly opposed to concept of imperialism. Helped increase economic and material prosperity for people in regions, advanced imperialism by consolidating or staking claims to territory thus extending Britain’s commercial reach. Methodist missionaries particularly active. o By middle of the 18th century, Wesylean missionaries had set up ‘Conferences’ to oversee missions in Canada, New Zealand and Australia. ▪ Those from Australia helped establish ground for British rule in Fiji, 13  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 1874. ▪ South African conference similarly established in 1882. ▪ In 1883, John Mackenzie put pressure on British government to establish protectorate over Bechuanaland. ▪ Missions also established in China and India from 1850s and West Indies in 1885. Female missionaries also grew. o Mary Slessor aimed to end practice of killing twins in Calabar, Nigeria. o Mary Carpenter worked to improve female education in India when she travelled there in 1866. Missions also clashed between one another at times, with natives or even colonial rulers. Therefore, it sometimes delayed British rule by prolonging annexation and challenging imperial authority. Some Christian missionaries provided focus for opposition to colonial rule. Why were traders important to Empire? Give one example: Traders had an important role to play in the development of attitudes to Empire. Once commercial enterprises had established a foothold somewhere, British administration often followed. o East India Company led way towards British control of India and commercial exploits of Cecil Rhodes, William Mackinnon and George Goldie established British growth in Africa in 19th century. Protected British interests. ▪ CECIL RHODES Owned all South Africa’s diamond mines (90% of global diamond production) and had wealth to pursue ‘furtherance of the British Empire and the bringing of the whole of the uncivilised world under British rule.’ Rhodes granted a charter to establish British South Africa Company in 1889, through concessions and treaties. In his honour, named ‘Rhodesia’ in 1895. Rhodes said his ambitions were moralistic and for the bettering of the human race. ▪ WILLIAM MACKINNON Self-made Scottish businessman who began coating trade around Bay of Bengal. In 1856, he founded Calcutta and Burma Steam Navigation Company. This became British India Steam Navigation Company and grew into a huge business organisation, trading through Indian Ocean, Burma and Persian Gulf. Founded Imperial British East Africa Company in 1888 with a charter supported by British government as a means of establishing influence in region. ▪ GEORGE GOLDIE Bought a palm oil business in 1875. Palm oil was popular due to lubricating qualities. Formed Central African Trading Company in 1876, visited in 1877 14  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 and in 1879, persuaded all local trading firms to join family-run firm to establish United African Company, which controlled 30 trading posts. Application for a royal charter in 1881 was rejected. Goldie managed however to find way to convert palm kernels → margarine. These later exceeded value of palm oil. Goldie therefore was able to offer concessions to local tribal chiefs, who signed treaties to trade only with his company’s agents whilst Goldie promised to buy up all spare goods. Established cocoa and coffee plantations. Managed to secure 450 local treaties which allowed company to have control over their territories and ultimately led Britain to securing protectorate over Northern and Southern Niger at the Berlin Conference 1884-5. Goldie’s firm chartered as Royal Niger Company in 1886 and was knighted in 1887. Why were administrators important to Empire? Give one example: Empire typically run by ‘men on the spot’- company directors, governors, high administrators and consuls. Often tempted by opportunities to acquire more influence and so brought more lands under British control. Many took independent decisions about how regions should be administered and developed. o EVELYN BARING ▪ Began career as colonial administrator, serving in India as private secretary to cousin, Lord Northbrook, Viceroy from 1872 to 1876. Was able administrator, however was known as ‘Over-Baring’. Typical Victorian colonial administrator who was liberal and hardworking but also condescending towards natives. ▪ Baring’s second posting was in Egypt in 1877, when he was sent out to help Isma’il Pasha out of his financial difficulties. His advice was ignored but returned in 1882 as Consul-General and established an Egyptian puppet parliament in 1883 under the Dufferin Report. Asserted the need for British supervision of reforms in bankrupt Egypt. This established a ‘veiled protectorate’ in 1885 whereby Baring ruled rulers of Egypt. Remained the real ruler of Egypt till resigning in 1907. o BARTLE FRERE ▪ Served in quelling Indian Mutiny, which won him knighthood and place on Viceroy’s Council at Calcutta. Subsequently became Governor of Bombay, a member of India Council in Britain between 1867-1877 and a baronet. His experience led to appointment in 1877 as High Commissioner and Governor of Cape Colony. ▪ Conservative Colonial Secretary, Lord Carnarvon, chose him to carry out planned confederation, merging British South Africa with Boer republic 15  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 of Transvaal. South African colonists were hostile to plan and Transvaal Boers wanted to keep independence, leading to Boer War. Frere was left in a difficult position when Carnarvon resigned in 1878. Although ending in British victory, defeat of British forces at Isandhlwana in January 1879 and high cost of war led to official reprimand. Gladstone’s Liberal government denounced him for acting recklessly. Overall, how important were individuals in the expansion of the British Empire from 1857- 1890? Why? Role of individuals and ‘men on the spot’ in expansion of British Empire from years 1857-1890 was incredibly significant. All played a unique role in helping the British Empire expand horizons territorially, in extending economic influence and in spreading and promoting ‘glory’ of Empire and developing regions somewhat. What was interparty conflict in regards to Empire in the years 1857-1890? Who was Disraeli? Who was Gladstone? Twice prime minister and regarded Leader of Liberal Party. Prime Minister in 1870s as a great supporter for from 1890s. Empire from Crystal Palace speech in 1872. Leader of Conservatives. What did he believe about the Empire? Britain needed to avoid new acquisitions What did he believe about the Empire? and concentrate on developing existing Disraeli asserted that Conservatives colonies, helping them towards self- were ‘party of empire’ and that government. Liberal opponents would allow Distinguished between ‘imperialism’, Empire to crumble. which he opposed and ‘Empire’ which he Said in infamous Crystal Palace supported. In eyes of him and Liberals, speech 1872, that ‘in my opinion no Disraeli’s ‘imperialist’ talk was dangerous minister in this country will do his and stirred up ‘jingoism’. duty who neglects any opportunity of reconstructing as much as How was his government involved in possible our colonial empire’. expanding and/or administering the Empire? Gladstone had to defend British How was his government involved in garrisons which were attacked by Boers, expanding and/or administering the heralding First Boer War of 1880-1. After Empire? troops were defeated at Majuba Hill in Expanded right to vote for 1.5 February 1881, Gladstone declined to million working class men with 1867 commit further troops, time or money to Reform Act. Allowed him to play the uphold Disraeli’s ambition for British ‘imperial card’. hegemony over South Africa. In 1875, he purchased Is’mail Mahdist rebellion in Egypt forced Pasha’s shares to Suez Canal for £4 Gladstone to take action in region. million. Gladstone ordered withdrawl of British In 1876, Disraeli supported bill troops in 1884 in Sudan. Wasn’t re- which appointed Queen Victoria elected due to slaughtering of British Empress of India. Passed in 1877 as troops in Khartoum in 1885. Queen 16  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 Royal Titles Act. condemned him as did British public for Tried to turn Afghanistan into a not intervening earlier. client state with Treaty of Gladstone became embroiled in Egypt Gandamak in 1879. for maintaining Suez Canal. He sent Annexed Boer republic of the troops in 1881 to stop Arabi Pasha’s Transvaal in 1877 and launched war uprising. In 1882, Tewfiq installed as on Zulu and Pedi tribes in hope of puppet ruler in newly occupied territory. establishing British confederation Surprisingly, more territory was acquired over Southern Africa. Proved a to Empire under Gladstone than under failure and British troops were Disraeli. In 1884-5, the Berlin humiliated at Isandlwana in January Conferences led Gladstone to establish 1879 before securing victory a few protectorates in Somaliland and months later. Contributed to the Bechuanaland due to maintain influence Liberal government winning in region. Tswana being left in power in election in 1880. British Bechuanaland suggests Gladstone was a ‘reluctant imperialist’, Hesitancy also exhibited when Germany claimed Pacific Island of New Guinea in 1884. Gladstone resisted intervention and prospect of direct confrontation with Germany. Instead premier of Queensland ordered occupation of the Island’s south eastern zone to establish British control. Supported Home Rule for Ireland, again confirming reluctant imperialism. Who were the Irish nationalists? The only truly anti-imperialist party in Parliament. They supported Irish independence. What were the attitudes of the British public towards Empire between 1857-1890? a) In the first 1/2 of the 19th century, how did Britain respond to Empire? In mid-19th century, British government didn’t pursue an active role due to poor communication, long distances involved and lack of institutions to deal with Empire. The Empire was source of pride however, trade and access to markets was biggest concern. 1870’s saw a shift in intensity around Empire. Central to this was concern about other imperial powers. Other nations began to grow industrially increasing competition with Britain. Tariffs in US and Europe prevented British goods from flooding market. Bri tain had to look elsewhere. b) How did the British public get information? Growing popular press publicised stories of heroism. o 1857 – press had shown power to influence public in reporting of Indian Mutiny. British horrified by stories of massacres and tortures, e.g. at Cawnpore and thrilled by those of brave soldiers, such as Major-General Havelock who 17  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 recaptured Cawnpore. Press turned him to hero and statue of him was erected in Trafalgar Square. o 1882 – Arabi Pasha’s revolt in Egypt well reported, gazettes wrote of ‘Moslem mob’ killing ‘all the Christians they could find’ Education Act of 1870 had increased national literacy rates and extension of the vote in 1867 and 1884 Reform Acts (under Disraeli and Gladstone respectively) made public more politically aware. Imperialist literature such as H. Rider Haggard’s ‘She’ in 1887 led to pride. c) How did this shape their opinions? Helped reinforce the idea of Victorian benevolence. Jingoistic attitudes prevailed. British saw Empire as an ‘empire of races’ and believed themselves infinitely superior to indigenous peoples in everything from religion and morals to laws and political institutions. Accompanied by belief that bringing people into Empire could ‘civilise’ indigenous peoples, leading them away from ‘savage’ existence and turning them it hard-working, law abiding citizens – this however was rarely the case. Publications like Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species in 1859 led to belief of white superiority  theories of natural selection soon applied to humans. Quasi-scientists justified views by pointing to the eradication of Plains Indians, Maoris and Aboriginals in Australia. d) What were ‘Imperial Exhibitions’? Exhibition was held in 1851 and 1862 in South Kensington, featuring over 28,000 exhibitors from 36 countries. Represented wide range of industry, technology, arts and displayed 7000 exhibits from India alone. In 1877, a Nubian village, featuring animals and humans, were collected from Sudan and put on display at London’s Alexandra Palace. In 1886, Colonial and Indian Exhibition held in South Kensington to ‘give the inhabitants of the British Isles, to foreigners and to others, practical demonstration of the wealth and industrial development of the outlying portions of the British Empire.’ In this exhibition, Indians were brought over as ‘living exhibits’. What was the Indian Mutiny? a) What caused it? Mutiny had begun among Sepoys in Bengal army, mainly peasant soldiers from north India proud of their military status. Has been argued that Mutiny began because of issues with Enfield rifles being greased in animal fat, which offended both Hindu and Muslim religious sensibilities. Real cause was that nobles and landlords were deprived of land by Governor-General Dalhousie. Peasants also rebelled due to resentment towards taxation. b) What happened? Sepoys in Bengal refused to obey orders in February 1857 with many other battalions following suit. At Meerut, outside Delhi, sepoys turned on British officers and mob set upon local Europeans. Seized control of most northern cities (including Cawnpore) and 18  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 there were attempts to resurrect old Mughal emperor. Some rebels wanted to get back at neighbours. Cost of the rebellion in terms of human suffering was immense even though not much of India was touched. Emperor’s sons were executed so remaining rebels would stop. Villages were burnt in Delhi and Lucknow, mutineers were tortured, women and children murdered and British rule wasn’t entirely reasserted until June 1858 following final battle at Gwalior. What was the impact of the Indian Mutiny? a) What was the impact on government and society? After 1858, relations between Indians and British were soured, especially as British portrayed Indians as ‘savages’ in need of civilisation. Viceroy Canning between 1859-61 made exhaustive tour of India to win back those feeling disposed. Some land and titles were returned to natives, Star of India medals introduced and positions in Imperial Assembly or Statutory Civil Service were shared amongst Indian nobility. Indian Raj was meant to be administered under ‘fairness’ however ultimately favoured white man. Legal systems were too complex and expensive to help poor, especially in regards to land. Some wealthy Indians supported the Raj but it didn’t benefit peasants. Jobs in Civil Service were never beyond ranks of colonial bureaucracy and only offered to wealthy Indians. b) What was the impact on education? Supposed ‘equality of opportunity’ favoured wealthy Indians in education institution. Illiteracy prevailed among peasants. Universities established in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta in 1857. Elite schools like Rajkumar College, Mayo College and Bombay’s Cathedral School set up to produce ‘Westernised Oriental Gentlemen’ (where the term ‘wogs’ comes from). After 30 years following 1857, around 60,000 Indians entered universities, mainly studying Arts with 2000 studying Law. o 1/3 of Calcutta students graduating by 1882 entered government service. Slightly more went into legal profession. Graduates of 3 universities accounted for around 1100 appointments to government service. Social reformer Mary Carpenter visited India 4 times between 1886-1875. Helped establish a corps of British teachers for India and girls’ schools in Bombay and Ahmedabad and college to train female Indian teachers. c) What was the impact on the economy? Railways, though built for strategic reasons to affirm British rule and control across India through transporting personnel and soldiers, benefitted India economically. The British mainly employed Anglo-Indians and Christian Indians who were regarded as loyal to the Raj to run railways, which increased jobs. Some European-style factories built however since bulk of manufactured goods came from Britain, there was no heavy industry. India was unable to develop industries of its own as it once did. 19  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 o Tea plantations increased from 1 in 1851  295 in 1871. o Domestic production of raw cotton exported to Britain increased in 1880s and 1890s. Subsistence farming prevailed. Jobs were provided in the civil service, police, army and as clerks. British offered markets for Indian agricultural products, however only for products that were high yielding, like rye, barley and coarse rice. India became dependent on imports and food imports and consumption per head declined. d) What was the impact on attitudes of the British? British believed rule was liberating for Indians. Whig reformist T.B. Macauley believed educating Indians to ensure they became ‘English in taste, in opinions, in morals’ justified British domination. How were the Boers treated in the years How were the Bantu treated in the years 1857- 1857-1890? 1890? British Cape Colony bordered Dutch Bantu land was eroded by white settlers. republics of Orange Free State and Discovery of diamonds and gold Transvaal, who had been in region increased wealth but only benefitted since 1833 and moved north from settlers. Natal, which Britain annexed in Laws passed at insistence of mining th 1845. During first ½ of 19 century, companies that limited right of black relations between British and Boers Africans to have claims over mines or to was peaceful and British had trade in their products. Black Africans recognised Boer states in 1950s, relegated to manual labour. Forbidden though claiming some control over by law to live where they wanted and territories. Discovery of diamonds in forced to stay in segregated 1867 near Kimberely on the Vaal neighbourhoods and compounds. River in West Griquland, bordering Orange Free State, triggered ‘diamond rush’ attracting white settlers and native Bantu to region. In 1868, British annexed Basutoland (land of Khoi Khoi and Sotho people) claiming indigenous Africans were seeking British protection against Boers. In 1871, British also took West Griqualand. Following annexation, 2000 Griqua trekked eastwards to establish Griqualand East in 1873. This was also annexed by Britain in 1874. British went on to propose federation of British and Boer territories in 1875, Boers rejected. 20 AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 Area suffered from extreme instability as both British and Boers tried exerting control over valuable area for traders. In Xhosa War of 1887-88, British easily disarmed neighbouring tribesmen and annexed communities to Cape. Boers struggled with Pedi tribe, who maintained independence in eastern Transvaal. British announced annexation of Transvaal in 1877, claiming defence of white European settlers against Pedi and Zulus. Boers reluctantly accepted and British launched invasion of Zululand in 1879. British defeated Zulus therefore Boers declared total independence from Britain in 1880. Boers turned on British: attacked army garrisons across Transvaal and won series of victories culminating in humiliating failure at Majuba Hill in February 1881, where over 150 Britons killed. British forced to sign Convention of Pretoria, recognising Boer self- government in Transvaal though Britain still claimed right to control external affairs. In 1884, arrival of German presence in south-West Africa rose fears of German-Boer alliance. Britain consequently annexed Bechuanaland between German South-West Africa and Transvaal to prevent union. In 1886, new gold discoveries at Witwatersand near Transvaal capital of Pretoria was eagerly sought by trading companies, bringing mass of non-Boer Europeans (known as Uitlanders) into Transvaal, including Cecil 21  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 Rhodes. Cecil Rhodes received charter for ‘British South Africa Company’ in October 1889 seeking to enrich self and Empire. Aim was to create continuous British land route from Cape Town to Egypt. In September 1890, Rhodes’ company established fort at Salisbury in Mashoanaland, home to Shona people, aiding British control in the region. British dominance in South Africa was not assured however. Section 2: Imperial consolidation and Liberal rule, c1890-1914 What countries in Africa did Britain take control of in the years 1890-1914? Explain why and how: 1) Ashantiland British actions in Ashantiland are typical of how they acted to protect own territories. In 1890s, tired of skirmishes with the Ashanti in trying to claim coastal land, the British demanded their king (Prempeh), turn over remainder of his empire to Britain as protectorate. This led to fourth Anglo-Ashanti War. Britain conquered Ashanti territories and forced Prempeh from his throne in 1896. A further and final uprising in 1900 led to Britain’s formal annexation of the Kingdom in 1900 and it was formally incorporated into the Gold Coast colony in 1902. 2) Nigeria British laid claim to Nigeria by virtue of occupation of Royal Niger Company, established in 1876, and by agreement with French in 1890. French agreed to recognise Britain’s domination in area in return for Madagascar. The British government took over the responsibilities of the Royal Niger Company and established direct British control in the north in 1900, the south in 1906. Nigeria was eventually unified in 1914. 3) Uganda In the 19th century, Anglican and French Catholic missionaries as well as Zanzibari 22  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 Muslims lived in Buganda achieved success in converting people. In 1886, King Mwanga asserted authority, executing 30 Catholics & Protestants, causing to civil war. Promised British he’d hand over some sovereignty to Imperial British East Africa Company in return for becoming king again. In 1890, he signed a treaty with Lord Lugard on behalf of Imperial British East Africa Company, ceding powers over revenue, trade and administration of justice to company. Transferred to crown in 1894 and Buganda became a protectorate, as part of Uganda. Britain constructed Ugandan railway from Mombosa in 1896 to connect coast with the fertile lands bordering Lake Victoria, which consolidated Britain’s takeover of both the East Africa Protectorate and Uganda. o 660 miles, took 5 years and £5 million to build and took lives of around 2500 labourers, usually due to accidents, disease and also wildlife. Known as ‘Lunatic Line’ as crazy events took place during construction: i.e. Tsavo Incident, where around 35-100 rail workers were attacked and eaten by 2 lions. 4) Kenya British interests in Kenya dated back to Berlin Conference. Offered route to Uganda. British made use of succession dispute between native Mazrui and Muslim majority to force control. Sheikh Rashid took up arms against British, obtaining weapons from the Germans, taking the British 9 months to quell. Eventually, this became part of British East Africa. 5) Zanzibar Ceded to British influence as part of 1890 treaty between Germans and British establishing spheres of influence. Declared protectorate of British Empire in 1890 and installed their own pupper (Sultan Thuwani). Died in 1896 mysteriously in his palace, amidst rumours of poison. His cousin Khalid rose quickly to power which concerned the British, whom they asked to stand down. When he refused, a naval bombardment of the palace took place. It was infamous in being the shortest war, lasting 38 minutes, when he stood down. 6) Nyasaland British sought control of Nyasaland because it was discovered by Livingstone and was on shore of the Lake Nyasa. Faced Portuguese-backed Arab attacks until it became of Cecil Rhodes’ British South Africa Company in 1891. Guerrilla warfare continued on and off until 1897 and eventually became part of British South Africa Protectorate in 1907. Describe the Sudan campaign: Mahdist rebellion of 1881, which brought about death of General Gordon in 1885 in Khartoum, left the area in weakened state. Khalifa Abdullah, who had succeeded Mahdi, trying to bring together his state but was plagued by war from internal resistance fighters and famine. Gladstone always wanted to withdraw troops from Egypt as soon as it was safe but 23  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 after Conservative Prime Minister Salisbury was elected in 1885, Salisbury had a growing concern for Sudan as he wanted to maintain Egypt for the Suez Canal. Salisbury was also worried about other European nations trying to intervene in Egypt. British were concerned about French and German expansion in East Africa. Britain signed a treaty with Germany in 1890 whereby they took Tanganyika and Britain took Kenya and Uganda. French although persuaded to keep eyes on West Africa began eyeing up East Africa later. Italian forces fighting Abdullah were seen as positive as it meant that their attention was away from Egyptian border however when they were defeated in 1896, this divisionary support was lost. The incident at Adowa in 1896 gave Britain an excuse for his campaign in the Sudan as he could argue for it due to African barbarianism. Kitchener was appointed Chief of Egyptian Army in 1896 and given orders to penetrate Sudanese territory as far as Dongola, but Kitchener was determined to go further as far as Khartoum and establish control of Sudan. Additional forces and imperialist support helped him succeed at the Battle of Omdurman. Kitchener was then ordered to go to Fashoda on the headwaters of the Nile, where French expedition arrived. Both laid claims to the region but the meeting wasn’t particularly fiery and in Britain, the ‘Fashoda incident’ was viewed with fear as talks of war with the French arose. In agreements in 1899, the French promised to stay out of the Nile in return for territory further west. Also, a British and Egypt agreement led Egyptian-Sudan to be established as a ‘condominium’ whereby Sudan would be run with Egyptian support. Describe the Jameson Raid: Idea of British confederation of South Africa was pushed in 1890s, largely to counter German territorial gains and Boer confidence derived from Transvaal gold wealth. In 1895, gold seeking Uitlanders of the Transvaal, who were being denied citizenship and voting rights by the Boer government, sought help of Cecil Rhodes, who was one of leading magnates of the Rand goldfield. This provided excuse for British intervention. Jameson raid was launched on Transvaal from British Rhodesia by Dr Jameson, Rhodes’ agent. They were going to work with the Uitlanders, who eventually pulled out, to rise against the Boer government. Without the Uitlanders, Rhodes still instructed Jameson to invade Transvaal with only 500 mounted police. Defeated easily: Jameson and 12 companions sentenced to imprisonment by a British court. Rhodes forced to resign. Although Britain never formerly opposed it, Chamberlain covertly gave support by not doing anything. He didn’t want war but didn’t want British influence weakened and when trying to sort the situation with Boers, talks broke down in 1899. The Boers, anxious to strike a blow before the British South African Army could be reinforced, invaded British territory and sieged Ladysmith in Natal. This led to Second Boer War. Initially the Boers had some success, but British poured in nearly 400,000 imperial troops at £250 million cost. General Kitchener and Roberts also led campaigns. Even then, Boers weren’t defeated till 1902. The Peace of Vereenignig in May 1902 ended war. Boers acknowledged themselves as 24  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 British subjects and Boer republics became British colonies with promise of self- government as other white settler colonies did. Granted in 1905 and in 1908, Prime Ministers of Transvaal, Orange Free State, Cape Colony and Natal drew constitution for ‘Union of South Africa’. The Union of South Africa became a dominion in 1910. What were the main reasons for British expansion in Africa in the years 1890-1914? STRATEGIC, ECONOMIC AND IMPERIALISTIC – Egyptian expansion was perhaps because of Suez Canal. Zanzibar and Uganda establishment was because of fact it allowed consolidation of East African expansion  Ugandan Railway, 660 miles was to allow coast and highlands direct access. Kenya expanded into as it offered route to Uganda. Cape Colony and Transvaal conflict rooted from Uitlanders and gold  Rhodes’ actions were not liked by British but they had to defend British interest  eventually led to Union of South Africa in 1910. EUROPEAN RIVALS – Nigeria established because Britain already had charter company (Royal Niger Company established 1879) in the region and French interests grew. Zanzibar was eyed by the Germans and settled in 1890 treaty. Sudan annexed due to Fashoda incident with French and Italians and French eyeing up territories before however this was finally settled in 1899 when the French agreed to not push onto Nile. PROTECTING OWN TERRITORIES – Ashantiland annexed in 1896 when Prempeh was forced from throne due to them causing skirmishes in trying to annex territory on the coasts of West Africa and the Gold Coast. How did Britain administer India in the years 1890-1914? a) How was India governed? Head of government was Viceroy backed by Indian Civil Service, which was almost entirely white British and recruited from Oxford and Cambridge. Ensured regime was secure, profitable and content for natives. Strict restrictions on size of service because pay and pensions were costly  no more than 3-4 per district. Rule required collaboration with natives and rulers. Education and expansion of railways enabled Indians to learn English and modernisation. Economic and social development meant Britain had to interfere economically and physically  tax collection and city/urban growth. Indian Civil Service often relied on ‘divide and rule’ to hold British rule in India, emphasising divisions between race, language, religion, caste, occupation and region. Some degree of Indian representation in provincial councils in reforms of 1892 and 1909 acknowledged but British executive influence prevailed and exploited division between educated Indians and illiterate rural masses to create ‘Anglo-Indian’ administrative elite. Many Indian elite accepted British rule as route for future and accepted British values. b) Who was Lord Curzon? Viceroy from 1899-1905. Very responsive towards Indian demands. Mindful of growing criticisms which emanated from professional ‘middle class’ Indians and their representative body, the Indian National Congress, which was established in 1885 to campaign for home rule. o Members of Congress were often cautious (they sung British national anthem in 25 AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 proceedings), they criticised British trading arrangements, restraints on industry and heavy taxation to Indians to pay for high-earning British civil servants. o Other groups came from social and humanitarian groups such as ‘The Servants of India Society’ which was active among ‘Untouchable’ community at bottom of caste system and wanted reforms for old restrictive laws and practices. Curzon made changes in civil service to improve efficiency and founded Imperial Cadet Corps in 1901, giving native princes and elite figures military training and ‘special’ officer commissions. Reformed universities and police, lowered taxes and adopted gold standard to ensure stable currency. Set up Commerce and Industry Department, promoting industry and an Agricultural Department, sponsoring research and overseeing establishment of agricultural banks. Projects ranged from preservation of ancient monuments to railway expansion and irrigation. Had a focus on defence against international powers at time, Russia. In 1901, the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) was created to protect border from Russia fears. Merged with north-western areas of Pashtun of Afghans with Punjab with Chief Commissioner put in place. Mounted temporary invasion of Tibet in 1903-4 to counter Russia’s perceived ambitions in area and two counties also clashed over influence in Persia. c) What happened with the Partition of Bengal? Curzon decided Bengal should be divided into 2 separate provinces: Muslim-majority province of East Bengal and Assam and Hindu-majority province of West Bengal. Uproar occurred amongst Hindu elite of West Bengal, many of whom owned land in East Bengal that they leased to Muslim peasants. Hindus saw partition as payback for criticisms of British rule and there were strikes, protests and boycotts of British-made goods. Surendranath Banerjee, who had twice been president of the INC, led campaigns and nationalism began to develop further. Curzon resigned as a result in July 1905. Consequently, the Muslim elite, which supported partition, formed the All India Muslim League in 1906 to safeguard rights of Indian Muslims & self-rule. Generally favourable to British rule however Hindu/Muslim division used to justify British control as only means of avoiding serious religious conflict. Bengal was ultimately reunited in 1911. d) What were the Morley-Minto Reforms? Viceroy Minto (1905-11) left to deal with fall-out of Curzon’s plans. Encouragement of Liberal government from 1906 and John Morley, Secretary of State of India, he introduced limited programme of reforms in 1909 in attempt to appease Bengalis. o Indian Councils Act of 1909 enabled 27 Indians to be elected from provincial constituencies to Viceroy’s council, which advised Viceroy and assisted in making of laws. Though elections were held on a narrow franchise and, in some cases, representatives were chosen by the British, reform provided for greater Indian participation in government. o Further democratic reform in 1910 meant elections in enlarged provincial councils 135 Indians were able to secure seats across the subcontinent and play 26  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 a greater part in government at a provincial level. e) Who was Viceroy Hardinge? From 1910-16, he ruled and made reforms to deal with partition of Bengal. He used the opportunity of King-Emperor George V’s visit to India in 1911 as an opportunity to reunite Bengal. He moved the Indian capital from Calcutta to Delhi (a Muslim stronghold) as a means of undermining revolutionary Hindu groups, and the monarch laid the foundation stone of the new capital, New Delhi. His declaring war on India’s behalf raised hopes for a ‘new deal’ for Indian home-rule, leading to the Montagu Declaration of 1917, which promised eventual self-rule. How did Britain administer Egypt in the years 1890-1914? a) What problems did The British face in Egypt? Egypt was not technically ‘British’ until 1914, when it officially became a protectorate. It was only under military occupation, which had originally been intended as temporary. Egypt still belonged to Turkey with the Sultan as the Khedive’s overlord. The British tried reaching agreement with sultan in 1887 by which they’d withdraw troops after 3 years. When this came to nothing in 1890, British largely ignored Turkish rights and Sultan didn’t interfere. The Capitulations slowed down law-making regarding Europeans and in general. All foreigners in Egypt were granted privileges, once granted by Sultan, to protect Europeans from Muslim laws against Christians. E.g. a foreigner could claim right to be tried in his own country’s law courts. Any new Egyptian law affecting Europeans had to be approved by the governments of all countries represented in Egypt. The Caisse de la Dette (which included Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Russia, Italy as well as Britain) controlled Egypt’s finances. About ½ of the country’s revenue went to paying European bond-holders. Members of Caisse could prevent British Consul- General from spending Egypt’s money on matters they disapproved of - plans to use Egyptian money to finance the re-conquest of the Sudan were, for example, thwarted by Russia and France. o After Fashoda incident in 1898, the British and French grew closer and in 1904 signed an Entente Cordiale, by which French agreed to respect British special rights in Egypt for return of British recognition of French take-over of Morocco  Caisse de la Dette ceased to control Egyptian finances and became only a debt-collection agency for foreign bondholders. The Mixed Courts also, which had been set up to deal with cases involving both Egyptians and Europeans and were presided over by European and Egyptian judges, weren’t always supportive of British. b) What benefits did the British bring economically and socially? Egypt had a partially-elected parliament, consisting of an Advisory Council of Laws and a General Assembly – but all Egyptian government ministers had ‘support’ of a British adviser. If they resisted British advice or interference, they’d be dismissed. Number of Britons working in government in Egypt steadily increased. In 1885, there were only about 100, by 1905 there were over 1000. 27 AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 Consul-General Evelyn Baring helped wipe Isma’il Pasha’s debt of £70 million and develop Egypt’s economy and infrastructure. Baring made cutbacks to Egypt’s military and bureaucracy, revitalised economy by improving communications and investing in irrigation schemes (carried out by British engineers, who’d worked on similar ones in India), improved conditions for Egyptian labourers and introduced better sanitation and health services in towns and stimulated cotton and sugar production. o Within 10 years, exports of cotton and sugar had trebled and population had risen from 7 → 10 million. o Baring oversaw rapid expansion of tourism. Thomas Cook & Son became Egypt’s largest employer – providing jobs in hotels, houseboats and excursions. Many wealthy enjoyed to ‘winter’ in Egypt. However, most were advised against mixing with locals. o Example of irrigation system built was Aswan Dam. 18 metres high and ¼ of a mile long built to hold back waters of Nile. Cost £2 million, opened in 1902 and enabled ½ a million acres of former desert to be irrigated with water from its reservoir, enabling year-round cultivation. Eldon Gorst, successor of Baring, brought more Egyptians into government to weaken national party. Kitchener in 1913 established new Legislative Assembly, replacing Advisory Council of Laws and General Assembly, consisting of greater number of elected members (66) and 17 appointed nominees (Egyptian > British). However, represented rich landowners > regular Egyptians. c) How did Britain maintain their interests in Egypt? Baring reformed Egypt’s army, placing 6000 British troops within to ensure interests weren’t jeopardised by military or popular disturbances and placed under command of General Kitchener. Changes were made to law courts, police and education though Baring was sceptical extending educational opportunities since he’d seen growth of nationalist movements in India. Egyptians were rarely offered more than a few years of elementary schooling and it wasn’t until 1909 that a new university was founded. Gorst imposed tighter censorship of press in 1909 and used various penal measures to quell growing nationalist within Egypt but never worked as German government provided funds to fuel anti-British sentiment. Kitchener established Legislative Assembly with British nominees, thus increasing dominance. Also, curbed nationalist sentiment in Sudan. d) In what ways did the Egyptian Nationalists and British clash? By late 1890s, growing middle-class nationalist movement fuelled by newspapers which attacked British for failing to deal with corruption of Khedive’s government and for doing little to help Egypt’s poor. British failed to promote Egyptian cloth-making industry, providing jobs for unemployed, to keep Lancashire cloth-spinning industries alive. Nationalists also complained about lack of opportunities for educated Egyptians. A National Party formed in 1881 but revived in 1893 as secret society, attracting Egyptian lawyers and professionals, many educated in Egyptian and European establishments. Sought end of British occupation and own representative government. 28  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 Cromer largely ignored demands but appointed an Egyptian as minister for Education. National press horrified by 1906 Denshawai incident, clash between British officers and Egyptian villagers where group of British officers angered residents by pigeon-shooting for sport, the pigeons being bred by villagers for food. Officer’s gun shot and hit a woman and Egyptians ran over the officers, killing them. 52 arrested, some being killed for murder and some serving hard labour  questioning of British rule. What was the British ‘Native Policy’? Most successful form of ‘native policy’ was in Dominions, essentially independent and used for preservation of global power. Idea that local elites used to facilitate British rule and uphold British interests. Those who supported British were given administrative positions, positions of power or material reward or sometimes even put in power, i.e. Sultan Hamad in Zanzibar. ‘Native policy’ also often involved favouring one group against another. British East Africa for example, Masai were favoured and rewarded with cattle and tokens of office. Buganda’s king maintain autonomy and chiefs were given land as reward for loyalty. Cheap, maintained existing power structures and legitimised British authority. How was British colonial policy affected by international relations? a) At home Preferred ‘splendid isolation’ after Napeolonic Wars, relying on status of army however challenged with alliances of Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1870 and Italy in 1882. Britain could no longer maintain ‘two power standard’ where it matched two strongest naval powers, instead settling for 60% margin of Germany. Talks of Dominion fleet at 1909 Imperial Conference. Imperial Conference of 1911 communicated vulnerability of Dominions without British maritime supremacy. South African government promised to commit troops in war. British industrial power waning in 1900s and maintaining dominance amongst European powers became difficult  change of naval approaches to reliance on France for Egypt and Mediterranean interests and British interests towards mainland Europe. b) France Border problems with French in West Africa. Nigeria agreed upon in 1898 as Lord Salisbury said interests of Royal Niger Company were in interest of Britain. Tried claiming Sudan in 1896. Fashoda Incident of 1898 – tension yet resolved peacefully and Sudan recognised as British. Signed a military agreement with Russia in 1892 followed by alliance in 1894. Signed Entente Cordiale in 1904 with British but didn’t provide much security. Triple Entente signed between Britain, Russia and France in 1907. Secret military conversations about Mediterranean and Middle East took place since 1905. Strength of British support tested in 1905 with Moroccan crises when Kaiser visited in 1905 threatening French interests, weeks of discussions resulting in British siding with French in Algeciras Conference. Kaiser sent warship to port of Agadir to ‘prevent French invasion’ in 1911 and British prepared royal navy for war. Kaiser gave way and sent Panther home. 29  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 c) Germany Supported anti-British sentiments in Egypt by funding national parties, supported Boers in Boer War by sending telegram to Transvaal and supplied them with weapons after Jameson raid in 1897, financed railway construction from Constantinople to Baghdad forming warm relations with Ottoman Empire  seen as provocative in trying to establish foot in trade markets in India and counter Britain’s dominance of High Seas. Spheres of influence organised between two in Eastern Africa, 1890. Uganda recognised as British and Upper Nile recognised as British. Clashes of 1905 and 1911 regarding Morocco  Germany questioned French interests in Morocco in 1905 and British sided with French, Germany sent Panther ship to prevent French invasion in 1911 and British prepared Royal Navy for war. German invasion of Belgium, who was neutral and Britain vowed to protect, led to ultimatum which Germany refused to respond to  World War I. d) Russia Constant tensions over Afghanistan. Treaty of Gandamak in 1879 established British foreign policy over Afghanistan. Conflict between Russia and Britain known as ‘The Great Game’ Russian railway to Tashkent (close to Afghanistan) caused concern for British. Movement of troops near Afghanistan in 1900 when Britain was stretched by Boer War led to concerns. Threats near Mediterranean near Toulon and near Suez Canal  India. Russian defeat in war with Japan in 1905 led to Triple Entente in 1907. What was the Scramble for China? In 1890s, British commercial and financial interests challenged by other powers. Actual size of British trade with China was small and investment was only 1% of total investment abroad. In 1895, China was defeated by Japan. China agreed to pay Japan £30 million as part of peace agreements, only possible to be paid through borrowing. Frantic scramble to lend China money it needed, in return for ports, railways, banks, mining rights and control of customs revenues. Britain took control of some ports, Hong Kong and 2800 miles of railway concession. China was divided into spheres of influence with Britain controlling Yangtze valley - the commercial heartland. How did trade and commerce develop in the years 1890-1914? a) What goods were brought to Britain and from where? Wool and sugar from South Africa and Australia. Dairy produce and lamb from New Zealand. Beef and wheat from Canada. o Canada supplied upwards of 10% of Britain’s beef and 15% of flour by 1914. West African timber, cocoa, rubber, peanuts and palm oil. b) Describe trade at this time – where it went, where it came from, what was traded, what did people think? Trade was plentiful with Empire to an extent. India in particular took 20% of total 30  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 British exports, worth almost £150 million, by 1914. However, calls for free trade grew. Imperial Federation League of 1884, which opened to promote closer colonial ties, was disbanded in 1893, reflecting waning interest in Empire’s commercial importance. Britain began trading more with non-imperial world, e.g. USA. o Most of food imports (cheese, apple, fresh mutton) came from non-imperial powers: only 10% came from Empire. In 1894, Britain imported most of wheat from USA. o Total trade worth in 1896 was £745 million. Between Empire, only £183 million. o In 1913, Britain imported 75% and exported around 63% of goods to non- Empire countries. Questioning towards African expansion. In 1897, whole of Tropical Africa was 1.2% of British exports and colonies began purchasing from foreign nations more. Reliance on Africa for rubber industries whilst French, Germans and Russians had own rubber synthesis fuelled anti-imperial resentment. c) Where did investment in Empire go? More investment overall. £2 billion → £4 billion between 1900-1913. Britain heavily invested in informal empire. ○ By 1914, had invested twice amount of French and three times amount of Germans overseas. ○ Allowed Britain to benefit as terms of trade (relationship between import/export prices) moved 10% towards Britain. Less money was invested in Empire: moreso into the USA and India as these projects provided bigger returns, as opposed to Empire investment which was ‘safe’. Fears of loaning to Empire fuelled by competing manufacturing. Colonial Stocks Acts of 1899 and 1900 facilitated number of infrastructure projects, including rail links into African interior from ports of Lagos and Mombasa. Forced use of Gold Standard → only a few countries didn't use it by 1908. Imperial Preference: a) What was it? Pro-imperialist Joseph Chamberlain, Conservative Colonial Secretary who convened 1902 London Colonial Conference, discussed imperial customs union, essentially giving preference to Empire via protective tariffs and prohibition of imports from non- imperial powers. Chamberlain believed in imperial preference as it would be useful in times of emergency. Believed it had potential for greater productivity and growth. b) Why was it unsuccessful? Met with resistance from manufacturing, shipping and banking industries whose interests were with free trade and wider international community rather than imperial economy. Death of imperial preference came in 1906 general election when Liberal party was elected, who favoured free trade. Colonies saw future with other imperial powers. Canada for example was considering commercial union with USA. 31  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 What were the role and influence of individuals in the years 1890-1914? (Who were they; How did they affect the empire? Were they successful?) Joseph Chamberlain Cecil Rhodes Believed effective use of Empire Believed Britain could civilise world. could sustain British prosperity and Helped establish British South Africa prestige. Believed imperial bonds Company in 1889 after First Boer War needed reinforcing if Empire was to and eventually called it Rhodesia in be preserved or if Britain wanted to 1895. stay as world power. Wanted to link Cape to British- Built Ugandan Railway, annexed dominated Sudan and Egypt. Annexed Ashantiland to Gold Coast, acquired Bechuanaland in 1885 in hopes of Royal NIger Company, oversaw establishing railway line from South to Jameson raid and Boer War. North Africa. In Colonial Conferences of 1897 and Resigned from post as Prime Minister in 1902, he proposed an imperial 1896 after Jameson raid. defence and customs union between self-governing colonies. Viewed as national hero during Boer War initially but as it dragged along, he was passed over for PM by Balfour in 1903. Resigned as Colonial Secretary and formed Tariff Reform League on importance of duty-free imperial market. Evelyn Baring Alfred Milner Consul-General in Egypt between Administrator that had served in Egypt 1883 and 1907. Saw himself as and as chairman of Board of Inland moral reformer just as much as Revenue. Ardent imperialist and hand- administrator. Believed long picked by Chamberlain to be HIgh occupation of Egypt was essential Commissioner of Southern Africa from and established ‘Granville Doctrine’ 1897. allowing Baring to dismiss Egyptian In 1898, when Kruger was elected ministers who refused to accept president of Transvaal, he said ‘there is British directives. no way out of the political troubles of Placed British officials in key South Africa except for reform or war’. ministries and created veiled Founded some English-speaking ‘Milner protectorate until 1907. Replaced Schools’ in Pretoria but mostly army with British soldiers, dealt remembered for taking Britain into Boer with budget, promoted irrigation War. projects (Aswan Dam) and helped Demanded full citizenship rights for bring economic prosperity. Tewfiq Uitlanders after 5 years residence and by was happy to let him do so. time of Bloemfontein Conference in When Tewfiq died, new Khedive 1899, he’d decided to declare war by wanted to overthrow British rule. October. Encouraged nationalist movement Left position as Governor of Cape and but Baring bullied him into took adminstration of areas of former submission. Regardded Egypt as Boer territories and Orange Free State 32  AQA A-Level History – Unit 1J: The British Empire, c1857-1967 something of battleground between annexed by Britain in 1901. civilised Christianity and Islam. Saw Negotiated Peace of Vereenignig in 1902 Islam as outdated Arab customs alongside Lord Kitchener, the military detrimental to modern Egypt. commander, and he was made a baron Took action to stop slave supply, in 1901 and a viscount in 1902 for his discourage slave-ownership, abolish services. forced labour, outlaw punishment Had a group of young administrators and by use of kurbash, halt import of lawyers known as ‘Milner’s Kindergarten’ hashish by establishing Camel working to resettle Boers and promote Corps, regulate alcohol sales economic growth. Hoped to attract licenses, stop gambling and money- British settlers and introduce English lending. language education however more Forced to resign in 1906 after British residents left than arrived. British Denshawai incident, where locals government decided to use Chinese were hung. Granted £50,000 labourers on three-year contracts and concession by Parliament for his they arrived in 1904 to fix shortfall in work in Egypt and devoted rest of gold-mining however they were live to a group protecting women’s mistreated. rights. In March 1906, a move was made to censure Milner but a counter-campaign by Bartle Frere expressed gratitude for his services. Ultimately, his treatment of the coolies contributed to the Conservatives losing in 1906. Viceroy Curzon Viceroy of India. Concern about Russian expansion led him to create North-West Frontier Province in 1901 and to dispatch military expedition into Tibet. Believed in moral imperial duty, certain of ‘the hand of Divine Providence behind the creation and expansion of an empire which is a supreme force for good in the world’. As Viceroy, worked to strengthen British India and appease them. Established commissions and legislation to improve India’s administration, like allowing Indian National Congress in 1895, establishing Commerce and Industry Department and Agricultural Department. Expanded provincial police, built 6000 miles of railway track to consolidate British rule in India, promoted medical and scientifi