Lesson 2.1 - Overview of Philosophies of Science PDF

Lesson 2.1: Overview of the 2. CARL SAGAN Philosophies of Science SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY ➔ “Science” and “Technology” have been defined for us in our formative years “CAN W...

Lesson 2.1: Overview of the 2. CARL SAGAN Philosophies of Science SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY ➔ “Science” and “Technology” have been defined for us in our formative years “CAN WE KNOW THE UNIVERSE?” through different learning media. Both are pervasive in society, and thus are usually taken for granted. We often I. MEANING OF SCIENCE compartmentalize them, and rarely 1. Science is a way of thinking. critically examine their relationship to 2. Its goal is to find out how the world and in society. works, to seek what regularities there ➔ However, they mean a whole lot more, may be, to penetrate the connections and that how they are understood of things. plays a crucial role in social processes, 3. Science is based on experiment, on a societal histories and current and willingness to challenge old dogma, on future societal undertakings. an openness to see the universe as it really is. 4. Science sometimes requires courage: at the very least the courage to 1. GALILEO GALILEI question conventional wisdom. II. DOING SCIENCE 1. The main trick of science is to really think of something: - the shape of clouds - the formation of dewdrop on SCIENCE a leaf ➔ An organized body of knowledge - the origin of a name or a concerning the physical world, both word (as Shakespeare say - animate and inanimate. “philanthropic”) ➔ A method of investigating nature – a - the reason for human social way of knowing about nature that customs—the incest taboo discovers reliable knowledge about it. - why the Moon seems to follow ➔ Has a high probability of being true us as we walk because its veracity has been justified - what prevents us from by a reliable method. digging a hole down to the center of the Earth TECHNOLOGY - how it is possible for the body ➔ The practical application of this to convert yesterday’s lunch organized body of knowledge for the into today’s muscle and sinew benefit of humankind. - How far is up—does the ➔ Thus called “Applied Science” universe go on forever? ➔ focused on being able to control or 2. We examine the world critically as if manipulate nature. many alternative worlds might exist. 3. If you spend any time spinning hypotheses, checking to see whether they make sense, whether they conform to what else we know – you will find yourself doing science  4. WALT WHITMANN ➔ “We are an intelligent species, 3. LUDWIG FLECK (1979) and the use of our intelligence quite properly gives us pleasure. In this respect the brain is like a muscle. When we think well, we feel good.” ➔ Understanding is a kind of “TO LOOK, TO SEE, TO KNOW” ecstasy. I. WAYS OF KNOWING (& DOING) III. TO WHAT EXTENT CAN WE REALLY 1. What you think is evidence of what KNOW THE UNIVERSE AROUND US? you know. But how do we know that? 1. Laws Of Nature 2. How do we know what we know? And - rules that summarize how the world does this always translate to what we works. do? - With these, the universe is built in such 3. Is your knowledge of the world around a way as to a limit. you a fact, opinion, or judgment of - There are a lot of events in the world what you sense? and not everything follows a constant 4. How are these established? process. Fact 2. Brain - a thing that is known or - Our brain is also created to a limit. proved to be true. - It can only know so much, but not Opinion everything. - a view or judgment formed 3. Conclusion about something - As the laws of nature and our brain Judgment limit us from knowing everything, the - the mental ability to idea that the world places restrictions understand something, form on what humans might do is an opinion and reach a frustrating. decision - The more restrictions there are on what matter and energy can do, the more II. HOW DO SOCIETIES CREATE A knowledge human beings can attain. SCIENTIFIC FACT - Our formulations of the regularities of These are ways of understanding what nature are surely dependent: constitutes a fact: How the brain is built How the universe is built Positivist approach ➔ facts are self-evident, that they are I LIKE A UNIVERSE THAT INCLUDES MUCH simply there. THAT IS UNKNOWN AND, AT THE SAME ➔ Thus, physical phenomena that TIME, MUCH THAT IS KNOWABLE. manifest themselves visibly are held to ➔ A universe in which everything is be factual known would be static and dull, as ➔ their existence cannot be doubted boring as the heaven of some since they are confirmed by the senses weak-minded theologians. Constructionist approach ➔ A universe that is unknowable is no fit ➔ facts are socially created. place for a thinking being. ➔ Facts are facts once people agree that ➔ The ideal universe for us is one very these things constitute a fact. much like the universe we inhabit. And I would guess that this is not really much of a coincidence. III. HOW DID SCIENTISTS COME TO CREATE 2. It is also the nature of the uniqueness OR BUILD A CONSENSUS ON WHAT WAS of the thought collectives that they are IMPORTANT TO UNDERSTAND AND WHAT incommensurable; that is, WAS NOT? ➔ In part, this was due to the They may not be meaningful to each other to accumulation of knowledge through varying degrees. the written word and partly due also to the use of experimentation and Example: What is a fact to one collective may observation to test hypotheses. not be meaningful or even false to another thought collective IV. ESSENTIAL AND INESSENTIAL 1. In order to see, one has to know what is essential and what is inessential. 4. ROBERT PIRSIG 2. Facts are created not in and of themselves but because of the cognition of their existence. V. FACTS ARE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTS Thought collective “ON SCIENTIFIC METHOD” ➔ Such cognition is in turn a collective activity, since it is based on a body of knowledge shared with other people I. LOGIC ➔ This is an exchange or sharing of ideas 1. Logic is a method of finding one's way creates a collective mood through hierarchies. ➔ and because both understanding and 2. Solution of problems too complicated misunderstandings, creates its own for common sense to solve is achieved peculiar thought style with mixed inductive and deductive inferences; the correct program for this Professionals and exoterics (laypeople) interweaving is formalized as a ➔ As the thought collective becomes scientific method. more and more complex and sophisticated, it divides itself into the: Inductive reasoning ➔ exoteric individuals echo the ➔ reasoning from particular experiences pronouncement professionals to gain to general truths more authority Deductive reasoning ➔ start with general knowledge and Thought style predict a specific observation. ➔ active elements, which shape the way people think about the world; passive II. SCIENTIFIC METHOD elements, which the members of the 1. The real purpose of the scientific thought collective hold to be objective method is to make sure nature hasn’t reality misled you into thinking you know ➔ This may change once the realization something you don’t actually know. sets in that there are several phenomena that are not accounted for in the standard way of thinking 1. Facts in this sense are social constructs, the reality of which are likely to change over time as more and more work is put into the ideas shared by the collective.  III. KNOWLEDGE 1. Things we thought we knew often turn out to be false. 2. Sometimes we examine how we know that something is true. Sometimes we realize we don’t know what’s true. Sometimes we don’t know how to tell what’s true… 3. But is there any pattern to all this? Do we simply mull over such questions or do we make progress in our understanding of knowledge? 4. Do we simply come up with a variety of beliefs about knowledge or does our knowledge about knowledge develop? IV. EPISTEMIC COGNITION 2. Careful approach to the beginning of 1. Knowledge about knowledge scientific questions. State a problem (i.e., about fundamental issues of you are positive you know. justification and associated matters of 3. Experimentation is thought of as all of objectivity, subjectivity, rationality and science itself because that is the only truth). part with much visual surface. 2. The process of thinking about one’s 4. An experiment is never a failure solely forms of knowledge and ways of because it fails to achieve predicted knowing. results. 3. A person has epistemic cognition once 5. Stating conclusions, no more than the they understand that beliefs may be experiment has proved. false. Asking the right questions and choosing the V. EPISTEMIC DEVELOPMENT right tests and drawing the right conclusions. 1. Progress in knowledge about knowledge (epistemic cognition). 5. DAVID MOSHMAN 2. Two levels: ★ with childhood ★ with adolescence & adulthood VI. EPISTEMIC DOMAINS Objectivist epistemologies [Matters of Truth] ➔ An objective domain of truth “EPISTEMIC DEVELOPMENT AND ➔ Take facts and logical proofs as THE PERILS OF PLUTO” paradigm case of knowledge Subjectivists epistemologies [Matters of taste] I. SOLAR SYSTEM ➔ A subjective domain of taste 1. At the start of the year 2006 the Earth ➔ View knowledge as opinion, and was the third from the sun among the opinion as a matter of taste nine planets in its solar system. 2. By the end of that year, Earth was the Rationalist epistemologies [Matters of third of eight planets on a list that now interpretations] ended with Neptune. ➔ A rational domain of reasonable interpretation II. PLUTO ➔ Construe knowledge, in a world of Pluto was redefined. More precisely, the interpretation and inference, as definition of planet was changed. justified belief.  WHAT IS THE RELATION OF SCIENTISTS WITH SOCIETY? WHAT IS A SCIENTIST? ➔ Detached, impersonal and objective person wearing glasses and socially awkward most of the time. - This is partly a caricature of the research scientist, a popular in mass media from the twentieth century onwards ➔ The scientist is also seen as the gatekeeper of often mysterious and arcane knowledge, knowledge that could be either helpful or harmful. - In this respect the scientist is often equated with the priest or priestess, the holder of seemingly supernatural wisdom. ➔ In the “normal” view, scientists and therefore science was about the pure seeking of knowledge for its own sake, in the hope that one day it would be used. ➔ However, a “post-normal” view has scientists (and therefore the sciences) providing immediate solutions to problems faced by society.  Lesson 2.2: - The statement above subscribes to a Philosophies of science certain ideology and dogma that may not necessarily be readily falsifiable and may be considered unscientific. REVIEW - However, the example above highlights that certain dogmatic ideas such as 1. SAGAN “equality” and “freedom” though ➔ Understanding is a form of ecstasy and unscientific may be considered an illumination. overall good to society. ➔ Limitations on the universe allow us for some predictability. EVOLUTIONARY DIAGRAM OF KNOWLEDGE ➔ All knowledge grows by the method of 2. PIRSIG variation and selection found in living ➔ Two types of reasoning: inductive and organisms. deductive. ➔ Knowledge grows by trial and error, ➔ Discussion on the different hierarchies furthermore, by conjectures and of methods to be tested in the refutations. maintenance of the motorcycle. ➔ It is involved with problem-solving and error elimination under different forms 3. FLECK of selective pressure. ➔ In order to see, one has to know what ➔ Also called as “Evolutionary is essential and inessential. Epistemology” ➔ Thought styles are derived from the collective body. “PROBLEMS-THEORIES-CRITICISMS-NEW ➔ Thought styles isolated from each PROBLEMS” (Popper & Notturno, 1997) other will clash. I. We select some problem - perhaps by stumbling over it. 4. MOSHMAN II. We try to solve it by proposing a ➔ Epistemic development (progress theory as a tentative solution. about knowledge). III. Through the critical discussion of our ➔ Epistemic domains: truth, taste, and theories our knowledge grows by the interpretation. elimination of some errors, and in this ➔ discussion on how definitions can way we learn to understand our impact culture (i.e., Pluto). problems, our theories, and the need for new solutions. IV. The critical discussion of even our best 1. EVOLUTIONARY DIAGRAM OF theories always reveals new problems KNOWLEDGE BY: KARL POPPER DIAGRAM: I. POPPERIAN PHILOSOPHY (Falsifiability And Evolutionary Epistemology) Basically Karl Popper highlighted that for knowledge to be scientific it should be falsifiable and testable. Statements derived from dogma though difficult to falsify may not be considered scientific since the mechanism with which to falsify is not readily seen. EXAMPLE OF A DOGMATIC STATEMENT: “Humans are created equal and are created in the image, and likeness of God.”  ➔ Applies Darwin’s principle of natural selection to scientific theories and to 2. PARADIGM SHIFT THEORY other forms of knowledge. BY: THOMAS KUHN ➔ It is involved with problem-solving and ➔ Structure of the scientific revolution error elimination under different forms ➔ Science does not evolve gradually of selective pressure. toward truth. Science has a paradigm ➔ It was the view of Popper that every that remains constant before going organism, from the amoeba to through a paradigm shift when current Einstein, is constantly engaged in theories can't explain some problem-solving. phenomenon, and someone proposes a new theory. EXAMPLE: 1. POPPERIAN EVOLUTIONARY MODEL ➔ Can also be used to explain how to obtain sets of parameters for synthesis of materials (Temporary Solutions of Highlights an initial normal science or Combination of parameters to optimize thinking with which data are to be (pressure, temperature, concentration) associated. and reporting the optimized The model drift, crisis, and revolution parameters) and treatment schemes are stages in the process wherein for vaccination for future WHO evidence does not match and support recommendations. the existing normal science (i.e., ➔ Note that further improvement of currently accepted theories). optimization and outcomes of Eventually a paradigm shift is adopted treatment schemes, that the most that explains the discrepancies in the recent optimized parameters will be previous model. It would eventually be the basis for looking for more effective considered the new normal science and parameters. the cycle continues indefinitely. ➔ This is testament to the falsifiable nature of the surviving solutions in the EXAMPLES: changed problem. 1. OTHER EXAMPLES: Treatment schemes in WHO Set up in synthesis of materials Optimal temperature and concentration for Polymerase chain reaction of certain DNA sequences Market experiments/setups on how to maximize profit. PARADIGM SHIFT: - Amount of exposure to violent themes 3. RATIONAL CONSTRUCTION may have a different effect on violent MODEL action. BY: IMRE LAKATOS - Some new views offered: People who ➔ Criticism and the methodology of play too many video games are so desensitized from violence that they scientific research programs. act normally (e.g., among East Asian ➔ “Our empirical criterion for a series of teens). theories is that it should produce new facts. The idea of growth and the 2. concept of empirical character are soldered into one.” PARADIGM SHIFT: - Watching pornography does not promote aggression of men towards women. OTHER EXAMPLES: A core theory surrounded by a Germs vs. Miasma protective belt of auxiliary hypotheses. Darwin’s theory of evolution vs. The auxiliary hypotheses are ideas Lamarck’s theory of evolution derivable from a certain core theory CO2 emissions which in turn may or may not be Geocentric model to heliocentric model supported by data and evidence. of the Earth. Depending on the evidence and its Modification in the models of the atom alignment with the auxiliary hypothesis, the core theory can be strengthened or weakened  ➔ It is also a way of thinking in that the 4. PARADOX OF CONFIRMATION ideas of science do not have an BY: CARL HEMPEL attachment to absolute truths. ➔ “A geometrical theory in physical ➔ Maintains that thought, theories, and interpretation can never be validated concepts are instruments for solving with mathematical certainty, like any practical problems other theory of empirical science, it can only acquire more or less a higher EXAMPLES: degree of confirmation” 1. Geocentric Model of the Earth and Farming ➔ Confirmation is a relation of “support” Practices between statements or propositions. - The geocentric model of the earth in its So, when p confirms q, it means that previous state and various forms was (roughly and intuitively) the truth of p able to predict seasons. provides (some degree of) support for - This is enough knowledge for farmers the truth of q. to use its (geocentric model) prediction ➔ A warning to scientists that instances for their agricultural needs. The truth that confirm a theory do not imply that of whether the Earth is the center, or the theory is correct. the sun is the center of our planetary system is irrelevant to the farmer 2. Grades and the Current Educational System - The truth on whether grades measure skills and proficiency is irrelevant. - What is important is that the system of grading allows teachers and the educational system to control the behavior of the student population. OTHER EXAMPLE: 6. Epistemological For the idea that the maximum speed anarchism of light is 300,000,000 m/s. It does not BY: paul feyerabend mean that since every measured speed of light of various light sources was ➔ He argued that there are no universally observed to be less than 300,000,000 valid methodological rules for scientific m/s that the maximum speed of light is inquiry (Against Method, 1975). less than or equal to 300,000,000 m/s. ➔ Critiqued the idea that there is a A single measurement of a light source method to doing science. The growth with speed greater than 300,000,000 of knowledge may not necessarily be m/s would render the theory false rooted in the scientific enterprise. EPISTEMOLOGICAL ANARCHISM 5. INSTRUMENTALISM ➔ Epistemological theory which holds BY: JOHN DEWEY that there are no useful and exception-free methodological rules ➔ Consciousness and thinking are governing the progress of science or functions of a complex organism in the growth of knowledge. transaction with its environment, thus ➔ It holds that the idea of the operation consciousness is an instrumentality not of science by fixed, universal rules is a thing-in-itself. unrealistic, pernicious, and detrimental ➔ “Education is not preparation for life; to science itself. education is life itself” ➔ There is no fixed scientific method, it is ➔ The purpose of science is to predict best to have an "anything goes" useful phenomena. attitude toward methodologies.  ➔ To summarize, we can see that the LAW OF THE THREE STAGES: various ways of viewing and doing 1. Theological stage science are attached to the social ➔ the world and human destiny within it norms of the scientists and their were explained in terms of gods and society. spirits. EXAMPLES: 2. Metaphysical stage Ideas that surprisingly came out of ➔ explanations were in terms of nowhere. (i.e., not from scientific essences, final causes, and other method, etc.) abstractions. The best way to create an encyclopedia is not by hiring the best 3. Positive stage staff for the right amount of money, ➔ distinguished by an awareness of the but by letting random people write limitations of human knowledge. articles for free. The behavior of particles at very small distances is probabilistic. 8. Logical POSITIVISM The idea of the development of BY: VIENNA CIRCLE quantum theory has an anarchic ➔ Group of early 20th-century nature to it in that the ideas may not philosophers who sought to have possibly emerged from a reconceptualize empiricism by means sequence of scientific processes. of their interpretation of then-recent The initial idea of using random leaves advances in the physical and formal for wound healing by our ancestors sciences. may not have been generated by a ➔ Develop an exact and unbiased careful and systematic study. language for science (e.g., logic, mathematics) OTHER PHILOSOPHIES OF ➔ Demarcation problem – a clear distinction between science and SCIENCE metaphysics (not science) 7. POSITIVISM LOGICAL POSITIVISM BY: auguste comte ➔ Scientific knowledge is the only kind of ➔ The basic affirmations of positivism factual knowledge, and all traditional metaphysical doctrines are to be are: rejected as meaningless. I. All knowledge regarding matters of fact is based on the “positive” data of experience II. Beyond the realm of fact is that of pure logic and pure mathematics POSITIVISM ➔ For Comte, science is a “connaissance approchée”: it comes closer and closer to truth, without reaching it. There is no place for absolute truth, but neither are there higher standards for the fixation of belief.