M1-A&D coursenotes_v2 highlighted.pdf

Higher Nitec in Visual Merchandising Arts and Design Unit Code: DM 4025FP Version: 2.0 Institute of Technical Education Dated: Apr 2020 1  Contents Uni...

Higher Nitec in Visual Merchandising Arts and Design Unit Code: DM 4025FP Version: 2.0 Institute of Technical Education Dated: Apr 2020 1  Contents Unit Title Page 01 Materials 4 02 Lines 10 03 5 Elements of Shading 13 04 Form 15 05 Tone 20 06 Texture 22 06-A Crosshatching 26 07 Perspective 30 08 Proportions 38 09 Compositions 44 10 Negative and Positive Shapes 50 11 Techniques on Still-life Drawing 52 12 Composition for Landscape Drawings 55 12-A Landscapes 60 13 Figure Drawing 64 2 14 Proportion of the Human Body 72 15 Body Movement 83 16 Colored Pencil Techniques 93 17 Pen & Ink Techniques 103 18 Charcoal Techniques 108 19 Introduction to Design 114 20 Design Elements 116 21 Design Principles 133 22 Colors II 151 23 Gather Information 164 24 Creative Thinking 170 25 Art Movements 177 3 Unit 1 Materials Objectives: Students should be able to describe the basic materials used in drawing. 1.1 Getting Started Before starting a drawing, especially if you haven’t done any for a little while, do some warm-up doodles on a large sheet of paper. Use your arm from the shoulder and work quickly across the paper, varying the pressure and direction of the marks you are making in order to loosen up your arm. There are various ways of holding drawing instruments. When starting out, it’s important to hold your pencil in a way that feels comfortable and nature, while allowing you to work freely and quickly across the paper. After a while, you may want to try different handling methods, according to the effect you want to create – using the pencil on its point or its side, exerting heavy pressure or a light touch, making regular, controlled strokes, or fast gestural marks. The position of your drawing board or sketch pad is an important factor, too. Have it in as upright a possible as possible. If you don’t have an easel and are working sitting down, stand a drawing board on your knees and lean it against an object, such as chair back. Alternatively, hold it at the top to keep it upright. If you work with the paper flat on your knees or on a table, the angle of the perspective will slightly distort the image, making it almost impossible to record your observations accurately, and you will constantly be moving your head up and down to look from subject to paper. This makes consistent observation of subject more difficult than if you just move your head slightly from left to right. 4 1.2 Pencils The great range of pencils available today is the result of the careful selection of materials, which are ground very finely before being fired to the correct temperature, and encased in wood. Although pencils are usually graded, makes do vary, so select a brand that is readily available and that provides a wide range from which to make your choice. Starting at the hardest end of this range, we come to those marked H. Of these 6H is harder than 2H; this means that, when making a line, the point will remain sharp. It will deliver only a fine mark and, because little material is being deposited, this will be a pale grey. H is followed by F, and then HB marks the turning points towards an end which will grind down more quickly nut will deliver a thicker and darker line. A 6B pencil will be softer and make a darker line than a 2B. One of the most common errors made by beginners is to select too hard a pencil for drawing use. A 2B grade is recommended to gain experience, as it can be used to draw thin lines as well as rich solid darks. If the point of a pencil is sharpened with a rotating sharpener, a fine even-width line will initially be achieved, but quite soon (and the softer the grade, the quicker this happens) the end will become blunt. Using a craft knife for sharpening pencils can gives your pencil a longer, blade-like end and a more chiseled tip. Fig. 1 The wood should be cut well back so that the shoulder a Mechanically sharpened pencil does not get in the way. Expect to resharpen your pencils b The chisel shape of the tip quite frequently. c A long, lean shape gives considerable versatility d A poor tip left when too little wood is removed 5 Drawings showing marks produced by a range of pencils 6 The Range of Pencil Leads 7 1.3 Eraser Graphite pencils can be erased easily, although tests should always be made because of the difference in textures and particularly in surface strength between various papers. If a drawing instrument dents the paper surface then no amount of rubbing will remove it and the trough will blemish a. A standard eraser further work. Few people who start drawing are happy to begin without an eraser to hand. It is important to buy one of good quality, which probably means the most expensive. Choose a reputable manufacturer, and don’t use one of the cheap varieties made for children, as these can spread rather than remove marks. In most cases, b. Putty eraser used backwards and forwards you can cut your erasers diagonally in half to give a pointed end for delicate removal. The kneaded eraser is made from soft, pliable putty rubber. It can be shaped to a point and lift off the highlights in drawings. c. Putty eraser used lightly to pat off an area A torchon is a tightly wound stump of paper. You can buy one from an art shop; or simply use a cotton bud or tightly rolled absorbent paper. You use it to lift out highlights, smudge, and blend soft materials such as graphite pencil, pastel, and charcoal. It is easier to control than a finger, so you can create fine smudges or lift off in small areas. 8 1.4 Paper There are many types of paper (support) that are ideal for pencil drawing. The surface of the paper will affect the types of marks that you make. A smooth paper, such as hot-pressed, is good for fine, detailed work, whereas a textured paper, such as NOT or cold-pressed, is more suited to softer pencils and looser lines. Ingres, used for pastel drawing, has fine ‘laid’ lines that add texture to pencil marks. Cartridge or drawing paper that is neither both too rough nor too smooth is a good all- purpose surface for pencil drawings and is readily available in loose sheets or in sketchbooks. Acid- free paper will stand the ravages of time without yellowing. Smooth cartridge or drawing paper was used for this quick portrait sketch. Fluid lines and loose shading can be quickly laid down on a smooth paper. This scene of a French vineyard was made on a rough watercolor paper with a 4B pencil. The texture of the paper shows through the broad pencil marks and enhances the tonal range. 9 Unit 2 Lines Objectives: Students should be able to produce different variations of lines. 2.1 Overview Line is the most direct means of drawing, and has far more potential for varied and expressive use than you might at first imagine. Practice drawing regularly, so producing line becomes a natural, unconscious activity, freeing you to concentrate your energies on observing your subject. 2.2 Creating Lines Lines can be of different qualities. They can be thick or thin, heavy or light, bold or tentative, continuous or broken. A series of dots or dashes create an implied line. Alternatively, a line can be used singly, or several fine lines can be used together, creating a vibrating outline that has a sense of movement. To get the darkest tone from a pencil, you must put pressure on. Take the pressure off for the lightest tones. Always sharpen your pencil to a long tapering point; this enables you to use it at a flatter angle for shading. Naturally, there are many ways you can hold a pencil, but the three holds illustrated on this page are very important. The ‘short hold’ is the only way you can draw carefully with complete control. The ‘long hold’ gives you less control but more freedom with your lines. The ‘flat hold’ is for very free work and for shading in large areas of tone. Now practice these different ways of using your pencil – the more practice the better your sketches will be. SHORT HOLD For this drawing position, hold the pencil in exactly the same way that you do for writing. This will give you complete control of your drawn lines. 10 LONG HOLD Hold your pencil 5-7.5 cm (2-3 inch) from the point. This will allow you more freedom of movement over the paper. FLAT HOLD Hold the pencil almost flat on the paper, held off by your thumb and finger. This method allows you to work using the long edge of the lead for flat broad strokes and for covering large shaded areas. Practice using your pencil Lines can delineate volumes, define edges, imply direction and movement, or create texture. The speed at which a line is drawn also affects the way the onlooker will perceive it. Linear marks made fast and freely will encourage the eye to move across the paper faster, and will therefore generate energy, whereas slowly drawn; more considered lines will be quieter and more static. 11 To suggest that objects are receding into the distance, lines and marks should get thinner and smaller in those areas that are further away. Lines in the foreground should remain strong and hold. 12 Unit 3 5 Elements of Shading Objectives: Students should be able to identify the five elements of shading in a drawing. 3.1 Overview To draw something realistically, the artist needs to understand light and value. Understanding these two factors helps you to better the 5 elements of shading which will enhance your drawing and make it look more three dimensional. The technique is to learn how to use value. As light hits a form (whether be it round or flat) it creates a value. Value is the relative degree of light or shadow on that form. Value changes often occur gradually, particularly on objects that are curved, without any hard edges. 3.2 The five elements of shading There are 5 elements of shading that are essential to realistically depicting an object’s form. With any of these missing, your work will appear flat. With the correct placement of these 5 elements and gentle blending of the tones together, you can create the form of any object. This is the darkest tone found on your drawing. It is always opposite of the light source. In the case of the sphere, it is found 1) Cast shadow underneath where the sphere meets the paper. This area is void of light because, as the sphere protrudes, it blocks light and casts a shadow. This gives an object a nice sense of space This dark gray tone can be found in the area called the shadow 2) Shadow Edge edge. This area is where the sphere is turning back away from you. This is a midgray. It’s the area of the sphere that’s in neither direct 3) Halftone light nor shadows. This is a light gray. Reflected light is always found along the edge 4) Reflected Light of an object and separates the darkness of the shadow edge from the darkness of the cast shadow. This is the white area, and it’s the strongest point where the light 5) Full Light source is hitting the form. 13 3.3 Contrasting edges indicate shading In order to indicate a light edge of an object, you must place it against a dark background. As you can see in the sphere below, the darker background makes the entire drawing seem less intense. The tones of the sphere seem subtler in contrast. Notice how there is no discernable outline around the sphere. All you see is tone against tone, which creates the edges. 14 Unit 4 Form Objectives: Students should be able to produce the impression of form and volume in their drawing. 4.1 Overview To produce the impression of form and volume in your drawings, you need to capture the way in which light falls on the subject. The best way to capture the effect of light hitting an object is to describe the absence of light – i.e. shadows – in those parts of the subject where they occur. By using a full range of tones, from light to dark, you can build up an impression of solidity and three- dimensional nature of objects. Strong contrast between light and dark will draw the eye in to your picture, and will also seem to advance in a drawing, whereas less contrasting tones appear to recede. This is a useful way to create the illusion of space. This effect – known as aerial perspective – can be seen on misty days, when shapes are simplified and tones are reduced, and forms seem to fade into the distance. MODELLING A CUBE The three visible sides of the cube are defined by clearly distinguished light, mid and dark tones of the same color. The tone has been built up gradually by putting a light wash over all three sides, a mid tone over two sides and a dark tone over one side. This technique insures that the cube remains unified. 15 MODELING A SPHERE AND CONE Spheres and cones have gradually curving surfaces, and are modeled through smooth graduations in tone. The progression from light to dark creates the impression of a solid, rounded object. The reflected light on the opposite side to the highlight on each form is essential for conveying a fully three- dimensional effect. AERIAL PERSPECTIVE A sense of depth and distance is created through the progressive lightening of tones in a scene as it recedes toward the horizon. TONE AND COMPOSITION The strongest contrast between light and dark create interest and draw the eye, so they are placed around the boat, which is the main focus of the picture. The strength of tone and degree of contrast is reduced elsewhere, to avoid competing. The boat has been placed well off-center, but is balanced by the shape of the foliage on the river bank. 16 If you look at fig. A, you will see that this shaded area without any light source has no form and just looks like a flat silhouette. However, once we add a light source, see fig. B, this light hits the object and creates tonal areas which show its form as a box. If we look at this simply, the shape of the box is made clear to us by dark areas against light areas. Even the top of the box at its two furthest edges is formed only by pencil lines but these show dark against the white background. In fig. C, the light source is coming from the right and this changes the tonal values on the sides of the box. The light is stronger on the top than it is on the right-hand side and the darkest area is on the front of the box where there is very little light and it is in shadow. Now look at fig. D. The light is coming from the left again but you can see how, by using light and shade (dark against light), this box is made to appear to be without a lid. 17 The boxes from A to E are the same shape as the boxes on the previous page. Look at each one carefully and see how, by using dark and light tones, the form of the box has changed. In A it has become a ‘sleeve’, while B would be either the same box turned around, or a box on its side without a lid. In C the inside of the box has been partitioned to make one part of it solid. Box D is a box with its lid open and box E is an aquarium. So although the same outline was drawn for all these boxes, they were made to look different by tonal shading. 18 In fig. F, we have several boxes of different sizes placed together. Look at the ringed areas where two equal tones merge together. The corner of the box is lost where the dark is against dark and appears again where the dark goes against light. This is called ‘lost and found’. In real life, shapes are lost to the eye when their tonal values are equal. This help to make a painting look more realistic so let it happen in your sketches, unless you want that particular area to read (to show its shape or form). Fig. G is the same as F, except that the light source is coming from the opposite direction. 19 Unit 5 Tone Objectives: Students should be able to the grayscale and planar tonal value scales. 5.1 Overview Tone refers to the darkness or lightness of a color, and also to the relationship between colors. Thus yellow will have a paler tone than black. However, tone is more often used to signify the amount of light being reflected from a single color. If we look at a car standing in the street, we can see that the top of the roof appears paler than the lower part of the doors. Of course, this is helped by the fact that the surface is very shiny, but matt-surfaced objects will respond to light in a similar way. Look at any solid object with light falling on it from a single direction, and you’ll see that surfaces away from the light have a darker tone than those in the stronger light. The folds in a jacket sleeve show this well, also. As with line, the quality of tone you produced with pencil or charcoal will partly depend on the texture of the paper. With a smooth paper, you can produce dense, solid, flat areas of tone. In contrast, when you are working on rough paper, the areas of tone will be darker but broken, with specks of paper showing through, unless you smudge the area to work the medium into the pits in its surface. Pencils can be used theirs point, drawing lines in one direction that are close that they merge together, or on the side of the lead. To get an even, streak less area of shading, hold the pencil 20 firmly near the point and exert consistent pressure. The larger, soft, sketching and charcoal pencils will build up tone more quickly than their graphite counterparts. Charcoal can be used to produce large areas of tone quickly, preferably on medium or rough paper. Work the charcoal stick in different directions to create smooth, solid areas, or drag it on its side across the paper for a broken effect that allows specks of white paper to shine through. Increase the weight of tone by exerting more pressure as you draw. If you want to build up more layers of charcoal, the paper won’t take any more, fix the drawing and then continue to work over the top. Charcoal can be rubbed or smudged with the finger or a paper stump, to manipulate it into place, or to produce a flat, solid area of tone. Beware of over-rubbing, blending, or smudging work, however, because it will make your picture look too flat and smooth, and you will lose the qualities of the surface textures. When you are using ink or a wash, you can vary the tone by diluting the wash to different degrees. Alternatively, you can use a wash with a consistent tone, but contrast this with the dry-brush technique, which creates a dragged, broken effect, for half-tones. Don’t try to include lots of different tones at the start of a drawing because this can be confusing. Instead, mass together similar toned areas into bigger shapes, using about five or seven tones in all. You can then add subtle variation within each shape to differentiate between individual elements. A TONAL SCALE The effect of these two dark-to-light scales is quite different: the smooth gradation (top) looks like a continuous surface, while the scale that jumps from one tone to the next (left) seems to move forward in space from light to dark. 21 Unit 6 Texture Objectives: Students should be able to explain the relationship between tactile and visual texture. 6.1 Overview The best way to capture textures is to think in terms of the textures that can be create with different media. It is possible to draw the fur on an animal with a fine pencil, for example, but a much more suggestive and interesting effect can be created by working in a medium such as gouache and dragging a brush loaded with dryish color over an area of wash or solid color. Pebbles on a beach can be drawn or painted, but they can also be created by spattering the paper with paint using a stiff stencil brush or an old toothbrush. A smooth, reflective surface can be conveyed through blended tonal contrasts and modulations done in pencil or charcoal. The nature of the paper surface can also enhance or hinder textural effects. Smooth textures are continuous, so if your subject includes predominantly smooth surfaces you would be best to work on a smooth paper. If you are using a rougher paper, make sure that the medium is worked into all the pits in the surface. Rough-textured surfaces are uneven and broken, so will help in creating the textured effects with pencils, chalks and so on, which can be dragged across the paper on their sides to create a broken effect. Soft surfaces may be rough or smooth, but being soft and giving, they undulate with dips and folds. With water-soluble media – pencils, paints or even soft pastel – soft textures can be described by working on to damp paper, creating a diffused effect. Pastel on paper over coarse Irregular and regular patterns with graphite stick. sandpaper. 22 If the textures in your subject are predominantly of one type, touches of other textures should be included, partly to add interest, but also because an effective way of emphasizing the texture of things is through contrasts with other textures. The degree of texture that is apparent in a subject will decrease with distance. This should be reflected in your drawings if you are not to negate effects of space and depth that you have created through other means, such as perspective or diminishing scale. 23 24 6.2 Stippling Stippling is used both to create texture and produce shading. It involves placing a series of dots close together or farther apart, depending on the effect that is required. Both pencils and pens lend themselves well to the technique. You can control the size of the dots by using pens of different nib sizes, or harder or softer pencils (the harder the pencil, the sharper the point you can achieve and the smaller the dot). Stippling enhances the effect of a crumbly surface of the bread – the areas appear to be “broken.” Stippling is a perfect way of conveying the texture of velvet. Changes in tone can be described very precisely, while varying the size of the dots helps to depict the smooth, slightly raised pile of the fabric. 25 Unit 6A Crosshatching Objectives: Students should be able to use crosshatching to build up areas of tone to describe forms and light. 6A.1 Overview Crosshatching is a way of building up areas of tone to describe forms and light. Many layers of hatching can built up in different directions to create a surface that has great depth and a rich, texture feel. It can be done with a wide variety of media, and in a precise or loose style. Crosshatching is done by drawing short lines parallel to each other in one direction, and then drawing a second layer over the top at an angle to the first. You can go on building up more lines in different directions until you have the desired depth of tone. One of the advantages of this technique against solid areas of tone is that, because the lines are laid down with gaps between them, however many layers you build up there will always be little specks of white paper showing through, which creates great luminosity. Crosshatching can be done with any media that will draw a line – pencils, pens, ballpoints, crayons, fine brushes. Chalks and pastels can use on their corners, or brought to some kind of point. It can be done in a formal, structured way or a loose, scribbly way, according to your own style and approach. Try some different styles, letting the areas of hatching develop loosely across the sheet of paper. You can vary the weight and density of areas of crosshatching according to the medium you use and how widely you space the lines. Heavy lines closely spaced will create a dense surface, whereas light, widely spaced lines will create a lighter effect. It is best used on smooth and semi- rough papers, because a very rough surface breaks up the hatching lines to the point where they cease to be effective. Crosshatching can look stilted and un-natural when you first try it. The best way to get over this is to take a sheet of paper and experiment, letting patches develop freely across the paper, varying the weight and angle of the lines, and the spaces between lines. Then try drawing simple rounded shapes, such as apples and pears, gradually building up the tone in the shadow areas to create a sense of three-dimensional form. 26 VARIETY OF MEDIA Crosshatching can be done with any materials that make a line, from thick to fine, and can be adapted to suit your own style. 27 VARYING THE DIRECTION OF THE SURFACE Crosshatching done with straight lines laid over each other at right angles produces a flat surface. You can alter the density and overall tonal impression by varying the thickness of lines and the gap between them. If the crosshatched lines are curved, they will create the impression of a curved surface, and by altering the angle at which the lines are laid over each other, you can increase or decrease the degree of the curve. By altering the direction and angle of the hatching across an area it is possible to produce the effect of a surface that changes direction. By making the angle more acute and gradually drawing the lines closer together, you can create the impression of a surface receding into the distance. 28  MODELLING FORM Crosshatching can be used to describe a gently curving form by building up the tone gradually from light to dark as the surface turns away from the light. Start with hatching in one direction over the whole form, breaking it where the highlight falls. Lay another layer at a different angle over all but the lightest area, another over the darker areas and so on, until you have the depth of tone of the darkest shadows. Crosshatching can also be used to create sharp contrasts in tone to describe abrupt changes in direction between one surface and another, such as the lit top side of the folded cloth against the dark side away from the light. The direction of the hatching lines follows the curving forms of the cloth, and the lines are always made at an angle to the surface being described, not parallel with the edges. 29 Unit 7 Perspective Objectives: Students should be able to describe the theory of perspective. 7.1 Overview Perspective is the name given to a series of fundamental observations that have been organized into “rules” that help to explain how objects appear smaller as their distance from the observer is increased. The modern system of measured perspective has now become very comprehensive, to the extent that if you have full working drawings and plans, even quite complex structures can be rendered with great accuracy as they would appear in the solid. Understanding the complex procedures used in these projections, however, is not necessary when the subject of your drawing is there in front of you. Indeed, if your powers of objective observation were absolutely impeccable, you would have no need of any of these rules. But most of us can use a little help when it comes to sorting out just what we actually seeing through our eyes, especially if what we seeing is a view as challenging in terms of perspective as, for example, a downhill street. Knowing the simple fact that horizontal lines appear to coverage at the horizontal lines appear to coverage at the horizon, and with just a few extensions of that rule, a bewildering series of directional lines of roof tiles, window ledges, doorsteps and so on will fall into place and make sense. 30 7.2 One-point perspective LOW HORIZON HIGH HORIZON First, decide where to draw the horizon, the line If you are looking down, the horizon will be where the earth meets the sky on a flat plain or over high. the sea. If you are looking up to include more sky, the horizon will be low in your view. VANISHING POINT DIMINISHING RAILROAD RAILS The horizontal edges of a vertical shape, such as a The same principle applies to parallel lines on billboard or the front of a house when viewed almost the horizontal plane – everyone is familiar with end-on, will appear to coverage toward a point on the the way that rails converge as they disappear horizon. Thereafter, all the other horizontal features into the distance. on that surface will “vanish” to the same point. HIDDEN HORIZON INTERIOR The plane of the earth is not really flat, of course – it Remember that the same rule applies indoors curves gently away out of sight, but for the purposes to cupboards, doors, tabletops and so on, even of perspective we treat it as being flat, and the though you may not be able to see the horizon horizon is where this flat plane meets the sky. If through them. buildings or mountains obscure your view of the horizon, you can discover where it is by finding two or more horizontal elements in the foreground and projecting them until they meet. 7.3 Measuring distances 31 Looking again at the railroad line on the previous page, you will see that the ties (sleepers) appear to be set closer together as they get smaller. It is quite easy to calculate just how much these spaces diminish as their distance away from your eye increases. All you need to know is one extra fact. If you draw the diagonals of a square or a rectangle, the point where they cross defines the middle line in both directions, so that the farther smaller half and the nearer larger half are both exactly the right sizes in perspective for that particular situation and vanishing point. This is very useful, because once you have achieved two receding rectangles, you can continue to project others backward into space (and forward, too). BISECTING IN PERSPECTIVE All equal divisions diminish in perspective in the same way as railway ties (sleepers). To enable you to measure this effect, first draw two horizontal lines and two vanishing lines representing the space you would like to repeat. PROJECTING INTO THE DISTANCE Next draw a line through the crossing point of the diagonals to the vanishing point. This bisects the rectangle the other way. If you then project a line through the halfway point to the far side (dotted line), its intersection with the vanishing edge marks the point from which you can draw the next rectangle. The dotted line is now the bisecting diagonal of the two combined. By repeating this maneuver, you can find the next rectangle, and so on into the distance. 7.4 Two-point perspective All the preceding diagrams show what is called single-point perspective. This assumes that the planes running across your vision are unaffected by perspective so that their parallel lines do not 32 converge. In fact this is almost never so – any variation from the absolutely straight-ahead view will produce some convergence. Distant Vanishing Point (VP) The second vanishing point (VP2) may be so far away as to be well out of your picture area, in which case you must either project to this point with a long rule, or make your judgment by eye. ABOVE These less extreme converging lines meet at the second vanishing point (VP2), and the system is therefore known as two-point perspective. ABOVE A rectangular block in two-point perspective with eye level above the subject. 7.5 Three-point perspective (Right) In most situations we can treat uprights as being vertical with no convergence; only when the uprights describe very tall structures will you see the verticals converging. When this occurs, there is a third vanishing point (VP3). 33  Looking Down (Right) If you look down on a high structure, such as a skyscraper, from a very high vantage point, the uprights will converge down towards the third vanishing point (VP3). This effect is most striking when your viewpoint is only a relatively short distance above the tall structure: the perspective from a high flying aircraft is much less noticeable. Looking Up (Left) If you need to tip your head and look up to such a structure, the third vanishing point (VP3) will be in the sky (the base of the building will be out of view, as shown by the circle). To see the whole building in one view you would need to be farther away and then the convergence of the verticals would be less extreme, or even undetectable. 7.6 Circles in perspective A circle seen in perspective is an ellipse. If your view of a circular disc is near your eye level the resultant ellipse will be rather thin, and as your eye level rises or lowers it becomes increasingly fatter. 34 You might expect that, as the more distant half rectangle in perspective appears smaller than the near one, the same would apply to the circle in perspective. Indeed it does, but it doesn’t look like this because its two differently shaped halves combine to make a perfectly symmetrical whole. The line dividing this symmetry along its longer length is called the major axis, and it is slightly displaced from the perspective halfway line, as you can see in the diagram below. The shorter width is the minor axis, and this always forms a right angle with the major axis, a fact that has particular relevance to the appearance of ellipses when they appear as wheels or sections of cylinders. A true ellipse can be mathematically defined and constructed by various means but with practice you soon learn to recognize the flowing, no-pointed and to draw it freehand. CAPTURING AN ELLIPSE (Right) The rear half of the circle in perspective is contained in the rear half of the surrounding square, and the nearer, rather differently shaped half fills the larger near half of the square. Remarkably, the combined shape forms this absolutely symmetrical oval shape. PERSPECTIVE ON AN ELLIPSE (Left) Just as a tall frame box seen from slightly above shows more of the base than the top, so a similarly seen cylinder will have a fatter lower ellipse than the one at the top. To help you to practice the different shapes that a circular object can make, take a cup or bowl and draw the top at different viewpoints, starting by looking straight on to the side, where only a straight line is visible. Tip the cup towards you and the more circular the shape will become. 35 7.7 Aerial perspective In landscape drawing and painting there are a few artistic principles that help to convey depth and distance where the rules of linear perspective do not apply. By using color, tone and texture you can add a sense of depth and suggest distance to a landscape. Aerial or atmospheric perspective is an artistic principle that explains the haze of a distant landscape and how to convey this in a drawing or painting. You can convey this effect through color, tone, texture and scale. Contrast of color temperature is very effective: distant hills appear as cool blues and violets, compared to warmer colors in the foreground. Cool colors will appear to recede and warm color will advance. The use of texture and detail will also help to suggest depth. The nearer the object or vegetation, the more emphasis is required for definition. Objects in the distance are softer and more abstract. Contrast of tone give a sense of space. Make distant areas paler and graduate tone from dark to light as the objects recede into the distance. This can be achieved by using different grades of pencil or by varying the pressure and type of pencil marks. This pencil drawing, made with a range of pencil grades, uses differences in tone to suggest depth. Distance can also be conveyed by scale. Objects in the distance are smaller than those in the foreground. A useful device is to layer clouds, with smaller, paler clouds receding into the distance. This principle also applies to waves in seascapes, where the pattern of the waves becomes smaller in the distance. 36 Aerial perspective is most noticeable in wide open, panoramic views where distant mountains, hills or fields are seen along the horizon. However, you can apply the principles to any landscape drawing to add a sense of depth and distance. This distance vista, looking down and across to the fields in the far distance, illustrates the different techniques used to convey aerial perspective. Warm colors and detailed textures appear in the foreground, in contrast to the pale tones and muted shapes of trees and hills in the far distance. 37 Unit 8 Proportions Objectives: Students should be able to explain the importance and methods of maintaining correct proportion between objects. 8.1 Sighting with a pencil You can use a pencil as a measuring tool when making representational drawings, to assess the proportions of your subject. In order to measure and compare the proportions, start with a standard measurement. Hold the pencil at arm’s length, keeping your arm steady and straight. Close one eye and align the top of the pencil to record the measurement. You can then compare the length of this measurement to other objects in the composition, thus assessing the size and proportions. For example, the length of one window may fit three times into the height of the building. These measurements, once transferred to your paper, will help in the accuracy of your drawing. You can use this method before you start or as you work. Hold your pencil at arm’s length, vertically for vertical measurements and horizontally for horizontal measurements, using your thumb as a marker. 38 8.2 Sight sizing Sight sizing is a measuring method that transfers the size of the object seen by the eye to the same size when drawn on the paper. Imagine a sheet of glass in front of you and that you are tracing your subject onto the glass: the subject will be drawn at sight size. To achieve this when drawing, close one eye and, holding your arm straight, hold up a pencil against your chosen subject so that the top of the pencil to record the total height or width of the object. Then, without moving your thumb, place the pencil on the paper and mark off the measurement. It is important to close one eye – try measuring the same object with both eyes open and the difference will become apparent. Here, the depth of the hat is measured off at sight size. The same measurement is transferred to the drawing. 39 8.3 Scale and space Use your inbuilt sense of vertical to note how upright elements of your subject deviate from this standard. If you are not confident about your judgment of the true vertical, compare it with a known vertical, a door edge or similar. A plumb line or even a pencil suspended loosely from your hand will guide you if there are no visible verticals. The horizontal, as the name implies, is parallel to the horizon, and so are many man-made surfaces. We have a fairly acute sense of any deviation, so long as there is a true horizontal to compare against. A viewing frame, divided into a regular grid of verticals and horizontals, is useful for judging deviations, and enables overall shapes to be more clearly seen. Eventually you will acquire an inbuilt grid in your mind’s eye that you can impose almost without conscious effort. 40 The horizontal line should be established first. Use one that coincides with a meeting point of other lines. In this case the horizontal crosses a clear vertical. Below it is the edge of the wine box; above it, the vertical is continued as a dotted line. Start the wine box at the corner and decide on the angles made by the edges and the horizontal. Parts of the vertical edges of the other boxes have also been thickened. Remember that all these lines will be drawn as verticals. 41 While you are thinking about the direction of the lines, you should also consider the spaces or areas between them. In this diagram, several of these corner spaces are emphasized. By giving emphasis to the ‘holes’, you will find that the shapes become important in their own right rather than just being part of one box. The central shape here, in fact, becomes part of four boxes. 42 This diagram shows a third way of thinking. The dotted lines represent the artist’s thoughts (not drawn lines) about two corners or two lines. Some use a horizontal; some consider the angle between one corner and another, while others consider which is larger of two or more measurements. Most of the dotted lines do not follow the edge of a structure. Only the very left- hand one does so, and it is put in because it just happens that its neighboring dimension is approximately the same size. Simple facts like that can be very helpful. 43 Unit 9 Compositions Objectives: Students should be able to describe placement orientation of objects in a drawing. 9.1 Overview Composition refers to the way which you arrange elements in the subject on paper. The most important decisions you have to make about composition when sketching are: the angle of view, how much of the subject to include, and the overall shape of the subject. You should look at the subject from different angles before selecting the final composition, whether you are drawing from a still life set-up at home or outdoors in the landscape. You can work on the level with the subject, get above it and look down, or get down low and look up. A quite mundane subject can suddenly become very exciting through a change of viewpoint. The horizon exists on a level with your eye, so a high viewpoint gives rise to a high horizon, and a low viewpoint to a low horizon. If you cannot see the horizon, you can establish where it would be by establishing your eye level: hold up a pencil in a horizontal position in front of your eyes and note where it intersects the subject. This is your eye level. One of the first decisions you need to make is where you are going to position the eye level on the paper – or what alternative viewpoint you are going to take. TOP LEFT A high viewpoint, looking down on the subject, can provide an unusual composition in which shapes are emphasized and space is flattened. TOP RIGHT A low viewpoint, looking up at the subject, emphasizes perspective effects and makes the subject seem to tower over the viewer. There are often several options when it comes to framing and composing a picture, and it can be difficult to decide how much to include, as well as whether the composition should be vertical or 44 horizontal. To help, you can do little thumbnail sketches of your intended composition before starting. And you can either use a viewfinder – a rectangle cut out of the center of a piece of cardboard – or your hands to frame the subject while you assess it. Subjects can be framed in several different ways, and there is not always an obvious horizontal or vertical emphasis. Choose a particularly interesting area to concentrate on. Leading diagonal Most people read a picture from left to right, and therefore read the left-hand example as an object moving downhill, and the right-hand one as an object that is going uphill. In a drawing of a toboganner, for example, the hillside should slope from top left to bottom right; to convey that a subject is moving uphill, the slope should run from bottom left to top right. If these diagonals are reversed, the image will appear disturbing. 45 RIGHT You have various options here. The whole scene can be included, or you can make a close-up study of the buildings. However the picture is framed, make sure that focus of interest is placed off- center. 46 9.2 Viewfinder A viewfinder, simply made from a piece of card, or two “Ls”, preferably in a neutral in a neutral color, will help you to frame your subject matter and select your composition. It can be used indoors, for example, to establish the parameters and shape of a still life or by holding it in various positions near and away from you outdoors to choose the balance and composition of a landscape picture. By holding the viewfinder close to your eye the picture space, making for a tighter, more controlled image. The viewfinder gives you the option of a portrait or landscape format. It is worth spending some time to establish your picture area – we often see too much and the viewfinder helps to eliminate distracting detail and to select the main elements of the picture. The “film director’s” viewfinder seen through your hands is a convenient alternative if you don’t have a card version available. Frame your subject through the viewfinder. This portrait format suits the tall vase of flowers. By bringing the viewfinder closer to your face you can change the crop to include more background detail. 47 9.3 Looking at shapes The shape of solid geometric objects can be more clearly seen if you apply simple geometric figures to your view of them. Then, in turn, these solids can be used to help you to visualize more complex objects. While many people find difficulty in assessing the length and direction of individual lines, almost everybody can judge whether a pair of lines are parallel to each other. We are also well able instantly to judge whether two intersecting lines form a right angle (90°) between them. Thus, with ease, a judgment can be made whether a square is truly square. There is a similar universal ability to make judgments about circles and triangles. We are sensitive to minute changes of angle and dimension when lines enclose a geometric shape, but randomly distributed lines of differing angles and length confuses us. So, before beginning to search for these shapes in real objects, you may like to experiment a little by covering a few sheets of paper with freehand drawings of simple outlines. ORIENTATION We are surrounded by references to the horizontal and the vertical, and they are the two most important concepts to have in your mind’s eye when you look at a shape. Refer to the edges of the page or sheet of paper to judge the orientation of simple rectangles and squares. 48 OFFSET SQUARES These two offset squares suggest a cube, even though the “sides” are not yet present. ILLUSION OF CUBE By joining the corners an impression of solidity has been created. The perspective of such a figure is not really correct, but the eye is deceived into seeing a cube. 49 Unit 10 Negative and Positive Shapes Objectives: Students should be able to describe the space around the objects and the method of balancing the positive and negative spaces. 10.1 Overview In a painting or drawing, the shape around the object is just as important as the object itself. A good artist strives for a balance between the positive (the object) space and the negative (background) space around it. 10.2 Negative and Positive Shapes Negative space plays an important role in contributing to your final image and composition. Much of drawing from life is about looking – whether your subject is a still life, landscape or figure – and in order to assess the shape of the solid object you will need to be aware of the shape of the spaces in between. Negative space helps you to draw accurately. Winter trees, for example, are a mass of confusing trunks, branches and twigs, but by looking at the shapes of the gaps in between you will be able to simplify the main elements. Before you start to draw your picture, it is sometimes helpful to make a quick thumbnail sketch of the negative shapes. You will find that searching out these hidden areas will be a great benefits as you progress. The skeletal structure of a tree trunk is a good subject to practice drawing negative spaces 50 The negative spaces define the shape of the chair, which is left blank. A simple dining-room chair drawn in pen and ink. Dots or short lines are just noticeable, indicating artist’s thoughts about the relationships between parts. The spaces between the wooden parts are as important as the parts themselves in this drawing. A second version of the chair in the previous study, drawn with white pencil on a dark but not black paper. Here the chair itself is hardly described at all. The background and the shapes seen through it make all the description. 51 Unit 11 Techniques on Still-life Drawing Objectives: Students should be able to explain the techniques of drawing still-life. 11.1 Overview Still life subjects have the great advantage that you are in control of the subject and the way it is lit, and they offer endless possibilities for exploring shapes and forms, surface textures, light and space. 11.2 Theme First set up the subject. You could arrange objects similar to those here, or something different. Still-life drawings are more interesting if they have a theme, so you could select objects that relate to a hobby or activity that you enjoy. Place them on a table-top so that they link up and overlap to form a strong overall shape, such as a triangle. Place the set-up close to its background, which 52 could be a wall or the corner of a room, and avoid very strong light as heavy shadows will conceal too much of the forms. The objects in this project have been arranged to form a triangular shape, but the highest point is well off centre within the picture area. The objects have been overlapped to create a variety of interesting shapes within the composition and nothing is out on its own. The window in the corner balances the main subject, and fills in what would otherwise be an awkward space. 11.3 Composition Study the subject from different angles in order to choose the best viewpoint, and then decide whether it should be landscape or portrait format. Include a little of the background, but the still life itself should occupy most of the paper. Note the shapes between objects and those formed by the edges of the paper – the negative shapes – and the shapes formed by shadows, and adjust your position a little if that will make them more interesting. 11.4 Building up the drawing Step 1. Once the composition is decided on, the overall dimensions of the still-life group are lightly marked on the paper using a 2H pencil, along with the position of the table-top and structures such as the window in the background. Then the positions and dimensions of each object are plotted in relation to the others. Try to do this by eye, but you can check your observations by measuring with a pencil. Step 2. The shapes within the composition are built up gradually by moving from one object to the next where they intercept each other and noting the shapes between objects as well as the shapes of the objects themselves. Keep reassessing the drawing, putting in changes without rubbing out the old lines. 53 Step 3. Areas of hatched lines are roughed in to indicate solid surface. There is no need to fill in whole areas with solid shading. Let the hatching follow the direction of different surfaces in order to describe changes of plane within an object. Step 4. Areas facing away from the light source are built up with additional light hatching, using a softer, 2B pencil. Hatching lines do not need to keep strictly within the outlines of the shapes, so let them be loose and a little scribbly. 11.5 Helpful tips If any item in the still-life set-up needs to be removed before you have finished the drawing, mark its position on the table-top with tape or chalk. You can then return it to exactly the right spot and at the correct angle. 54 Unit 12 Composition for Landscape Drawings Objectives: Students should be able to able to describe the different compositional models. 12.1 Compositional Models A good basic composition will often either be asymmetrical or will lead the viewer's eye around the work. Some standard compositional layouts are shown above.  Quadrant-In this simple composition a dynamic balance is created by the changes in value from dark to light. There is not equal amount of dark or light on each side.  Sequential-This simple composition is completely reliant on rhythms. Rhythm is important to all compositions in any discipline and visual art is no exception. The changing sizes and values lead a viewer across the page like changing notes lead a listener through a piece of music. Notice that there are not any two areas that are the same size. This helps to create an asymmetrical balance. Other types of sequential compositions rely on mathematics, like the Fibonacci sequence.  Asymmetrical-Also referred to as Dynamic Balance. This sort of composition relies on creating balance between the two sides of the picture. In this picture the negative space or area on the left where there is no rectangular object, has equal visual weight to the right side. Think of it as you would a scale. On one side of the scale there are eight one-ounce cubes and on the other are two four-ounce cubes. They both weigh eight ounces, but look different. In a composition this could be shown as two large dark squares and eight light squares. Try to move the elements around the composition to lead the viewer around the composition. The use of one shape, color, line etc. is called repetition of an element and helps to create connections between objects in a composition. This compositional style also shows up in sculpture.  Golden Mean (or Fibonacci sequence used in a spiral)-This mathematical composition is created from a 1 to 1.618... Ratio. You will find this particular ratio works well in creating an interesting balance in a picture. The system is made up of a series of square areas which diminish in size and curve in toward the center, much like a snail's shell. One can recreate a similar instance of this by starting with a 10 inch by 16 inch rectangle. Divide a square section on the left side with a vertical line. Draw a line from corner to corner. At the point that the diagonal meets the vertical line draw in a horizontal. Draw another diagonal from the top right corner to the bottom of the vertical line. Draw a vertical from the point where the diagonal meets the horizontal line and continue the process until the squares become too small to work with. Most compositions do not adhere only to one of these models, but use a combination of two or three to help carry a viewer through more complex pathways. 55 12.2 Composing for Landscape Drawing Composition is one of the most challenging yet powerful and exciting aspects of drawing. It is the technical foundation of your drawing. Without it, drawings visually fall apart. Careful consideration of the composition before will make your session more enjoyable, and contribute to the success of your drawing. Work out your composition early, moving yourself or elements around until the arrangement is pleasing to you. Making major changes and adjustments later in the drawing process is much more difficult. All of the elements found in your drawing (sky, land, water, buildings, etc.) should be in balanced relationship of scale, shapes, rhythm, pattern, etc. In a landscape drawing, you'll look for a foreground, middle ground and background. Balancing Your Drawing: You should have a strong center of interest, or focal point. This is the element to which all other elements will direct the viewer. You may have secondary elements, but attempt to have just one center of interest. Use the other features in your drawing, sky, trees, and flowers, to lead and keep the viewer coming back to the focal point. Doing this will also create a sense of depth and space in your drawing. Technically, there are two kinds of balance in a composition. Symmetrical balance (also referred to as "formal"), and asymmetrical balance (also called "informal balance"). Symmetrical balance produces drawings that are restful, calming, and visually stable. Asymmetrical balance is characterized by arranging related or unrelated objects of differing visual weights counterbalancing one another. This can heighten interest, bring informality, or even produce tension in a drawing. While both are ways correct, yet each offers different advantages and purpose. 56 12.3 Using a viewfinder to compose a drawing Once you've selected your subject, how do you compose your drawing? There are several approaches. One simple way is to use a viewfinder. An empty 35mm slide holder will do nicely, or simply cut two right angle corners, or fixed rectangle out of a piece of cardboard. If you have a prepared size canvas, board, or paper, first look through the viewfinder to capture the proportion of your drawing surface. Then look through the viewfinder with one eye while squinting with the other, to view the scene you wish to draw. Move the viewfinder toward and away from your eye fine- tuning the composition by deciding whether you prefer an symmetrical or asymmetrical, vertical or horizontal composition, and so on. Don't be limited by the shape of the viewfinder (unless the surface you are using is a fixed shape.) Physically move around until you see exactly what you want, then set up your equipment. Students using viewfinder made from paper cut out. 12.4 Choosing a composition If you look at this landscape, you'll quickly see the potential for various landscape drawings. By using a viewfinder to isolate just a part of the landscape and to frame it in a particular way, it's easier to judge whether a composition is pleasing or not. 57  For instance, you could crop out the entire foreground, including the whole town, for a composition that focuses on the mountains. As a composition it's strong, yet for a landscape drawing doesn't give you much of a feeling for the area. If the town is included, as here, the whole feeling of the composition changes. Suddenly the mountains aren't the primary focus, but a background. The town and the farmlands dominate, yet there isn't a strong focal point to draw the viewer into the drawing. As a composition it's rather mundane. If you move the viewfinder to the right, so that the mountain runs off the left edge of the drawing and the open farmland runs from the foreground off into the distance to the right, you get a much more rural scene. Yes, the town is there, but the focus is on the farmlands and the feeling of distance they create as they vanish into the horizon. As a composition, it is quite pleasing, but you'd need to decide whether you were happy with the very square format. How does the feeling of the landscape change when it's cropped in a very tall portrait format? The farmland is interrupted by the town, and then continues behind it, but instead of stretching into the distance, creating a feeling of space, it is ended by the mountains. Overall there's less of a feeling of space and depth, but the tall format does add a sense of grandeur and height to the mountains. 58 12.5 Leading the eyes As an artist you must learn to direct the eye where you want it to go, and to control the amount of time the eye rests before moving on. Please make sure you understand the theory of this - it may help to analyze the scene - and then put your understanding into practice. Drawing of a city street and see how the eye is led by the lines of the composition. At no point is it led out of the frame. 12.6 Focal point When a picture has centers of interest, or focal points, of different strengths, we talk about compositions being 'weighted'. 59 Unit 12A Landscapes Objectives: Students should be able to able to explain the criteria used when judging the proportions of landscape drawing. Students should be able to describe the process of assessing tonal values of landscape drawing. 12A.1 Overview Landscape need not be just a seasonal subject, as any time of year can be good for making informative drawings which can then be developed indoors. Many professional artists work this way; being away from the subject and the distractions of an audience means that there is more time to think in depth about their approach and method. As with any subject, it is not enough to say, 'I like a landscape'; you must know why you like it. This will help you select a viewpoint and composition. Landscapes vary so much, but there are always some aspects that are more interesting than others and it is up to you to decide which they are, and to make your drawing show this. 60 12A.2 Land Formations In a car or a train, or when you are walking, or even watching movies, observe the landscape carefully, rather than casually. Outcrops of rock, scree-covered slopes, flat wheat lands or marshland are the result of geological formations; understanding the structure of the land will prevent common visual clichés of 'rolling hills' looking like humps and lush trees set illogically in stony areas. Notice how the ground changes from field to field, shape to shape, crop to crop, texture to texture and try to see your subject in visual terms rather than in words, which can be inhibiting. For instance, if you feel your drawings of buildings are not yet up to the standard you hoped for, when you come to draw landscape with a building in it, labeling it as such can cause problems. You may assume that the building is more difficult than anything else and draw everything less well as a result, because you have underestimated other difficulties, lost confidence and been cursory in your observation. 12A.3 Time, Weather and Mood The main challenges in drawing landscape are the movement of light and changes in the weather. Many people wait for a pleasant sunny day in order to sit outside in comfort and they start to draw as soon as they've worked out their composition - or they don't even bother to do that! No doubt by now you will have realized why this approach is unwise, and setting out to 'copy' what is in front of you not only produces boring pictures but invites disaster. What if the light changes, or the trees have changed color, the hills have disappeared in mist, the foreground has gone dark, and the shadows are different? The living is alive! You will probably have noticed that plants also move while you're drawing them. They sway in the wind, begin to droop, flowers may open or shut, or turn, almost imperceptibly, towards the light. The way to get used to your subject moving is to train your visual memory and to observe changes in your surroundings so that you learn how to adapt your drawing to them. It is a good idea not to work at mid-day when the sun is high and strong. This makes the contrasts very sharp and the shadows will be short. The strength of the light may be what you want to 61 convey in that particular drawing, but longer shadows will give greater interest. Earlier or later in the day are good times for drawing and painting. Weather, of course, can make things very exciting. Heavy storm clouds create dramatic light effects, early morning mists produce a beautiful range of soft, close tones, and low evening light gives lovely centre-jour effects. Don't forget to squint to simplify areas of tone. All open-air subjects benefit from being seen in interesting lighting and seasonal conditions, so be choosy if you can in facing adverse weather.. (Above)Tonal changes suggest spatial perspective When there are heavy thunderclouds about, study the sky even if the conditions prevent you from drawing. Always carry your small notebook and a pen or pencil so that you can make quick notes - even written ones will do. You are in the process of training your visual memory, so any kind of note-taking will help this. Use the trick of shutting your eyes and remembering what you have seen. Spatial perspective also affects color. Things at a distance are seen 'through' air and even when the atmosphere is clear, its natural density will soften colors as objects recede, unless, of course, sunlight cuts through. The atmosphere is seen as bluish, so distant colors will become more blue- biased. Using contrast to create mood and foggy weather. 62  Muted colors of hazy weather. 12A.4 Perspective in Landscape Looking through your viewfinder, notice how the clouds at the top of the frame seem bigger than those nearer the horizon, regardless of actual cloud formation. Why is this? It is simply one of the basic rules of perspective. The sky is like a roof over your head that recedes towards the horizon. The ground and the sky are the equivalent of the floor and ceiling of a great hall. Trees and houses, hills or islands are simply interruptions of the two main planes. Because we usually work from top to bottom of our paper we tend to forget that real life does not consist of a vertical plane; translating it from three dimensions into two dimensions creates this illusion. The perspective of clouds. Notice how the blocks of flats appear in perspective too. 63 Unit 13 Figure Drawing Objectives: Students should be able to explain the standard proportions of the human head for placement of facial features and their orientations. 13.1 Introduction to Figure Drawing Drawing the human figure is considered one of the most challenging and most satisfying subjects an artist can tackle. The key to successfully drawing the human form is to practice one concept at a time, as well as developing an understanding of the form and structure of the human body. Naturally, human figures will vary. However as a true artist, you should keep in mind a set of techniques and standard proportions in order to assist you in drawing the human figure. 13.2 Drawing the head Almost invariably if you think of someone, you think of his or her face first. The face is the most distinctive and expressive part of the human body and it sets apart every individual on earth. Without a doubt the primary importance of the head is apparent. 64 13.3 Proportions of the Standard Head Heads will naturally vary in measurement and proportion. However, an artist should have a set of standard measurements in their mind to assist them in drawing the human head. Knowing the standard proportions for the human head can help you place facial features and find their orientation. Here’s a list of standard facial proportions that can give you a good idea of ideal proportions.  The eyes are halfway between the top of the head and the chin.  The bottom of the nose is halfway between the eyes and the chin.  The mouth is halfway between the nose and the chin.  The corners of the mouth line up with the centers of the eyes.  The top of the ears line up above the eyes, on the eyebrows.  The bottom of the ears line up with the bottom of the nose. 13.4 Blocking In Method Blocking in the head is one method to assist you in the initial drawing process. It is a good built up that acts as a basic guide to your final drawing. What exactly is blocking in the head? To divide the oval head and place all the features in their proper relationship to one another. The blocking in method basically consists of three main parts:  Breakdown into basic shape  Division into segments  Placing of features in proportion 65 How To Block In The Head Step 1: Remember to first picture the human head as a basic shape. In this case, sketch an egg-shaped oval. Step 2: Divide the oval shape into halves, both vertically and horizontally. This is known as the all-important cross on the head or the midpoint, which will be the key point in constructing the head. Step 3: Further divide the halves into four equal segments. 66 Step 4: Taking into account the basic proportions that you have learnt, start placing in the features accordingly. Begin by placing the eyes on the center line and then slowly adding in the nose, mouth, ears, etc. Step 5: Look at the head as a whole. Once all the features have been placed, make necessary amendments if required. As long as it looks good, you’re on the right track. Step 6: Finally, erase all blocking in lines and you have your final picture of the head. 67  13.5 Getting Into Details The individual features of the face set every human head apart from each other. Some have bigger eyes, a sharper nose or even a smaller mouth. It is good to practice drawing each individual feature in different variations. Once you have gotten used to drawing the features, it will be no problem once you start placing them into the human head. It will be even more interesting because you have created a ‘character’ for the face. Take note that drawing the features also makes use of the same drawing principles. Apart from applying the sighting technique, always breakdown into simple basic shapes first. The Brows Always start to the line of growth of the brow to make it more realistic. Play with stroke and don't make it too solid. The Eyes The main keywords when drawing the eyes are: "straight, curve, straight, curve." You will be able to create effectively shaped eyes. The Nose Observe how the structure of the nose was developed. The Ears The ear has no definite rule but you may consider drawing 6 and sketch the curves and strokes. The Lips Observe how the lips are formed out of ellipse shapes. These shapes serve as guides to imagine the form and bumps of lips. 68 13.6 Drawing The Head In Different Positions We have learnt how to block in the front view of the head. However, a head is hardly ever seen in these “straight on” views. It is usually tilted to one side or looking at a certain direction. Therefore it will not be possible to measure off the features the same way we did in the front view. We will have to rely on our eye to tell us if the head is correctly drawn. When drawing the head in different positions, the ‘measuring lines’ becomes curves or eclipses as they run around the solid form of the head. Always start off by determining the midpoint or the all- important cross first. Only then will it be easier for us to tell the angle of the face. A good way to study how tilting affects these ‘measuring lines’ is to draw a simple set of guidelines and features in the shell of an egg! Yes! It’s a good basic reference which will then evolve into a more defined human head. 69 Helpful Reminders For Drawing The Head  Always decide which way the head and features are tilted first  Think of the features as solid, related forms  Always draw through the forms 70 13.7 Planes of The Head Early in the study of drawing, you should learn to mentally appreciate all the planes that surround the head. The understanding of the planes will help you present three essentials that make a good portrait drawing:  The action of the head  Its basic construction  The character and type of person you are drawing Six basic planes compose the head; five of these are visible. They are the top, the front, the back, and the sides. The last plane which is not visible is the portion hidden by the entrance of the throat and neck. What is the main objective of knowing the planes of the head? To give a more solidified look to the human head, especially when shading. 71 Unit 14 Proportion of the Human Body Objectives: Students should be able to explain the method of measure of the standard proportion of the human body. 14.1 Proportions of the human body Proportions vary from person to person. In nature, the average height of the human form is actually seven and a half heads, the head being used as a unit of measure. However, the figure that measures eight heads long seems by far the best as it looks much better on paper and is convenient for measuring. It is good for an artist to have in mind a set of standard proportions as a means of basic measurement. In this case, we use the head as a standard unit of measure.  The ideal human figure is an average of 8 heads high.  The width from shoulder to shoulder is 2 and one-third heads width.  The distance from the hip to the toes is 4 and three-third heads.  The distance from the top of the head to the bottom of the chest is 2 heads.  The distance from the wrist to the end of the outstretched fingers of the hand is 1 head.  The length from top to bottom of the buttocks is 1 head.  The distance from the elbow to the end of outstretched fingers is 2 heads. Rely on your eyes for correct proportion. The head as a unit of measure is convenient and helpful while you are first learning figure proportions. Remember that you do not make figure drawings with a pair of dividers or a ruler. You make them with your pencil and your eye. If it looks right, it is right. By all means study the charts that follow and fix in your mind the size of one part of the body compared with another, but put your ruler away when you start to draw. Never forget that skillful drawing is simply skillful seeing, transferred to the surface of your paper. Ideal Proportion, Male 72 73 Ideal Proportion, Female 74 Various Standards of Proportion 75 Ideal Proportions at Various Ages 76 14.2 Form The basic form figure below demonstrates an all-important principle of figure drawing- the human body is made up of simple, solid forms. It is extremely important in the beginning to view the body in terms of these simple, basic forms, understanding the essential masses of the separate parts, and placing these in their proper proportions and relationships. For the present you can ignore hair and features, as well as the curves. Once you can control and draw the basic forms properly, you will have little trouble drawing details. 77 It is helpful to reduce all objects to their simple, basic forms of cube, cone, sphere or cylinder. Think of the torso, arms and legs as modified cylinders, the hands and feet as cubic shapes, and the head as a simple sphere. If you can draw the basic forms, you can draw the human body. 78 79 80 81 82 Unit 15 Body Movement Objectives: Students should be able to describe where and how a human body bends for movement. 15.1 Drawing the Figure in Different Angles As we all know, we can hardly find a human pose that is straight and stiff. As true artists, we should be able to draw the figure in different angles and poses, at the same time capturing the movement and mood of the figure. In this unit, you will learn how to construct the human figure from scratch and obtain a more expressive human figure in your final drawing. Hopefully you can apply whatever you have learnt in the previous units for this unit as well. 83 15.2 Gesture Drawings One of the best warm-up exercises for figure drawing is gesture drawing. It is an excellent way to demonstrate the essential character and action of the figure. As you have learned about gesture drawings in drawing fundamentals, I shall only emphasize on how gesture drawings facilitate the drawing of the figure. Sometimes gesture drawings are called action drawings. “Action” makes sense when you’re drawing the figure. Drawing gestures of people can be one of the most exciting and rewarding ways of drawing. Don’t worry about what your drawing looks like. The goal is to practice identifying the gesture, distilling or extracting it so it can be presented on your paper. Always remember that the first step in drawing the figure in motion is to sketch in the free-flowing lines that indicate the gesture. 84 15.3 Construction We have covered construction in detail in Unit 1. The construction here refers to the basic form of the figure. It is helpful to reduce all objects to their simple, basic forms of cube, cone, sphere or cylinder. Think of the torso, arms and legs as modified cylinders, the hands and feet as cubic shapes, and the head as a simple sphere. When drawing the human figure, this is the next step after drawing the gesture, to break down the figure into basic shapes. As we mentioned earlier, if you can draw the basic forms, you can draw the human body. Refer to page 16 to recap what you have learnt. In the diagram below, there is a three-dimensional mannequin who is made up of rounded cylinders, elipsoids, and spheres at the joints. Notice that all the parts use chiaroscuro, there is a smooth texture to the form, and the figure only bends at the joints. This emulates the movements of the human figure. Try imagining all the limbs of the body as cylinders. Start with a simple line drawing of that collection of cylinders, spheres, and elipsoids. As you are building the understructure pay attention to the proportions of the model you are working from. This breakdown into basic forms will help you tremendously in the initial stages of drawing the figure. 85 15.4 Drawing the Male Figure The handling of texture in the male figure varies from the female figure in a variety of ways. Most of these are generalizations based on the average male or female model and on general observations from art history. Males tend to be wider and larger, their muscularity is often more apparent, and the appearance of facial hair is common. When drawing the male, lines are often drawn with more of an angularity and harshness. In design the terms masculine and feminine are used to describe the character of a form. A masculine form is usually angular, rough and hard-edged. Cars, for example, either have rounded flowing lines like a Jaguar (feminine) or hard sharp edges like a Jeep (masculine). When drawing the male figure, one may want to handle the charcoal or pencil in a more physical way. Pressing down harder, erasing with more gusto, and making more errant marks can communicate a more masculine form. Remember that this is a visual generalization and it may be just as appropriate to handle the male figure in a softer way depending on the context from which you are working. 86 15.5 Drawing the Female Figure The female figure too varies from the male figure in a variety of ways. Females tend to be portrayed with a light touch, more curvilinear, and with more subtlty in the superficial muscles. When drawing the female, lines are often drawn with more curvature and softness. A feminine form often has soft flowing and rounded lines. In much of Western art history, artists handle the drawing material in a lighter, more curvilinear way when drawing the female figure. The male is portrayed in a much harsher way than the female figure. When drawing the female figure, one may want to handle the charcoal or pencil in a more flowing way with less tension on the drawing tool. Remember that this is a visual generalization and it may be just as appropriate to handle the female figure in a harsher way depending on the context from which you are working. Hint: Using the entire arm when drawing eliminates harsh angles and sudden changes in direction. 87 15.6 Movable Parts – where the body bends for movement Important points at which motion occurs in the body are indicated by white dots in the diagram below. The individual parts are connected by three distinctly different types of joints:  The ball-and-socket joint, which appears at the shoulders, hips, wrists and ankles  The hinge joint, found at the knees and elbows  The flexible column, a term used to describe the spine and neck Each of these joints varies considerably in the type of motion it allows. Ball-And-Socket Joint The ball-and-socket joint is extremely flexible and permits rotary motion in all directions, although the amount of motion depends on the construction of the individual joint. Hinge Joint The hinge joint at the elbows and knees may be visualized as a flat disk. This disk provides the flexibility-plus-rigidity that these members need to act as adaptable levers. The upper and lower arms and legs can be fixed in any relationship on a straight line, but