Load Characteristics PDF

Load Characteristics **Domestic Load:** lights, fans, refrigerators, air conditioners, mixers, grinders, heaters, ovens, small pumping motors, etc. **Commercial load:** lighting for shops, offices, advertisements, etc., fans, heating, air conditioning, and many other electrical appliances used in...

Load Characteristics **Domestic Load:** lights, fans, refrigerators, air conditioners, mixers, grinders, heaters, ovens, small pumping motors, etc. **Commercial load:** lighting for shops, offices, advertisements, etc., fans, heating, air conditioning, and many other electrical appliances used in commercial establishments such as marketplaces, restaurants, etc. **Industrial Loads:** small--scale industries, medium--scale industries, large--scale industries, heavy industries and cottage industries. **Agriculture Loads:** motor pump -- sets load for irrigation purposes. The load factor for this load is tiny, 0.15 -- 0.2. Definition of Terms: **Load Curve:** It is a curve showing the power variation with time. It displays the value of a particular load for each unit covered period. The unit of time considered maybe hours, days, weeks, months, or years. **Load Duration Curve:** The curve for a plant shows the total time within a specified period during which the load equaled or exceeded the values shown. **Dump Power:** This term is used in hydro plants, and it shows the power over the load requirements and is made available by surplus water. **Firm Power:** It is the power that should always be available, even under emergency conditions. **Prime Power:** It is power, mechanical, hydraulic, or thermal, always available for conversion into electrical energy. **Cold Reserve** is a reserve-generating capacity that is not in operation but can be made available for service. **A Hot Reserve** generates capacity in operation but not in service. **Spinning Reserve:** It is that reserve generating capacity connected to the bus and ready to take the load. **Connected Load:** The sum of the continuous ratings of all the electrical devices connected to the supply systems. **Demand:** The Load at the receiving terminals is averaged over a specified time interval. It may be given in kW, kVA, kA, or A. **Demand Interval:** The period over which the average load is computed. The period may be 30 minutes, 60 minutes, or even longer. **Maximum Demand:** It is the greatest of all demands that have occurred during the specified period. **Coincident Demand (Diversified Demand):** The demand of composite group, as a whole, of somewhat unrelated loads over a given period. It is the maximum sum of the contributions of the individual applications to the diversified demand over a particular interval. **Noncoincident Demand:** It is the sum of the requirements of groups of loads with no restriction on the interval to which each demand is applicable. **Demand Factor:** It is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system to the total connected load of the system. \ [\$\$DF = \\ \\frac{\\text{Maximum\\ demand}}{\\text{Total\\ connected\\ load}}\$\$]{.math.display}\ The demand factor is usually less than 1.0. It indicates the simultaneous operation of the total connected load. **Utilization Factor** is the ratio of a system\'s maximum demand to its rated capacity. \ [\$\$UF = \\frac{\\text{Maximum\\ demand\\ of\\ the\\ system}}{\\text{Rated\\ system\\ capacity}}\$\$]{.math.display}\ **Plant Operating Factor:** The ratio of the duration the plant is in actual service to the total length of the period considered. \ [\$\$Plant\\ Operating\\ Factor = \\frac{\\frac{\\text{Hours}}{\\text{Day}}\\text{plant\\ is\\ operated}}{24}\$\$]{.math.display}\ **Plant Factor/Plant Capacity Factor/Capacity Factor/Plant Use Factor:** It is also known as a capacity factor or use factor. It is the ratio of the total energy produced over a specified period to the energy that would have been made if the plant (generating units) operated continuously at maximum rating. \ [\$\$Plant\\ Factor = \\ \\frac{\\text{Actual\\ energy\\ produced}}{Maximum\\ plant\\ rating\\ \\times T}\$\$]{.math.display}\ \ [\$\$Annual\\ Plant\\ Factor = \\ \\frac{\\text{Actual\\ energy\\ generation}}{Maximum\\ plant\\ rating \\times 8760}\$\$]{.math.display}\ **Load Factor:** It is the ratio of the average load over a designated period to the peak load occurring on that period. \ [\$\$LF = \\frac{\\text{Average\\ load}}{\\text{Peak\\ load}}\$\$]{.math.display}\ \ [\$\$LF = \\frac{Average\\ load \\times T}{Peak\\ load \\times T}\$\$]{.math.display}\ \ [\$\$LF = \\frac{\\text{Energy\\ served}}{Peak\\ load \\times T}\$\$]{.math.display}\ \ [\$\$Annual\\ Load\\ Factor = \\frac{\\text{Total\\ annual\\ energy}}{Peak\\ load \\times 8760}\$\$]{.math.display}\ A high load factor is a desirable quality. A higher load factor means a more significant average load, generating greater power units for a given maximum demand. Thus, the fixed cost, proportional to the maximum demand, can be distributed over a greater number of units (kWh) supplied. This will lower the overall cost of the supply of electric energy. **Loss Factor:** The ratio of the average power loss to the peak--load power loss during a specified period. \ [\$\$LLF = \\frac{\\text{Average\\ power\\ loss}}{\\text{Power\\ loss\\ at\\ peak\\ load}}\$\$]{.math.display}\ Relationship between Load Factor (LF) and Loss Factor (LLF) **Case 1:**Off--peak load is zero. \ [\$\$LF = LLF = \\ \\frac{t}{T}\$\$]{.math.display}\ **Case 2:** Very short-lasting peak. \ [*LLF*  → (LF)^2^]{.math.display}\ **Case 3:** Load is steady. [*LLF* = 0.3*LF* + 0.7(LF)^2^]{.math.inline} -- urban area [*LLF* = 0.16*LF* + 0.84(LF)^2^]{.math.inline} -- rural area **Coincidence Factor** is the ratio of the maximum coincident total demand of a group of consumers to the sum of the maximum power demands of individual consumers comprising the group, both taken simultaneously at the same point of supply. \ [\$\$CF = \\frac{\\text{Coincident\\ maximum\\ demand}}{\\text{Sum\\ of\\ individual\\ maximum\\ demands}}\$\$]{.math.display}\ \ [\$\$CF = \\frac{P\_{C}}{\\sum\_{i = 1}\^{n}P\_{i}} = \\frac{1}{\\text{FD}}\$\$]{.math.display}\ **Diversity Factor:** It is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the various subdivisions, groups, or consumers to the highest demand of the whole system. \ [\$\$FD = \\frac{\\text{Sum\\ of\\ individual\\ maximum\\ demand}}{\\text{Coincident\\ maximum\\ demand}}\$\$]{.math.display}\ \ [\$\$FD = \\frac{\\sum\_{i = 1}\^{n}P\_{i}}{P\_{C}}\$\$]{.math.display}\ The diversity factor can be equal to or greater than unity. A high diversity factor (which is always greater than unity) is also a desirable quality. With a given number of consumers, the higher the value of the diversity factor, the lower the maximum demand on the plant, so the plant\'s capacity will be smaller, resulting in fixed charges. **Load Diversity** is the difference between the sum of the peaks of two or more individual loads and the peak of the combined load. \ [\$\$LD = \\left( \\sum\_{i = 1}\^{n}P\_{i} \\right) - P\_{C}\$\$]{.math.display}\ **Contribution Factor:** It is given per unit of the individual maximum demand of the ith load. \ [\$\$CF = \\frac{\\sum\_{i = 1}\^{n}{C\_{i}P\_{i}}}{\\sum\_{i = 1}\^{n}P\_{i}}\$\$]{.math.display}\ Case 1: (P are equal) \ [\$\$CF = \\frac{\\sum\_{i = 1}\^{n}C\_{i}}{n}\$\$]{.math.display}\ Case 2: (C are equal) \ [*CF* = *C*]{.math.display}\ Examples: 1. A power station supplies the load as tabulated below: Time (hours) Load (MW) --------------- ----------- 6 -- 8 AM 1.2 8 -- 9 AM 2.0 9 -- 12 NN 3.0 12 NN -- 2 PM 1.5 2 -- 6 PM 2.5 6 -- 8 PM 1.8 8 -- 9 PM 2.0 9 -- 11 PM 1.0 11 PM -- 5 AM 0.5 5 -- 6 AM 0.8 a. Plot the load curve and find out the load factor.  b. Determine the proper number and size of generating units to supply this load. Answer: 4 generating units with 1 MW rating each is needed to supply the load. c. Find the reserve capacity of the plant and plant factor. Answer: 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 4(1)− 3 = 𝟏𝑴𝑾 d. Find out the operating schedule of the generating units selected. Answer: 2. Please assume that the loading data given in the table belongs to one of the primary feeders of the No Light & No Power (NL&NP) Company and that they are for a typical winter day. Develop the idealized daily load curve for the given hypothetical primary feeder.  Determine also the following: a. the class contribution factors for each of the three load classes b. the diversity factor for the primary feeder  c. the diversified maximum demand of the load group Answer: 1800 kW at 5PM d. the coincidence factor of the load group Load, kW ------- ----------------- ------------- ------------ Time Street Lighting Residential Commercial 12 AM 100 200 200 1 100 200 200 2 100 200 200 3 100 200 200 4 100 200 200 5 100 200 200 6 100 200 200 7 100 300 200 8 400 300 9 500 500 10 500 1000 11 500 1000 12 NN 500 1000 1 500 1000 2 500 1200 3 500 1200 4 500 1200 5 600 1200 6 100 700 800 7 100 800 400 8 100 1000 400 9 100 1000 400 10 100 800 200 11 100 600 200 12 PM 100 300 200 3. A generating station has a maximum demand of 80 MW and a connected load of 150 MW. If MWhr generated in a year is 400 x 10^3^, calculate: e. Load factor f. Demand factor  4. A sample distribution system is shown. One of the feeders supplies an industrial load with a peak of 2 MW, and the other supplies residential loads with a maximum of 2 MW. The combined peak demand is 3 MW. Determine: g. The diversity factor of the load connected to the transformer h. The load diversity of the load connected to the transformer  i. The coincidence factor of the load connected to the transformer. 5. The peak demand of a generating station is 90 MW, and the load factor is 0.6. The plant capacity and use factors are 0.5 and 0.8, respectively. Determine:  6. Assume that the annual peak load of a primary feeder is 2000 kW, at which the power loss, that is, total copper loss, is 80 kW per three phases. Assuming an annual loss factor of 0.15, determine:  7. A substation supplies power to four feeders. Feeder -- A supplies six consumers whose daily maximum demands are 70 KW, 90 KW, 20 KW, 50 KW, 10 KW, and 20 KW, while the maximum demand on the feeders is 200 KW. Feeder -- B supplies four consumers whose daily maximum requirements are 60 KW, 40 KW, 70 KW, and 30 KW, while the maximum demand on feeder-B -- B is 160 KW. Feeders C and D have a maximum daily demand of 150 KW and 200 KW, respectively, while the highest demand on the station is 600 KW. Determine the diversity factor for feeders A and B consumers and the four feeders. 8. Assume that two primary feeders are supplied by one of the three transformers at the NL&NP\'s Riverside distribution substation. One of the feeders supplies an industrial load, which occurs primarily between 8 AM and 11 PM, with a peak of 2000 kW at 5 PM. The other one feeds residential loads, which occur mainly between 6 AM and 12 PM, with a peak of 2000 kW at 9 PM. Determine the following:  9. The average load factor of a substation is 0.65. Determine the average loss factor of its feeders if the substation services:  10. Assume that a primary feeder\'s annual peak load input is 2000 kW. A computer program calculates voltage drops and I^2^R losses, showing that the total copper loss at peak load is 100 kW. The total annual energy supplied to the sending end of the feeder is 5.61 x 10^6^ kWh. 11. There are six residential customers connected to a distribution transformer (DT). Notice the code in the customer account number, for example, 4276. The first figure, 4, stands for feeder F4. The second figure, 2, indicates the lateral number connected to the F4 feeder; the third figure, 7, is for the DT on that lateral; and finally, the last figure, 6, is for the house number connected to that DT. Assume that the connected load is 9 kW per house and that the demand and diversity factors for the group six houses, either from the NL&NP Company\'s record or the relevant handbooks, have been decided as 0.65 and 1.10, respectively. Determine the diversified demand of the group of six houses on the distribution transformer DT427.  12. Assume that one of the DTs of the Riverside substation supplies three primary feeders. The 30-minute annual maximum demands per feeder are listed in the following table, and the power factor (PF) at the time of annual peak load. Demand -------- ------ ------ Feeder kW PF 1 1800 0.95 2 2000 0.85 3 2200 0.90  13. Assume that the Riverside distribution substation of the NL & NP Company supplying Ghost Town, a small city, experiences an annual peak load of 3500 kW. The total energy supplied to the primary feeder circuits is 10,000,000 kWh. The peak demand occurs in July or August due to air conditioning load.  Use the data given above and suppose that a new load of 100 kW with a 100% annual load factor will be supplied from the Riverside substation. The IC, or capacity of cost, of the power system upstream toward the generator from this substation is Php 18.00/kW per month. Assume that the energy delivered to these primary feeders costs the supplier, NL&NP, Php0.60/kWh. **Maximum Diversified Demand** Arvidson developed a method of estimating DT loads in residential areas by the diversified demand method, which considers the diversity between similar loads and the noncoincidence of the peaks of different types of loads. Arvidson introduced the hourly variation factor to consider the noncoincidence of the peaks of different types of loads. It is \"the ratio of the demand of a particular type of load coincident with the group maximum demand to the maximum demand of that particular load.\" The sample table gives the hourly variation curves of various types of household appliances. The figure shows several curves for multiple household appliances to determine the average maximum diversified demand per customer in kilowatts per load. Each curve represents 100% saturation level for a specified demand in the figure. To apply Arvidson\'s method to determine the maximum demand for a given saturation level and appliance, the following steps are suggested: 1. Determine the number of appliances by multiplying the total number of customers by the pu saturation. 2. Read the corresponding diversified demand per customer from the curve for the given number of appliances. 3. Determine the maximum demand, multiplying the demand in step 2 by the total number of appliances. 4. Finally, determine the contribution of that type of load to the group maximum demand by multiplying the resultant value from step 3 by the corresponding hourly variation factor found in the table. Hour Lighting and Miscellaneous Refrigerator Home Freezer Range Airconditioning ---------------- ----------------------------------------- --------------- -------------------------- ------------------------------------- -------------- ------ 12 AM 0.32 0.93 0.92 0.02 0.40 1 0.12 0.89 0.90 0.01 0.39 2 0.10 0.80 0.87 0.01 0.36 3 0.09 0.76 0.85 0.01 0.35 4 0.08 0.79 0.82 0.01 0.35 5 0.10 0.72 0.84 0.02 0.33 6 0.19 0.75 0.85 0.05 0.30 7 0.41 0.75 0.85 0.30 0.41 8 0.35 0.79 0.86 0.47 0.53 9 0.31 0.79 0.86 0.28 0.62 10 0.31 0.79 0.87 0.22 0.72 11 0.30 0.85 0.90 0.22 0.74 12 NN 0.28 0.85 0.92 0.33 0.80 1 0.26 0.87 0.96 0.25 0.86 2 0.29 0.90 0.98 0.16 0.89 3 0.32 0.90 0.99 0.17 0.96 4 0.32 0.90 1.00 0.24 0.97 5 0.70 0.90 1.00 0.80 0.99 6 0.92 0.90 0.99 1.00 1.00 7 1.00 0.95 0.98 0.30 0.91 8 0.95 1.00 0.98 0.12 0.79 9 0.85 0.95 0.97 0.09 0.71 10 0.72 0.88 0.96 0.05 0.64 11 0.50 0.88 0.95 0.04 0.55 12 PM 0.32 0.93 0.92 0.02 0.40 Heat Pump Water Heater OPWH Clothes dryer Cooling Season Heating Season House Heating Both elements restricted Only bottom elements are restricted Uncontrolled 0.42 0.34 0.11 0.41 0.61 0.51 0.03 0.35 0.49 0.07 0.33 0.46 0.37 0.02 0.35 0.51 0.09 0.25 0.34 0.30 0 0.28 0.54 0.08 0.17 0.24 0.22 0 0.28 0.57 0.13 0.13 0.19 0.15 0 0.26 0.63 0.15 0.13 0.19 0.14 0 0.26 0.74 0.17 0.17 0.24 0.16 0 0.35 1.00 0.76 0.27 0.37 0.46 0 0.49 0.91 1.00 0.47 0.65 0.70 0.08 0.58 0.83 0.97 0.63 0.87 1.00 0.20 0.70 0.74 0.68 0.67 0.93 1.00 0.65 0.73 0.60 0.57 0.67 0.93 0.99 1.00 0.84 0.57 0.55 0.67 0.93 0.98 0.98 0.88 0.49 0.51 0.61 0.85 0.86 0.70 0.95 0.46 0.49 0.55 0.76 0.82 0.65 1.00 0.40 0.48 0.49 0.68 0.81 0.63 1.00 0.43 0.44 0.33 0.46 0.79 0.38 1.00 0.43 0.79 0 0.09 0.75 0.30 1.00 0.49 0.88 0 0.13 0.75 0.22 0.88 0.51 0.76 0 0.19 0.80 0.26 0.73 0.60 0.54 1.00 1.00 0.81 0.20 0.72 0.54 0.42 0.84 0.98 0.73 0.18 0.53 0.51 0.27 0.67 0.77 0.67 0.10 0.49 0.34 0.23 0.54 0.69 0.59 0.04 0.42 0.34 0.11 0.44 0.61 0.51 0.03  A = clothes dryer, B =off--peak water heater,off--peak load, C = water heater, uncontrolled, interlocked elements, D = range, E = lighting and miscellaneous appliances, F = 0.5 hp room coolers, G =off--peak water heater, on--peak\" load, upper element uncontrolled, H = oil burner, I = home freezer, J = refrigerator, K = central airconditioning, including heat -- pump cooling, five hp heat pump (4 ton air conditioner), L = house heating, including heat -- pump -- heating connected load of 15 kW unit type resistance heating of 5 hp heat pump. Example: Assume a typical DT serves six residential loads houses through six service drops (SD) and two secondary line (SL) spans. Suppose that there are a total of 150 DTs and 900 residences supplied by this primary feeder. A typical residence contains a clothes dryer, range, refrigerator, lighting, and miscellaneous appliances. Determine the following: a. The 30-minute maximum diversified demand on the DT b. The 30-minute maximum diversified demand on the entire feeder c. Use the typical variation factors given and calculate the small portion of the daily demand curve on the DT: the total hourly diversified demands at 4, 5, and 6 PM on the DT, in kilowatts. Load Growth Load growth is the most important factor influencing the expansion of the distribution system. Forecasting of load increases is essential to the planning process. If the load growth rate is known, the load at the end of the m -- th year is given by \ [*P*~*m*~ = *P*~0~(1 + *g*)^*m*^]{.math.display}\ Load Forecast 1. Trend (regression analysis) a. Linear regression b. Least square parabola c. Least square exponential d. Multiple regression 2. Box -- Jenkins Methodology 3. Small Area Load Forecasting 4. Spatial Load Forecasting Load Management The *load management* process involves controlling system loads by remote control of individual customer loads. Such control includes suppressing or biasing automatic control of cycling loads and load switching. Load management can also be affected by inducing customers to suppress loads during utility--selected daily periods using time--of--day rate incentives. Such activities are called demand-side management. *Demand side management* (*DSM*) includes all measures, programs, equipment, and activities directed towards improving efficiency and cost--effectiveness of energy usage on the customer side of the meter. In general, such load control results in a load reduction at time t, that is [*ΔS*(*t*)]{.math.inline}, which can be expressed as \ [*ΔS*(*t*) = *S*~avg~ × \[*D*~uncont~(*t*) − *D*~con~(*t*)\] × *N*]{.math.display}\ where [*S*~avg~]{.math.inline} Is the average connected load of controlled devices, [*D*~uncont~(*t*)]{.math.inline} Is the average duty cycle of uncontrolled units at time t, [*D*~con~(*t*)]{.math.inline} is the duty cycle allowed by the load control at time t, and N is the number of units under control. Example: Assume a 5 kW air conditioner would run 80% of the time (80% duty cycle) during the peak hour and might be limited by utility remote control to a duty cycle of 65%. Determine the following: a. The number of minutes of operation denied at the end of 1 h of control of the unit b. The amount of reduced energy consumption during the peak hour if such control is applied simultaneously to 100,000 air conditioners throughout the system c. The total amount of reduced energy consumption during the peak d. The total amount of additional reduction in energy consumption in part (c) if T&D losses at peak is 8% Rate Structure \ [(Revenue requirement) = (operating expenses) + (depreciation expenses) + (taxes) + (*rate* *base* *or* *net* *valuation*) × (*rate* *of* *return*)]{.math.display}\ There are several types of rate structures used by the utilities, and some of them are *Flat demand rate structure* *Straight--line meter rate structure* *Block meter rate structure* *Season rate structure* *Time--of--day (or peak--load pricing) structure* **Customer Billing** 1 -- The customer\'s account number 2 -- A code showing which of the rate schedules was applied to the customer\'s bill 3 -- A code showing whether the customer\'s bill was estimated or adjusted 4 -- The date on which the billing period ended 5 -- Number of kilowatts--hours the customer\'s meter registered when the bill was tabulated 6 -- An itemized list of charges 7 -- Information appears in the box only when the bill is sent to a nonresidential customer using more than 6000 kWh of electricity a month 8 -- The number of kilowatts--hours the customer used during the billing period 9 -- Total amount that the customer owes 10 -- Environmental surcharge 11 -- Country Energy tax 12 -- State sales tax 13 -- Fuel cost adjustment 14 -- Date on which bill, if unpaid, becomes overdue 15 -- Amount due now 16 -- Amount that the customer must pay if the bill becomes overdue Electric Meter Types An *electric meter* is a device used to measure the electricity sold by the electric utility company. It measures the electric energy delivered to residential, commercial, and industrial customers and the electric energy passing through various parts of the generation, transmission, and distribution systems. A *demand meter* is basically a watt--hour meter with a timing element added. The meter functions as an integrator and adds up the kilowatt--hours of energy used in a specific time interval, for example, 15, 30, or 60 min. Therefore, the demand meter indicates energy per time interval, or average power, expressed in kilowatts. **Electronic (or Digital) Meters**  Utility companies are using new meters with *programmable demand registers* (PDRs). A PDR can also measure demand, whereas a traditional register measures only the electricity used in a month. The PDR may also be programmed to record the date when reset. The PDR can also be programmed in many other ways. For example, it can alert a customer when he reaches a certain demand level so that they can cut back if they want it.  **Reading Electric Meters** The customers\' bill can be determined by reading the register, that is, the revolution counter. There are primarily two different types of records: **Conventional Dial Type Register** To interpret, read the dials from left to right. To find the customer\'s monthly use, take two readings one month apart and subtract the earlier one from the later one. Some electric meters have a constant or multiplier indicated on the meter. This type of meter is primarily for high--usage customers. **Cyclometer** The procedure is the same as in the conventional type: the wheels, which indicate numbers directly, replace the dials. Therefore, it makes possible the reading of the meter simply and directly, from left to right.  **Instantaneous Load Measurements using Electromechanical Watt-hour Meters** The instantaneous kilowatt demand of any customer may be determined by making field observations of the kilowatt--hour meter serving the customer. However, the instantaneous load measurement should not replace demand meters that record for longer time intervals. The instantaneous demand may be determined by the following: 1. For a self--contained watt-hour meter \ [\$\$D\_{i} = \\frac{3.6 \\times K\_{r} \\times K\_{h}}{T}\\text{\\ kW}\$\$]{.math.display}\ 2. For a transformer-rated meter (where instrument transformers are used with a watt-hour meter) \ [\$\$D\_{i} = \\frac{3.6 \\times K\_{r} \\times K\_{h} \\times CTR \\times PTR}{T}\\text{\\ kW}\$\$]{.math.display}\ Where D~i~ is the instantaneous demand (kW), K~r~ is the number of meter disk revolutions for a given time, K~h~ is the watt--hour meter constant (shown on the register), Wh/rev, T is the time (s), CTR is the current transformer ratio, and PTR is the potential transformer ratio. Since the kilowatt demand is based on a short interval, two or more demand intervals should be measured. The average value of these demands is a reasonable estimate of the given customer\'s kilowatt demand during the intervals measured. Examples: 1. Assume that the load is measured twice with a watt-hour--meter, which has a meter constant of 7.2, and the following data are obtained: First Reading Second Reading -------------------------------------------- --------------- ---------------- Revolutions of disk 32 27 The time interval for revolutions of disks 59 40 2. Assume that the load is measured with watt--hour and var--hour meters and instrument transformers and that the following readings are obtained. Assume that the new meter constants are 1.2 and the ratios of the CTs and PTs used are 80 and 20, respectively. Determine the following: a. The instantaneous kilowatt demand b. The average kilowatt demand c. The instantaneous kilovar demand d. The average kilovar demand e. The average kilovolt ampere demand. REFERENCES: \[1\] Das, Debapriya (2006). *Electrical Power* System. New Age International Publishers \[2\] Goren, Turan (2014). *Electric Power Distribution Engineering*. CRC Press