LSC Combine Notes 2024 PDF - Entertainment Lighting Safety

1 Chapter 1: Introduction and Safety __________________________________________________ 1.1 Introduction The world of entertainment lighting is exciting and vibrant. Creativity, skill, knowledge and expertise come together to form amazing and breath-taking shows that defy expec...

1 Chapter 1: Introduction and Safety __________________________________________________ 1.1 Introduction The world of entertainment lighting is exciting and vibrant. Creativity, skill, knowledge and expertise come together to form amazing and breath-taking shows that defy expectations. While a career in the lighting industry can be a fun, exhilarating and joyous one, it is also a career that demands hard work and it can be a dangerous one as well. Figure 1 2016 Ultra Music Festival Before we dive into the interesting world of lighting, it is important to take note of the inherent dangers involved in the lighting industry. Working in the lighting industry involves working with lighting fixtures of great weight and size as well as working with electrical power of great capacity and working at heights. All of these combined make this an industry one in which safety precautions need to be observed carefully. In the following few sections, we will learn more about some of the safety precautions required. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  2 Chapter 1: Introduction and Safety __________________________________________________ 1.2 Safety As in any industry, working in a theatre or outdoor stage can be a dangerous workplace. The work greatly involves electricity, which can kill – as can falling lighting fixtures and scenery – so proper safety measures must be adhered to at all times. Every workplace has its own hazards which every worker should recognize. Be alert, aware and informed as to problems that may arise out of a given situation. 1.2.1 PPE Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) refers to protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearer’s body from injury or infection. PPE can be specific to the type of job or work being carried out. The type of PPE required for one particular job or task may not be the same as that required for another job or task. Below are some of the common types of PPE used in the lighting industry. Head and Face Hearing Hand Protection Protection Protection Fall Protection Foot Protection Figure 2 Various types of PPE EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  3 Chapter 1: Introduction and Safety __________________________________________________ 1.2.2 Proper Climbing Techniques and Practices Falls often happen when workers are getting on or off a ladder. To prevent such incidents always observe the following:  Always ensure both hands are free to hold onto the ladder.  Do not carry tools or materials by hand when climbing ladders.  Wear a tool belt and pouch and move material up or down by rope if materials need to be moved. Always use a three-point contact when climbing ladders. This means using two hands and one foot, or two feet and one hand, to maintain contact with the ladder at all times. Always face the ladder when climbing and always keep your centre of gravity between the frames of the ladder. Figure 3 3 point contact when climbing 1.2.3 Working at Heights Working at heights can involve many factors such as the type of access used (ladder, scaffold, manlift, etc.) as well as the actual height at which work is carried. All work at height activities are governed in Singapore by the Workplace Safety and Health Act Chapter 354A, Workplace Safety and Health (Work at Heights) Regulations 2013. Some of the general safety requirements and practices prescribed in the Act are:  Where possible, work at heights is to be avoided if the work can be carried out via other means  Proper PPE must be worn at all times  Workers must undergo proper working at heights safety training EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  4 Chapter 1: Introduction and Safety __________________________________________________  There must be proper planning and procedures such a fall prevention plan put into place before any work at heights can be carried out  All work at heights activities must be supervised by a competent person The Workplace Safety and Health Act Chapter 354A has a section dedicated to safe working procedures for ladders. The following are some of the safety practices prescribed for any ladders used for work at height activities:  Be of good construction, sound material and adequate strength  Be free from patent defects  Be suitable and safe for the purpose for which it is intended In addition, any surface upon which any ladder rests should:  Be stable  Be level and firm  Be of sufficient strength to safely support the ladder and any person and load intended to be placed on it Finally, it is required that any ladder in use shall be so positioned as to ensure its stability during use. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  5 Chapter 1: Introduction and Safety __________________________________________________ 1.2.4 Lifting and moving of heavy loads Injuries can occur when lifting or moving heavy loads. Common injuries sustained are usually to the back or spine. To prevent such injuries, safe lifting and moving techniques should always be practised.  Keep a wide base of support. Your feet should be shoulder-width apart, with one foot slightly ahead of the other  Squat down, bending at the hips and knees only. If needed, put one knee to the floor and your other knee in front of you, bent at a right angle  Keep good posture. Look straight ahead, and keep your back straight, your chest out, and your shoulders back. This helps keep your upper back straight while having a slight arch in your lower back  Slowly lift by straightening your hips and knees (not your back). Keep your back straight, and don't twist as you lift  Hold the load as close to your body as possible, at the level of your belly button  Use your feet to change direction, taking small steps  Lead with your hips as you change direction. Keep your shoulders in line with your hips as you move  Set down your load carefully, squatting with the knees and hips only Figure 4 Proper lifting technique In addition, always make use of provided grab handles on equipment or flightcases when lifting. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  6 Chapter 1: Introduction and Safety __________________________________________________ 1.2.5 Electricity Electricity kills. It does not discriminate if an electrician has many years of working experience. Working in the lighting industry involves working with large capacity electrical power. As such, adherence of safe electrical working procedures is vital. Often, it is necessary to work with permanent or temporary electrical power installations and these must be approved for use by licensed electrical workers. Electrical accidents are usually caused by:  Negligence and incorrectly connected wires  Lack of good earth termination  Damage to electrical wiring and equipment  Lack of regular maintenance checks  Carelessness and unsafe electrical operating procedures  Incompetent and unqualified electrical persons. Now that we are familiar with some of the safety precautions necessary for working in the lighting industry, we can move on to learning about the different types of lighting equipment. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  1 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ 1.1 Introduction to Lighting Equipment There are various types of lighting equipment in a lighting system. Each of them is necessary for the system to function well as a whole. The various types of equipment can be classified into the following categories:  Lighting fixtures  Lighting consoles  Lighting dimmers  Lighting distribution board  Lighting cables  Lighting accessories 1.2 Lighting fixtures Lighting fixtures are basically lights. Without them, there would not be a lighting industry. Lighting fixtures are sometimes referred to as lighting instruments and in the past, lanterns as well. They are the cornerstone or basic unit upon which lighting systems are built. Lighting fixtures have come a long way since their humble beginnings as structures housing candles. Modern technology has allowed lighting fixtures to incorporate various types of technology to become multi-functional fixtures. There are so many different types of lighting fixtures in the market right now that it can be quite confusing. We shall attempt to understand the various types of lighting fixtures in the following few sections. For starters, lighting fixtures can be classified into the following categories:  Conventional  Moving  Led EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  2 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ 1.2.1 Conventional Lighting Fixtures Conventional lighting fixtures are the most basic of lighting mixtures. They are the modern day equivalent of olden day lighting fixtures, thus the name conventional which can be translated to old-fashioned. Most conventional lights have one function which is to light up. Some conventional lighting fixtures come with a few additional options such as being able to adjust the beam width or the alignment of the bulb. Most conventional fixtures are lamp based meaning there is a lamp inside the lighting fixture which produces the light. There is an exception to this which we will learn about later. In this section, we will be taking a closer look at some of the most common types of conventional fixtures 1.2.2 Floodlights Floodlight power varies between 300W to 1500 W with wider beam angles of about 80 degrees. It is very simple and efficient but with little control of the light output. Floodlights typically consists of a lamp with no lens (linear tungsten halogen bulb) and a reflector. The reflector may be asymmetrical or asymmetrical depending on the usage. Floodlights are typically used in close range. Figure 1 Floodlight EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  3 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ Asymmetrical floodlights are often used as a wash of light to cover backcloths or cycloramas evenly. The light output is concentrated at the bottom of the beam thus allowing the light output to be focused in one direction. Figure 2 Asymmetrical floodlight Symmetrical floodlights are used as area wash fixtures as they produce an even distribution of light. As such, they are utilised in places that require an even distribution of light spread over a large area such as outdoor stadiums. Figure 3 Symmetrical floodlight Cyclorama floodlights are floodlights that are set on a batten (a long metal strip), with each set usually comprising 3 or 4 floodlights joined together. These fixtures are usually referred to as cyclorama floodlights as they are commonly used to light up cycloramas. They can also be referred to as cyc lights. Each cell enables independently controllable colour washes. When the batten is placed on the ground, this fixture is called a ground row and it is usually used to light a backcloth from the floor. If this fixture is moved to the front of the stage, it is then referred to as a footlight. Figure 4 Cyclorama floodlight EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  4 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ 1.2.3 Fresnel A fresnel’s power varies from 300W to 5KW. The lens produces a soft edged beam of light with limited amount of control over the beam angle which varies from 10 to 70 degrees. Some fresnels have barn-doors which are attachments to control unwanted spill of light, but not 100% spill-free. Fresnels typically use tungsten halogen or discharge lamp. Figure 5 Fresnel with barn-door The edge of the beam is much softer than a pebble- convex lamp, its bright centre gently diminishing to nothing. The key features of a fresnel are follow: Soft beam with soft undefined edge Ability to adjust beam size Ability to adjust beam shape with barn-doors Figure 6 Parts of a fresnel EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  5 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ Figure 7Fresnel Stepped lens The field is the outer area of light with 10 per cent light intensity. The beam is the inner area of light with 50 per cent light intensity. The hot spot is the brightest spot within the beam. Figure 8 Light distribution EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  6 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ 1.2.4 Parcan A parcan’s power varies from 50W to 1kW. Parcans are commonly used in rock concerts and dance lightings. It provides an intense, fixed parallel beam of light from 5 to 40 degrees. It is quick to rig and focus and is good for projecting deep colours. The ‘Can’ is just a housing. The bulb is a complete sealed unit with a bulb and lens like a car headlamp unit. The ‘cans’ usually come in dimensions such as PAR36 (4.5”), PAR46 (5.75’), Figure 9 Parcan PAR56 (7”), and PAR64 (8”). Figure 10 PAR Sizes PAR64s are the most popular parcans in use. PAR64 refers to the diameter of the lens in eighths of an inch. Par64 (240V) that comes in four beam-width options:  CP60 - 9° x 12° - Very Narrow Spot  CP61 - 10° x 14° - Narrow Spot  CP62 - 11° x 24° - Medium Flood  CP95 - 70° x 70° - Wide Flood The CP62 option is the most popular choice as it offers the greatest amount of coverage at a reasonable throw distance. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  7 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ The lens for very narrow lamps are clear, narrow are frosted and the medium and wide floods have small square lenses. The bulbs have an oval-shaped beam which can be rotated or shaped with barn-doors and coloured with gels. Figure 11 Parts of a Parcan Bulb 120 volts PARCAN are brighter than 240 V and have narrower beam angles but must be connected in a series pair. As a guide, 240V bulbs have a white ceramic base and 120V ones are grey. The key features of par cans are as follow:  High intensity mainly elliptical beam  Beam shape controlled rotation of bulb and in some instances with barn- doors  Control of beam size by choice of bulb  Light weight for output power Figure 12 Parts of a Parcan EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  8 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ 1.2.5 Profile Spot A profile spot’s power varies from 500 – 2.5kW. It produces a tightly controlled and varied beam with sharp to soft edges. The beam can be shaped using the four shutters or inserting a gobo and the beam size can also be altered by inserting an iris. A zoom profile’s beam angle ranges from 15º to 30º or 25º to 50º depending on the model. The key features for a profile spot are as follows: Figure 13 Profile Spot  Adjustment of beam size and shape with shutters and iris  Beam edge quality adjustable by movement of lens  Ability to project an image with a gobo  Less scatter than fresnels or PC spots Figure 14 Internal Components of a profile spot EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  9 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ Figure 15 External parts of a profile spot 1.2.6 Follow spot A follow spot’s power varies from approximately 300W - 5000W. It highlights an individual performer and is usually mounted on a stand towards the rear of the auditorium. Follow spots are usually manually operated and need a dedicated person for handling throughout the duration of the show. Figure 16 Follow spot They are commonly used in musicals and dramas. They are mainly utilised for their powerful long throw. Follow spots are narrow angle profile spots. Some follow spots use tungsten bulbs and are dimmed electronically or have a mechanical shutter dimming effect when used with discharge bulbs (HMI, MSR, CSI and CID). Some follow spots also use xenon globe bulbs which is a special type of discharge bulb. Most follow spots also have a colour changer magazine (4 to 6 colour frames). EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  10 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ Figure 17 Parts of a follow spot EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  11 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ 1.2.7 Moving Lights Moving lights are also known as automated lights and intelligent lights. They are the most popular choice of lighting fixtures currently in the market as they offer great versatility by allowing a wide range of options effects wise. They were originally designed to replace multiple conventional, non-moving lights. Depending on the venue and application, automated luminaires can be a versatile and economical addition to a stock of traditional lights because, with proper programming, they can swiftly alter many Figure 18 Moving head light aspects of their optics, changing the “personality” of the light very quickly. Although moving lights are generally more expensive than conventional lights, the benefits they offer are enough to outweigh the significant price difference. By definition, all moving lights contain some method of animating the beam of light on 'X' and 'Y' axis. This is accomplished by either a "moving mirror" design, in which a mirror at the end of the optical train moves to these ‘X’ and ‘Y’ coordinates, or the "moving yoke," where the entire head of the fixture moves. All moving lights allow the various attributes such as color and beam definition to be altered electronically. Moving mirror lights are cheaper to produce using smaller motors, and have less moving parts than moving head lights. The downside is that while the mirror moves fast, it cannot shine everywhere as but only around 135 degrees on each axis. Moving head lights however can rotate around 500 degrees, and tilt around 290 degrees, giving plenty of coverage. Moving lights operate under USITT DMX512 control protocol and can be operated by any lighting console utilizing the DMX 512 protocol. Using digital multiplex control, the digital protocol DMX 512, moving lights have multiple functions – pan and tilt movement, mechanical dimming, colour changing (colour wheel or colour mixing), gobo projection and gobo movement, beam spread, beam diffusion Figure 19 Moving Mirror Light and others. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  12 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ Some of the attributes which allow electronic manipulation are listed below:  Shutter  Dimmer  Position  Colour  Gobo  Beam  Effects/Animation Gobos are an integral part of moving lights fixtures. They are made of metal and heat-resisting glass. Gobos are mounted on a rotating gobo wheel for the selected gobo to be spun. Figure 20 Rotating Gobo Wheel EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  13 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ There are various types of moving lights in the market. They can be classified into these few broad categories: Spot Functions as a spotlight Gobos are a vital part of spot moving lights. Used to project images and patterns Wash Functions as an area coverage light Used to cover large areas with light and colour Usually incorporates more colour mixing functions than other moving lights Beam Functions mainly as an effect light Used mainly for the wide range of beam sizes it offers Is usually a fast moving light for enhanced effects Hybrid Functions as an all in one light Usually offers many of the functions of spots, washes and beam moving lights Might not neccesarily be as effective as specialised moving lights Profile or spot lights generally contain features like gobos and prisms, whereas wash lights have simpler optics and a wider beam aperture resulting in wider beam angle, which may be altered by internal lenses or “frost effects”. Wash lights are more likely to have CMY colour mixing although it is common for high- end spot lights to have such features too. Spot fixtures, on the other hand, don’t always feature colour mixing, but have many more optical features, such as gobos, prisms, animation wheels and rotating gobos.Wash fixtures are also more likely to have zoom. Spot lights are generally used for their beam effect (usually through smoke or haze) and the ability to project texture, whereas wash lights tend to be used for providing a stage wash. Moving wash fixtures are best for washing large areas with color, but don’t look the best as a spotlight on an actor, band member or speaker. Spot fixtures are great for aerial effects, using gobos to texture scenery and lighting band members. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  14 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ Some new moving lights combine both wash and spot capabilities, and some have entirely new features, like a built in strobe lights, LED highlighting and pixel mapping for video content. These would be the hybrid fixtures which tend to try to include as much features as possible although not always effectively. A newer type of ML that is worth mentioning is the beam style fixture. In the past few years, many manufacturers have introduced these large aperture, narrow beam angle lights that put out a fat, defined beam of light. These fixtures usually have color mixing and gobos, and are a mixture of both spot and wash fixtures, but in a whole new way. These fixtures really stand out in large lighting rigs, and the beams may even be somewhat visible without haze. 1.2.8 Led LED lights are lighting fixtures that use light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as a light source. LED lights are an alternative to traditional bulbs or high-intensity discharge bulbs. Like other LED lights, they have high light outputs with lower power consumption. LED lights are becoming a very popular choice due to the lower power consumption and colour options. Most types of lighting fixtures now have a LED variant. Figure 21 Led Parcan There are even LED follow spots available. LED lights come in various forms such as parcans, striplights and moving head types In LED parcans a round printed circuit board with LEDs mounted on it is usually used where a PAR 64 lamp would be on a regular parcan. Moving head types can either be a bank of LED's mounted on a yoke or a more conventional moving head light with the bulb replaced with an LED bank or other type of LED Figure 22 Led Cyc Light light source. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  15 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ Figure 23 Led Moving Light 1.3 Lighting consoles Lighting consoles are hardware terminals that utilise software to control all types of lighting fixtures. Essentially they are specially built computers that solely control and program lighting fixtures. Most modern lighting consoles utilise some form of DMX 512. Most will also offer some other form of lighting communication protocols such as Artnet or even their own proprietary protocols. These are used for shows where a very large number of lighting fixtures need to be controlled. Most consoles are designed with a specific lighting situation in mind, with functions that are ‘normally’ required for that situation and a terminology ‘expected’ by uses in that situation. There are four main categories of consoles:  Manual desks for low-end applications.  ‘Live’ consoles for concert lighting  ‘Theatre’ consoles for ‘playback’-oriented lighting  Moving light consoles. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  16 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ Hybrids such as a ‘live console with manual facilities’, a ‘moving lights console with support for conventional lights’ or a ‘theatre console with support for moving lights’ do exist. Most modern consoles nowadays attempt to support all types of lighting fixture and situaions with varying degrees of success. Figure 24 Modern lighting console 1.3.1 Playing factor of a console The ‘playing factor of a console depends on functions that allow improvisation and quick access to ‘riding the controls of individual instruments. This usually means that physical controls like channel faders, submasters and bump keys are main features. This factor is important for ‘live’ lighting situations where the performance may include unforeseen variations, with little preproduction time and where the console operator and the lighting designer are often the same. Consoles with a high ‘playing’ factor are often used for concert, club and television lighting. 1.3.2 Playback capacity of a console Some consoles are designed so that a lighting designer can create a complex series of sequential lighting changes that can be operated from a GO button, guaranteeing that the design will ‘live in the memory of the console’ with the option of depending as little as possible on the abilities of a specific operator. This means cue playbacks are among the main features and usually multiple monitors are support to allow extensive editing and viewing of large amounts of channels. Consoles with a high ‘playback’ capacity are often used for theatre, musical theatre and theme park lighting. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  17 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ 1.4 Lighting dimmers Lighting dimmers are used to increase or decrease voltage to a dimmable lighting fixture in order to adjust its intensity. Typically used with conventional fixtures, dimmers give us the flexibility to set the mood and focus attention on a specific section of the stage. By adjusting the voltage sent to the light fixture, a dimmer can turn the light on, off or anywhere in between. Moving lights should never be connected to dimmers as the fluctuating voltage will cause serious damage to their electrical components. Figure 25 Portable Lighting Dimmer EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  18 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ 1.5 Lighting distribution boards Lighting distribution boards allow a single source of power from the mains or a generator to be redistributed into small sources. Lighting distribution boards also serve as the main power hub for moving lights at non fixed or temporary venues with a temporary power installation. Figure 26 Lighting distribution board EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  19 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ It is also possible to find dual function dimmer and distribution boards. These are a combination of dimmers and distribution boards in various configurations. These are very useful as they allow a single power source to be shared between dimmers and distribution boards, instead of separate power sources having to be run for either as was the customary practice. Figure 27 Dimmer and Distribution Board EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  20 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ A primary distribution unit example is shown below:  Intake switch unit (ISU) - power intake from the mains or generator - 400A  Control centre (CC) - intermediate distribution – 400A/125A/63A  Final distribution unit (FDU) - 125/63A/32A/16A The main power distribution cables are single cable. The main feeder cables into a control centre distribution box. General multi-core connectors and cables are used for 125A or less. Distribution units are fitted with the necessary power intake switchgear and sub- distribution fuses or MCBs contained within one unit. Each outlet has its own mechanical circuit breaker and neon indicator. It is also fitted with RCDs. Figure 28 Distribution Unit Examples EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  21 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ 1.6 Lighting cables 1.6.1 Power IEC 60309 is a standard published by the International Electrotechnical Commission that defines a range of single and three phase connectors commonly referred to as "Ceeforms". In the UK, this standard was previously defined as BS 4343:1968. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  22 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ These types of cables are commonly used to transmit power for various lighting equipment. The most common of these is the 16A cable usually found with a blue head and 3 pin connector. Figure 29 16 amp Ceeform connector Multipin connectors are ideally suited to the entertainment industry. They are made rugged for the most demanding of applications like: Automation Instrumentation Robotics Power distribution Transport Entertainment (lights) EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  23 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ Figure 30 Multipin connectors Socapex (Trade Name) connector has 19 pins. The outer circle of pins is assigned with live and neutral wires of the six circuits. The inner circle is ground or earth for each circuit. The centre pin, 19, is not used or may be used as additional ground. The male Soca connector has a key at the top to orient the connector and a threaded collar that twists and pull the connectors together, then clicks to lock with the female. Figure 31 Socapex Multipin Connectors 1.6.2 Signal DMX512 digital control was first developed in 1986 by United States Institute of Theatre Technology (USITT) as a means of controlling dimmers from consoles using a standard digital control. The DMX lighting system is based on a EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  24 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ balanced transmission twisted pair of screened conductors which reduces electromagnetic radiation, thereby ensuring consistent digital phasing. The cable used for this should be a proper data cable consisting of 2 twisted pairs, foil and braided screens to protect the DMX signal from electromagnetic radiation interference. DMX512 control lines connect to equipment using the industry standard XLR 5 pins connection. XLR 3 pins are considered non- industry standard but can still be used. Figure 32 XLR 5 pin cable connectors 5 PINs and 3 PINs XLR Connector Pin Configuration Pin Wire Signal 1 Shield Ground / 0V 2 Inner Conductor (black) Data - 3 Inner Conductor (white) Data + EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  25 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ 4 Inner Conductor (green) Not in Use 5 Inner Conductor Not in Use (red) Male Female 1.7 Lighting accessories There are various accessories in the market to allow lighting fixtures to achieve desired effects. Most of these are intended for conventional fixtures as these are the simplest fixtures that serve an intended purpose. To shape the beam for instance in a manner other than the intended purpose will require the use of an additional piece of equipment and in this case an accessory. Moving lights have inbuilt fixture attribute alteration mechanisms that can be easily manipulated thus doing away with the need for additional accessories. 1.7.1 Colour gels Coloured gels are used to colour a light’s beam. Lighting gels are a polycarbonate-based medium. There are various manufacturers of gels, each producing a different range of colours. Each gel is numbered and this number is used for identification. The commonly used gels are high-temperature-resistant ones from Rosco or Lee Filters. When selecting gel, always work under a light source of the correct colour temperature. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  26 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ Figure 33 Colour gel swatch 1.7.2 Gobos A gobo is a template or pattern cut into a circular plate used to create patterns of projected light. The name may be derived from go between, or from Goes before Optics. Go between refers to its position between the lamp and the lens. Gobos control light by blocking, colouring, or diffusing some portion of the beam before it reaches the lens. Because the light is shaped before it is focused, hard edged images can be projected over short distances. Most ellipsoidal reflector spotlights (ERS) have moveable lenses to allow sharp or soft focusing. A theatrical gobo may be made from either sheet metal or borosilicate glass, depending upon the complexity of the design.Glass gobos can include colored areas (much like stained glass windows), made of multiple layers of dichroic glass, one for each color glued on an aluminium or chrome coated black and white gobo. New technologies make it possible to turn a color photo into a glass gobo. In low budget theater, discarded soda cans or pie plates can be used and patterns cut out with any cutting tool. The latest commercial technology enables finely dithered patterns which give the illusion of shading. Plastic gobos—which are generally custom made—are available when a pattern is needed in color and glass does not suffice. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  27 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ However, these thin plastic films generally need to be used with special cooling elements to prevent melting them. A lapse in the cooling apparatus, even for just a few seconds, can cause an expensive gobo to be ruined. Figure 34 Gobo Effect Figure 35 Individual gobo EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  28 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ Figure 36 Various gobo designs EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  29 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ 1.7.3 Flightcases A flightcase is for transporting and providing protection for valuable and sensitive equipment. Flightcases are made from high-density polyethylene, astroboard, aluminium and PVC coated plywood. Adding colours to cases enables easier identification of different types of equipment. It is important to ensure that the case fits the instrument properly and that the case is rigid and strong enough to resist any hazards encountered. Figure 37 Flightcases Certain types of all purpose flightcases can also be referred to as trunk cases. They can be used for the transportation of any object or several objects that need to be packed safely together such as power cables Figure 38 Trunk/Flightcase with Stacking Castor Dishes EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  30 Chapter 2: Lighting Equipment __________________________________________________ Rack cases or rack mounted cases differ from other cases in that they have removable front and back covers (lids). They are used where access to the contained equipment is required without removal from the case.Rack cases can be built from 3.5" (2U) to 52.5" (30U) in height, in a variety of depths. The “U” is the measurement term used by the flightcase and rack case industries to indicate the height of rack space that will match the equipment that you intend to load into said space. For example, a flightcase with 8U of rack space indicates to you how much space that you have to work with. Flightcase “U” Rack Space measurement U Conversion Chart 1U 44.5mm 1.75 inches 6U 26.7cm 10.51 inches 14U 62.3cm 24.53 inches 2U 89mm 3.5 inches 7U 31.15cm 12.26 inches 16U 71.20cm 28.03 inches 3U 13.35cm 5.26 inches 8U 35.6cm 14.02 inches 20U 89cm 35.04 inches 4U 17.8cm 7.01 inches 10U 44.5cm 17.52 inches 24U 1.068m 42.05 inches 5U 22.25cm 8.76 inches 12U 53.4cm 21.02 inches 28U 1.246m 49.06 inches EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  1 Chapter 3: Lighting Systems __________________________________________________ 1.1 Conventional lights system There are five major components in a conventional lighting system:  Power source - supplying power  Dimmer units - each supplying one or more lamps.  Dimmer control system - lighting console.  Lighting fixtures  patching system to use to connect the lights Figure 1 Conventional Lighting System Figure 2 Dimmer Units Regulating Power EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  2 Chapter 3: Lighting Systems __________________________________________________ 1.2 Moving Lights systems Moving lights require two inputs: 230V power and DMX data. Data is usually the industry standard DMX 512 (serial via two twisted pairs), using 5-pin XLR connectors. Moving lights power supply must come direct from the main power supply and not by the dimmers. The moving lights electronics requires a direct pure power supply. By tapping power from dimmers which have electronics which alter the pure sine wave, the power supply will cause damage to the moving lights. Connect the DMX-output of the first fixture with the DMX-input of the next fixture to form a DMX chain series circuit. Always connect one output with the input of the next fixture until all fixtures are connected. The male DMX 5 pin XLR connector is connected to the lighting console universe input. The cables are thus installed or setup by a "daisy-chain” method or series networking but the last lighting device output terminal is left open; a one way unique connection network signal system. Figure 3 Daisy Chain Series Networking EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  3 Chapter 3: Lighting Systems __________________________________________________ Figure 4 Conventional and Moving Lights System EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  4 Chapter 3: Lighting Systems __________________________________________________ 1.3 DMX addressing Each lighting fixture needs to be DMX "addressed". DMX 512 controls 512 channels of data. Conventional lighting fixture takes up ‘1’ DMX channel while moving lights can take up many channels, example 30 channels. For a 30-channel fixture, lighting fixture ‘1’ would be addressed as 001, fixture ‘2’ DMX addressed as 031. Most lighting console will have several universes, example 4 universes of DMX-512 outputs. The lighting operator might set one universe for the conventional lights, another universe for moving light fixtures. Addressing must be done on both the fixture and the console to ensure proper communication. Syncing the lighting fixtures to the console in this manner is generally referred to as patching. Figure 5 Conventional Lights Patching EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  5 Chapter 3: Lighting Systems __________________________________________________ Figure 6 Moving Light Patching EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  6 Chapter 3: Lighting Systems __________________________________________________ 1.4 Cable Coiling The stranded copper wire inside a cable has a natural clockwise direction twist. Each loop puts a twist in the cable. When a cable is uncoiled, it must be allowed to untwist, or it will start to twist onto itself. A trained cable coils easily. The over- under method is used for coaxial, dimmer and control cables and audio cable. Each other loop counteracts the twist so the cable can be unravelled without twists. (1) (2) (3) (4) EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  1 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________ 1.1 Introduction Entertainment motorized rigging equipment is used to suspend objects. It is designed for concert equipment and positioning of speakers, lighting systems, visual systems and stage sets. 1.2 Chain Hoist Motor A chain hoist motor consists of the following parts:  Aluminium Housing contain DC braking system with a friction clutch (overload protection and emergency limit system)  Block stopper (limit switch)  One-hoe eye shackles  Contactor controller chain bag Figure 1 Chain Hoist Motor EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  2 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________ Figure 2 Chain Hoist Motor in use Chain Hoist Chain Hoist in Chain Hoist Flightcase Spanset Figure 3 Chain Hoist System 1.3 Motor basics EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  3 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________ An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding to generate force in the form of rotation of a shaft. Electric motors can be powered by direct current (DC) sources, such as from batteries, rectifiers, or by alternating current (AC) sources, such as a power grid, inverters or electrical generators. Three-phase induction motors are used for various kinds of industrial drives. They have the following main advantages and disadvantages: Advantages: It is very simple and rugged in construction. It is very reliable and requires minimum maintenance. It is relatively cheap. It has reasonably high efficiency. It is self-starting and can be arranged to start against heavy load. Disadvantages: Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some of its efficiency. Its speed decreases with increase in load. Its starting torque is somewhat inferior to that of a dc shunt motor. An induction motor consists essentially of two main parts: the stationary part called the STATOR the rotating part called the ROTOR. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  4 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________ The rotor and the stator are separated by a small air-gap as shown in Fig. 4. Stator Gap Rotor Figure 4 METHODS OF BRAKING OF INDUCTION MOTOR  Plug braking  Regenerative braking  Dynamic braking PLUG BRAKING  Reconnecting a motor to rotate in the reverse direction while it is still rotating in the forward direction by interchanging any two supply to the stator winding.  Direction of rotation of magnetic field is reversed and therefore rotor develops a braking torque. REGENERATIVE BRAKING  Uses the inertia of a moving load to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy and feed it back into the power supply source.  The induction machine is operated as a motor and as a generator alternately. During ascent, the induction machine produces motive power.  During the downward journey, the induction machine operates as a generator driven by the weight of the train (or crane), thus feed electrical power into the network and also act as a brake. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  5 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________ DYNAMIC BRAKING  By disconnecting the rotating motor from the AC source and applying DC to the stator winding. MECHANICAL BRAKING AND HOLDING  Is usually required with electrical braking because electrical braking becomes less effective as speed decreases.  Smooth stop is difficult  Must be used to hold a motor after it has been brought to rest by electric braking. Whenever the term electric motor is used, the speed of rotation of these machines is controlled only by the applied voltage and frequency of the source current. But the speed of rotation of an electrical machine can be controlled by the systems which control the motion of the electrical machines, are known as electrical drives. A typical drive system is assembled with a electric motor and a control system that controls the rotation of the motor shaft. Now days, this control can be done easily with the help of software. Variable speed drives are electronic motor controls. They control speed and torque of alternating current motors by converting the fixed frequency and voltage of the mains to variable frequency and variable voltage. When the VSD operates in torque control mode, the speed is determined by the load. Likewise, when operated in the speed control, the torque is determined by the load. Variable speed and flow capability with standard induction motor. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  6 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________  Improved process control.  Energy savings. Reduced voltage starting characteristics. a. Soft start/smooth acceleration. b. Reduces power supply problems in the facility. c. Reduces motor heating and stress. The majority of general purpose VSDs / VFDs have four fundamental sections. These are: 1. Rectifier or converter 2. Intermediate circuit (dc bus) 3. Inverter circuit 4. Controller L1 3-phase INTERMEDIATE 3-PHASE L2 RECTIFIER INVERTER supply CIRCUIT MOTOR L3 CONTROL CIRCUIT CONTROL INPUT EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  7 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________ Input rectifier or converter  Can be either three-phase or, in small machines, single phase.  To converts the fixed AC voltage & frequency input into dc voltage. Intermediate Circuit (DC bus)  Connects the rectifier output to the input of the inverter.  Functions as a filter to smooth the uneven, rippled output of the rectifier to near a pure dc output. Inverter Circuit  The inverter switches the rectified dc voltage to a adjustable AC output voltage and frequency. The output from the inverter is used to drive the electric motor. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  8 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________ 1.4 Rigging System Safety Requirements  All rigging work shall consist of one rigging supervisor and one rigging assistant.  Rigging includes attached hardware to the ceiling such as rigging motors, trussing, lighting and sound equipment.  Riggers are responsible for inspecting the equipment and assisting with load factors ensuring that weight limits are strictly enforced and that no damage is imposed to the ceiling.  Structural Engineer permission for rigging work is to be sought and approved first before riggers can rig hardware to ceilings.  Not lifting more than the rated load for the hoist.  Not using hoist with twisted, kinked, damaged, or worn load chain.  Not operate a hoist until all present personnel are clear of the suspended load.  Not operating until load is centered under hoist.  Not attempting to lengthen the load chain or repair damaged load chain. 1.5 Load Factors 100% (1.0) 50% (0.5) 66.6% (0.75) 200% (2.0) EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  9 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________ 200% double 2 x 85% (1 ¾) 2 X 70.7% (1.4) 2 X 50% (1) Figure 5 Safe Working Loads EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  10 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________ Figure 6 Load Angle Factors Load On Each Leg of a Sling (L1) = Load (lbs.) x Load Angle Factor Number of Legs* EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  11 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________ 1.6 Steel Wire Rope Slings To find the safe load of a wire rope in kg. Square the rope diameter and multiply by it by 8 Example: 20mm diameter rope Safe Load = 20 x 20 x 8 = 3200 kg = 3.2 tonne Wire-rope should be colour coded for length so that each sling can be readily identified. It is important to understand the safe working load of wire rope slings for various application. Spansets are made of from loops of nylon and are colour coded for their safe load capacity. The capacity is reduced depending on the method of slinging. Spansets are light weight but not fire resistant. Figure 7 Wire Rope Colour Coding Figure 8 Spanset colour coding 1.7 Installation Safety EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  12 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________  It is important to check all rigging equipment thoroughly before it is used.  The wires must be checked that they are placed correctly in the shackles.  Do not use kinked wire.  A straight drop is easier than rigging bridled points. Figure 9 Bridle Figure 10 Shackles EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  13 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________ Figure 11 Clamp 1.8 Trussing A truss is a modularly connecting spatial lattice beams of standard sizes and lengths meant to carry loads. Trusses are made from aluminum as aluminum has 1/3 of the weight of steel. The right load case is important to a successful truss system. Load is defined as the force imposed on a truss when you include the weight of the truss itself.  Load – when the amount of force is identical in weight along the whole length of the truss or evenly spread over the trusses’ lower chords.  Point load – loads are at single or multiple points. Applying a load in the middle of a span (CPL) will put maximum pressure on the truss.  Deflection - this indicates the flexing of the truss when loaded Figure 12 Truss Section 1.9 Types of Loads 1. Point Load EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  14 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________ A point load is a load that acts at one specific point is called Centre Point Load (CPL). EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  15 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________ 2. Multiple Points Loads. Allowable loads:  2 identical point loads (TPL), dividing the span in 3 equal section (‘Triple points’)  3 identical points loads (QPL), dividing the span in 4 equal sections (‘Quarter/fourth points’)  4 identical points load (FPL), dividing the span into 5 equal section (‘Fifth points’)  Above this number of points, the allowable loads for UDL can be used. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  16 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________ 3. Concentrated Loads This can occur where only a part of the span is loaded with a UDL, or where several point loads are applied in a limited area. Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL) A load that is identical in weight along the whole length of the truss is evenly spread over the (node points of) the lower chord(s) of the truss. Examples of UDL are curtains; drapes indicated as in X kg/m; N/mm; lbs/ft. 1.10 Types of Spans  Simple Supported Span - This type of span is supported at both ends of the truss, permitting movement of the truss in between the supports, caused by deflection because of loading.  Rigid restraint (fixed span) - A truss span connected to vertical columns by means of box corners or any other structural elements.  Cantilever Span - Cantilevers are the best example of a level arm. All the weight of the load is acting in bending and in shear at the connection point. The maximum shear force is the sum of all loads and the self-weight on the cantilever; the bending moment is the sum of the products of all force times their distances to the center of the support. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  17 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________  Continuous Span - Beams that are on more than 2 support points but have continuous sections (no hinges) EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  18 Chapter 4: Entertainment Rigging __________________________________________________ EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  1 Chapter 5: Electrical Power __________________________________________________ 1.1 Introduction to Lighting Equipment Electricity is a good servant and helper provided it is properly used. Two main hazards caused by the improper use of electricity are:  the danger of shock  the danger of fire In Singapore, all electrical installation is required to comply with the statutory requirements of the recommended Acts and Regulations. Electricity Act and its subsidiary regulations Workplace Safety and Health Act (WSHA) – 1 March 2006(Chapter 354A) (formerly Factories Act) Fire Safety Act (Chapter 109A) Below are a few of the following regulations and code of practices governed by the Electricity Act (Chapter 89A) 2003: Electricity (Electrical Installations) Regulations Electricity (Electrical Workers) Regulations Electricity (Cable Detection Workers) Regulations CP5 – Code of Practice for Electrical Installations CP 88 – Code of Practice for Temporary Electrical Installations: Part 1: Construction and building sites Part 2: Festive lighting, trade-fairs, mini-fairs and exhibition sites Part 3: Shipbuilding and Ship Repairing Yards 1.2 Temporary Electrical Installation CP 88 is drawn up to supplement the general requirements of Singapore Standard CP 5 - 'Code of practice for electrical installations'. This Code is to ensure safety, especially protection against electric shock in the use of electricity. As installations operating at voltages up to 1000 V a.c. are widely used in construction and building sites, it is considered necessary to give guidance on good practice for the inspection, testing and maintenance of such installations. In addition, guidance on the, installation of generating set and socket-outlet assembly are included to address the common use of generating set and EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  2 Chapter 5: Electrical Power __________________________________________________ socket-outlets for portable tools at these sites. Temporary electrical installations other than that for Construction and Building Sites may be covered in other Parts of this Code. The earthing system for electrical installations drawing supply from generating sets is TN-S. If more than one generating set is used within a site, the electrical installations shall either:  Share a common earthing system; or  Have separate earthing systems and the electrical installations connected to different earthing systems are either segregated effectively from one another or bonded effectively 1.3 Types of Supply Electrical installation at site may draw its supplies from the public electricity supply network or generating sets. Mains voltages of public supply system  Three-phase. 400V is the standard three-phase mains supply system voltage at 50Hz.  Single-phase. 230V is the standard single-phase mains supply system voltage at 50Hz. Supply voltage from generating sets For a generating set supplying low voltages, unless otherwise approved by the skilled person responsible for the design and installation of supply installation, the output voltages shall be as follows:  Three-phase. 400V between phases, and 230V between phases and Earth, 50Hz.  Single-phase. 230V between phase and Earth, 50Hz. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  3 Chapter 5: Electrical Power __________________________________________________ Reduced voltage 110 V single-phase. The supply shall be obtained from a double- wound transformer having the centre tap of the secondary winding earthed so that the nominal voltage to Earth is only 55V. Figure 1 Transformer arrangement for 110V Supply Extra low voltage 50V single-phase. The supply shall be obtained from a double-wound transformer having the centre tap of the secondary winding earthed so that the nominal voltage to Earth is only 25V. Every electrical installation on site shall be adequately controlled by switch gear readily accessible to the skilled person or his authorised representative in charge of the installation and shall incorporate:  Means of isolation  Means of overcurrent and earth fault protection; and  Means of earth leakage protection (except extra-Iow voltage installations) In the Electricity (Electrical Workers) Regulations, the design and installation of an electrical installation may be undertaken by the following categories of Licensed Electrical Workers: Authorization Grade Design Maintain / Operate Electrician 45 kVA 45 kVA Technician 150 kVA 500 kVA Engineer No limit Subject to licence conditions EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  4 Chapter 5: Electrical Power __________________________________________________ All electrical work must be undertaken or carried out by a licensed electrical worker. Such electrical work includes new wiring, rewiring and extensions which have to be tested before the supply is turned on. When a consumer needs any electrical work, he is to engage valid electrical worker licence issued by the Energy Market Authority (EMA). EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  5 Chapter 5: Electrical Power __________________________________________________ 1.4 Electrical Drawings and Diagrams Electrical drawings can be classified into the following types:  Block Diagram  Wiring Diagram  Schematic Diagram or Circuit Diagram  Single-line Diagram  Electrical Layout Diagram Block Diagram A simple diagram to facilitate the understanding of the principle of operation of a circuit or system. It shows the inter-relationship of its parts without necessarily showing all the connections. Such diagrams are generally modular with block symbols representing function rather than the component parts. Wiring Diagram A diagram showing the wiring and facilitating the checking of internal and external connections. It also shows where and how they are related. In a wiring diagram the physical layout, the components or connections are in the actual circuit. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  6 Chapter 5: Electrical Power __________________________________________________ Schematic Diagram It shows the relationship of the circuit and its control. Standard symbols may be used to represent all circuit components and shows how these are connected. A logical progression from supply to output. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  7 Chapter 5: Electrical Power __________________________________________________ Single-Line Diagram Single line diagram is a shorthand representation of an electrical circuit. Single line diagrams are often used in power system because the same circuit can be symbolized. Single-line representation is sufficient because the 3 phase circuits are generally symmetrical. Shows at a glance the main connections of the system. Control, indication and alarm circuits are not shown. Detail circuit wiring of final circuits is left out. Easier to trace the final circuit details. Fig 7.4 Single Line Diagram EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  8 Chapter 5: Electrical Power __________________________________________________ Layout Drawing Layout drawings relating to a site or buildings. In a plan, symbols will be used to indicate the location of all items of equipment. The use of standard symbols avoids the problem of having to consult a key legend in order to interpret the drawing EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  9 Chapter 5: Electrical Power __________________________________________________ 1.5 Electrical Loading The total amount of useful electrical power being delivered at any one moment is measured in watts. Electrical power is the product of the current and the voltage and is measured as the amount of work being done in any one instant. Wattage can be thought of as total power output; in the case of lighting fixtures, wattage directly corresponds to the light output. Power equation ( Resistive load) Power, P = Voltage, V x Current, A x p.f where p.f = power factor =1 (resistive load) Example 1: To calculate the current drawn by a given luminaire, divide the lamp’s wattage by the line voltage. For example, for a 1 kW light operating at 230 V, Current, I = P / V = 1000 W / 230 V = 4.3 A Example 2: A stage lighting circuit have the following lamps and its calculation: 1 Zoom Profile (2 kW) = 2,000 W 1 Fresnel (1 kW) = 1,000 W 2 PC (650 W) = 1.300 W Total Wattage = 4,300 W If calculated for a standard 230 V circuit, the amps would be: 4,300 / 230 V = 18.7 A EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  10 Chapter 5: Electrical Power __________________________________________________ Resistance of a Luminare Ohm’s Law, stated as R = V / I, can be used to calculate the resistance of a load (a lamp). The resistance of a particular load can be calculated by dividing its rated voltage (at full) by its current. For example, a 5 kW bulb (rated 5,000 W at 230 V) draws 21.74 A. The resistance of the lamp can be calculated as Resistance, R = V / I = 230 V / 21.74 A = 10.58 Ω Power Factor When a piece of equipment has inductive properties (magnetic ballasts) or capacitive properties (electronic ballasts), power factor must be considered in order to make proper load calculations. Power factor is denoted as pf. A load such as an incandescent light or heating element has no inductive or capacitive properties. It merely creates resistance in a circuit. When the load involves coils such as a transformer, motor, or magnetic ballast, inductive reactance comes into play, and the power factor is less than 100 per cent. Power Factor Calculations. Power factor is the percentage ratio of watts to volt-amperes. Power = V x I x pf pf = Watts / V I EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  11 Chapter 5: Electrical Power __________________________________________________ To illustrate, suppose you are powering four nos of 1 kW HMI lamps. If you use P = VI, therefore I = P / V = 4 x 1000 / 230 = 17.39 A If the units have a power factor of 80 %, the actual current required will be P = VI x pf, therefore, I = P / V x pf = 4 x 1000 / 230 x 0.8 = 21.74 A From this we can see the importance of taking power factor into account. The current taken by the lamps is significantly higher 4.35 A higher. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  12 Chapter 5: Electrical Power __________________________________________________ 1.6 IP Code The IP classification system from IEC 60034-5 (for rotating machines) and SS IEC 529 (for enclosures), designates by means of a number, the degree of protection provided EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  13 Chapter 5: Electrical Power __________________________________________________ by an enclosure against impact or dust or water ingress. Please note that the IP classification should not be constructed as indicating corrosion resistance. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  1 Chapter 6: Maintenance __________________________________________________ 1.1 Introduction Predictive maintenance is an approach to determine when equipment will fail, so that non-scheduled maintenance work can be performed, before critical failure of the equipment occurs. These predictions are based on evaluated on the equipment data gathered through condition monitoring of sensors. Electrical equipment break down reasons.  Mechanical failure occur due to loose connections, overheating, and load changes.  Environmental conditions, high humidity, corrosive environments, and high dirt and dust levels lead to more downtime.  Human error when hands-on maintenance is performed. Preventive maintenance is focused on equipment fixed scheduled maintenance. Thus it may lead to unnecessary cost and maintenance schedule, not based on the actual wear and tear state of the equipment. The advantages of predictive maintenance:  Reduce Unscheduled Downtime  Prevent Equipment Failures  Reduce Maintenance Costs  Increase Equipment Utilization  Extend Equipment Life  Identify Under-performing equipment  Improve Safety For Predictive Maintenance, infrared thermal imaging, can be used to predict failures. For example for mechanical equipment and electrical systems, thermal infrared imaging can scan, visualize, and analyze the equipment’s temperature to spot which parts on the equipment are “running hot”. Predictive maintenance (PdM) relies on condition-monitoring equipment to assess the performance of equipment in real-time. By combining condition-based diagnostics with predictive formulas, PdM creates an accurate tool for collecting and analyzing equipment data. This data allows for the identification of any areas that will need attention. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  2 Chapter 6: Maintenance __________________________________________________ Below are 7 predictive maintenance approaches that inspect, monitor, assess, and analyze electrical equipment: 1. Power System Assessments – These are conducted by professional electrical engineers trained in power system analyses. Power system assessments provide visual inspections of the existing power distribution system. Defects, deficiencies, deteriorations, hazards, or weaknesses in existing system installations are identified as part of the assessment. 2. Infrared (Thermographic) Inspections – Infrared inspections use a specialized camera to detect anomalies not noticeable to the naked eye. In an electrical setting, infrared inspections identify hot spots, which can be a precursor to equipment malfunction, which leads to unplanned downtime. 3. Online Temperature Monitoring – This technology provides 24/7 access to critical connection points where traditional thermography cannot be used. Continuous monitoring provides the means to evaluate the equipment’s current condition and detect abnormalities at an early stage. During a planned outage, wireless temperature sensors are installed in low-voltage and medium-voltage equipment areas not accessible to an infrared camera. 4. Circuit Monitor Analysis – Circuit monitors record data relating to voltage, current, and power. They help facility managers and engineers understand where and when dangerous and destructive transients, sags and swells occur. 5. Intelligent Protective Devices – Circuit breakers and motor control centers are two examples of intelligent protective devices. Monitoring of circuit breakers provides advanced information regarding identification and position, number of operations, cumulative interrupted currents, operating times, charging time, travel-time curve, excess closing energy, and wear of contacts. Motor control centers are monitored for readings of motor current and power, thermal capacity, line currents, average current, ground current, motor temperature, current phase imbalance, voltage frequency, line to line voltage, and line voltage imbalance 5 steps: a. Identify critical assets Start by identifying that critical equipment and systems b. Establish a database sufficient information of machine behavior. c. Analyze and establish failures modes EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  3 Chapter 6: Maintenance __________________________________________________ At this point, the organization will need to perform an analysis on the previously identified critical assets to establish their failure modes. d. Make failure predictions With the most critical assets and failure modes identified, the next step is designing the right modeling approach that will form the basis for failure predictions. The end result of this stage is to deliver a fully automated system that:  monitors operating conditions via installed sensors  understands and predicts patterns created by data anomalies  and creates alerts when there is a deviation from established thresholds e. – Deploy to pilot equipment This is where predictive modeling is put to test and validated by deploying the technology to a Predictive maintenance (PdM) tools There are six PdM tools:  Vibration analysis  Ultrasonic analysis  Infrared analysis  Laser-shaft alignment  Motor circuit analysis   Vibration analysis Vibration Analysis (VA) uses a sensor to detect vibrations from an asset. An analysis of vibration readings to known problem signals, or changes over time from current to previous data, provides information for action. Ultrasonic analysis Ultrasonic analysis (UA) tools take high frequency sounds picked up by a sensitive microphone and turns them into audio and digital data that are used by humans and EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  4 Chapter 6: Maintenance __________________________________________________ computer software. New UA data is compared with known potential issues or compared against previous recordings for performance tracking. Infrared analysis Infrared radiation (IR) is the wavelength of light that is invisible to the human eye. The varying levels of light indicate an object’s temperature. Infrared analysis uses IR to compare the difference in temperature between components in one view or multiple views over time. The temperature differences can indicate an asset’s condition or performance. IR is valuable in determining:  Temperature variations of mechanical components such as bearings or motor cases  The condition of electrical components (prevalent for ARC flash analysis)  Process temperatures  Insulation or building conditions  Piping and plumbing conditions  Solar panel conditions (a new use for many building owners) Laser-shaft alignment A frequent source of mechanical failure is poor installation practices when putting equipment into service. Many technicians do not realize the importance of aligning a shaft on all three axes when connecting asset components. Misaligned components place extraordinary pressure on all elements within an asset’s drive train. Bearings frequently bear the brunt of misaligned shafts.  Motor Circuit Analysis Motor circuit analyzers can find faults and potential faults in electric motors and their components. Motor circuit analysis can determine issues in:  Incoming power  Motor electrical circuitry  Motor mechanical components  Motor mechanical couplings (driven load) EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  5 Chapter 6: Maintenance __________________________________________________ Motor circuit analyzers use electric signature analysis (ESA) to identify faults. ESA measures a motor’s supply voltage and operating current to determine issues. ESA works on AC and DC motors.  Predictive maintenance workflow The graphic below outlines the predictive maintenance workflow from start to finish. The ultimate goal with predictive maintenance is to catch breakdowns before they happen by monitoring equipment conditions. Note: Predictive maintenance workflow example  How to implement predictive maintenance Implementation begins.  1. Establish baselines The maintenance team establishes acceptable condition limits for assets that will have sensors.  2. Install Internet of Things (IoT) devices The relevant sensor is affixed to the asset. For instance, a vibration meter is affixed to a mechanical asset with gears and a temperature sensor is attached to a boiler or to a moving light.  3. Connect devices to software The IoT device is connected to a CMMS or remote dashboard where data is collected and analyzed.  4. Maintenance Inspections are automatically triggered by a CMMS when the condition limit is exceeded. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  6 Chapter 6: Maintenance __________________________________________________ In the setting up and operation of performance lighting instruments and equipment, problems will inadvertently surface. A good starting point is always label faulty equipment. Otherwise, in the rush to get on with work, it can too easily be recycled back into use, wasting still more time. Below listed are some of the common problems i) Lighting instruments (or lantern or lamp) not working ii) Smoking lantern iii) Circuit breaker keeps tripping iv) Gobos or gels burning out v) Paired lanterns give different outputs vi) Lantern output weak vii) Distribution panel not working properly viii) Not enough circuits Maintaining Spotlights, Fresnels, PC’s etc  Cleaning - Get rid of the dust  Open up the lantern  More vacuuming  Cleaning the Lenses and Reflector Visual Inspection Inside  Electrical Parts Inspection  Mechanical Parts Check  Optics Check 10.2 LAMPS MAINTENANCE To keep lamps in good working condition: (a) Keep all lamps clean and free from dust. (b) Handle tungsten-halogen (T-H) lamp with extreme care. The T-H lamp must be kept free of all fingerprints, grease that could cause a change in the heat-dissipation bulb life span. Because a T-H lamp reaches a high temperature, any change in its heat-dissipation characteristics could cause the lamp to fail or explode. (c) When installing the lamps, grasp the lamp by the base rather than the bulb. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  7 Chapter 6: Maintenance __________________________________________________ (d) Use a soft cloth or glove to handle envelope. It will protect the lamp bulb. Be sure to wipe the lamp surface clean with a soft cloth and vinegar or alcohol. Alcohol will remove the residue and leave the surface clean. (e) T-H bulb needs more lamp maintenance than incandescent lamp. (f) Lamp bases should be kept free of any corrosive build up that could interfere with the electrical contact between with the socket and the base. (a) PAR (b) HPI (c) TH EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  8 Chapter 6: Maintenance __________________________________________________ 10.3 LAMPS STORAGE To keep lamps in good storage order condition: (a) Handle the lamp with care. (b) Position of lamp filament and the reflector must be kept in alignment, especially ellipsoidal reflector spotlight. If this is ignored, the light output will be reduced and the hot spot will be shifted from the centre of the beam. (c) Lamps and reflectors need to be kept clean and free from dust and fingerprints. (d) All nuts and bolts on the housing, clamp and yoke should be locked securely. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  9 Chapter 6: Maintenance __________________________________________________ (e) When not in use, the lamps should be hung on pipes or rolling rack trolley. (f) Ellipsoidal reflector spotlight should be stored with the shutters pushed all the way in to prevent them from being accidentally bent. (g) The electrical pigtails are not pinched between the yoke and the lamp housing. (h) The electrical plug and pigtail must be kept in good working order. 10.4 DIMMERS To keep dimmer in good operating condition: (a) Do not pile anything on top of a wall-mounted dimmer rack. It restricts air circulation and will damage the dimmer. (b) Ensure that portable dimmer is raised off the ground so that air can circulate under the case. (c) Be sure that the dimmer’s fan is working properly. The heat build up will cause a pre-mature dimmer failure with the fan not working properly. (d) Conduct SCR dimmers voltage check regularly and to be done by qualified electrician annually. 10.5 CABLES AND CONNECTORS To keep cables and connectors in good operating condition: (a) When a cable is not in use, coil it and hang it on a designated location. (b) Check cable and connectors regularly and replace any items of chipping, insulation cable failure. (c) Always disconnect a plug by pulling on the body of the connector, not the cable. (d) Keep the connectors clean. Grease, paint, corrosion may act as insulation. (e) Avoid carelessness and unsafe electrical operating procedures EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  10 Chapter 6: Maintenance __________________________________________________ Fig 10.3 Illustrating Storage of Cables in Rack 10.6 Maintenance Tips Is the light output of your fittings starting to look dim. The shutters are sticking; basically the fitting is not working like it did when you removed it from the carton, a brand new gleaming lantern. Well it is time to clean the fitting and go over it and fix all of those niggling faults. First of all give the outside a clean. Inspect the power cable and plug for any damage. Check the lantern body for any damage. Any damaged control knobs etc should be replaced. Now it is time to open up the unit, taking particular care not to loose any screws, nuts etc. Also you should try and remember how it comes apart as you are going to EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  11 Chapter 6: Maintenance __________________________________________________ want to put it back together. Blow out any dust. Gently clean all the lenses with a lint free cloth and maybe a little bit of window cleaner. Use the lint free cloth to clean any dust of the reflector, being mindful of not touch the lamp. Lubricate the shutters if there are any, graphite powder is ideal. Check all the internal electricals to make sure they are sound. When all is clean and put back together you should have no parts left over. It is time to test the unit, there should be a noticeable improvement of the beam quality and it should all be working like a charm. Chain hoist maintenance The use of any hoist presents some risk of personal injury or property damage. That risk is greatly increased if proper instructions and warnings are not followed. Before using this hoist, each operator should become thoroughly familiar with all warnings, instructions, and The chains on the motors must be inspected each time they are rigged. Two ton motors much be checked for any twisted links by running the block the whole length of the chain. The chain can easily become twisted in transit and when the motor is taken to its maximum height a twisted link could jam or shear with damaged result. A twisted chain causes a lot of additional friction as it passes through the block. Frequent Inspections These inspections are usually visual examinations by the operator or other designated personnel. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  12 Chapter 6: Maintenance __________________________________________________ Frequent inspections are to be performed daily or monthly and shall include the following items: a.Operate the hoist, with no load, and check for visual signs or abnormal noises which could indicate a potential problem. b.Brake for evidence of slippage. c.Chain for lubricant, wear, damaged links or foreign material d.Hooks for damage, cracks, twist, latch engagement and latch operation. e.External evidence of loose screws. f. External evidence of worn, corroded, cracked or distorted hook block, gears, bearings, chain stop and hook retainer. g.External evidence of damage or excessive wear of the liftwheel or sheave (double- reeved unit). Problems with chain motors The weak part of the chain motor is the contractor which switches on and off. The terminals of the contactor can become burnt by continuous clicking on and off. The power supply for the chain motors must be phased correctly so that the motor moves up when the up button is depressed. If the phasing is incorrect, the safety limit switches in the motor will not work. The limit switches are set to make sure that the motor does not run into the hook but stops a few links from it. The person operating the motor chain hoist must ensure that no one is standing under a load being raised or lowered. EE3205FP Lighting Systems and Control  13 Chapter 6: Maintenance __________________________________________________ These hoists hang upside down and rise along with your load, making them great for lifting lighting and backdrops for trade shows, concerts, and theaters. They are easier to mount than standard electric chain hoists since you connect the hook to the lifting point, rather than the entire hoist body. Use the handheld control to effortlessly lift your load. Overload protection prevents hoists from operating if the load exceeds capacity. A maximum height limit switch prevents the load from hitting the hoist; a minimum height limit switch prevents the load from hitting the ground.