Primary Activities PDF

Human activities which generate income are Unit-III known as economic activities. Economic Chapter-4 activities are broadly grouped into primary, secondary, tertiary and qu...

Human activities which generate income are Unit-III known as economic activities. Economic Chapter-4 activities are broadly grouped into primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary activities. Primary activities are directly dependent on environment as these refer to utilisation of earth’s resources such as land, water, vegetation, building materials and minerals. It, thus includes, hunting and gathering, pastoral activities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, and mining and quarrying. Why are the inhabitants of coastal and plain regions engaged in fishing and agriculture respectively? What are the Primary Activities physical and social factors which affect the type of primary activities in different regions? People engaged in primary activities are called red- collar workers due to the outdoor nature of their work. HUNTING AND GATHERING The earliest human beings depended on their immediate environment for their sustenance. They subsisted on: (a) animals which they hunted; and (b) the edible plants which they gathered from forests in the vicinity. Primitive societies depended on wild animals. People located in very cold and extremely hot climates survived on hunting. The people in the coastal areas still catch fish though fishing has experienced modernisation due to technological progress. Many species, now have become extinct or endangered due to illegal hunting (poaching). The early hunters used primitive tools made of stones, twigs or arrows so the number of animals killed was limited. Why has hunting been banned in India? Gathering and hunting are the oldest economic activity known. These are carried out at different levels with different orientations. Gathering is practised in regions with harsh climatic conditions. It often involves primitive societies, who extract, both plants and 22 Fundamentals of Human Geography Reprint 2024-25 animals to satisfy their needs for food, shelter Gathering is practised in: (i) high latitude and clothing. This type of activity requires a zones which include northern Canada, northern small amount of capital investment and Eurasia and southern Chile; (ii) Low latitude operates at very low level of technology. The zones such as the Amazon Basin, tropical yield per person is very low and little or no Africa, Northern fringe of Australia and the surplus is produced. interior parts of Southeast Asia (Fig. 4.2). In modern times some gathering is market- oriented and has become commercial. Gatherers collect valuable plants such as leaves, barks of trees and medicinal plants and after simple processing sell the products in the market. They use various parts of the plants, for example, the bark is used for quinine, tanin extract and cork— leaves supply materials for beverages, drugs, cosmetics, fibres, thatch and fabrics; nuts for food and oils and tree trunk yield rubber, balata, gums and resins. The name of the part of the chewing gum after the flavour is gone? It is called Chicle — it is made from the milky juice of zapota tree. Gathering has little chance of becoming Fig. 4.1: Women Gathering Oranges in Mizoram important at the global level. Products of such an Fig. 4.2: Areas of Subsistence Gathering Primary Activities 23 Reprint 2024-25 activity cannot compete in the world market. Pastoral nomadism is associated with Moreover, synthetic products often of better three important regions. The core region quality and at lower prices, have replaced many extends from the Atlantic shores of North Africa items supplied by the gatherers in tropical forests. eastwards across the Arabian peninsula into Mongolia and Central China. The second region PASTORALISM extends over the tundra region of Eurasia. In At some stage in history, with the realisation the southern hemisphere there are small areas that hunting is an unsustainable activity, in South-west Africa and on the island of human beings might have thought of Madagascar (Fig. 4.4) domestication of animals. People living in Movement in search of pastures is different climatic conditions selected and undertaken either over vast horizontal domesticated animals found in those regions. distances or vertically from one elevation to Depending on the geographical factors, and another in the mountainous regions. The technological development, animal rearing process of migration from plain areas to today is practised either at the subsistence or pastures on mountains during summers and at the commercial level. again from mountain pastures to plain areas during winters is known as transhumance. In Nomadic Herding mountain regions, such as Himalayas, Gujjars, Nomadic herding or pastoral nomadism is a Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas migrate from primitive subsistence activity, in which the plains to the mountains in summers and to the herders rely on animals for food, clothing, shelter, plains from the high altitude pastures in tools and transport. They move from one place winters. Similarly, in the tundra regions, the to another along with their livestock, depending nomadic herders move from south to north in on the amount and quality of pastures and summers and from north to south in winters. water. Each nomadic community occupies a The number of pastoral nomads has been well-identified territory as a matter of tradition. decreasing and the areas operated by them shrinking. This is due to (a) imposition of political boundaries; (b) new settlement plans by different countries. Commercial Livestock Rearing Unlike nomadic herding, commercial livestock rearing is more organised and capital intensive. Commercial livestock ranching is essentially associated with western cultures and is practised on permanent ranches. These ranches cover large areas and are divided into a number of parcels, which are fenced to regulate the grazing. When the grass of one parcel is grazed, animals are moved to another parcel. The number of Fig. 4.3: Nomads taking their sheep up to the animals in a pasture is kept according to the Mountains at the onset of summer carrying capacity of the pasture. A wide variety of animals is kept in This is a specialised activity in which only different regions. In tropical Africa, cattle are one type of animal is reared. Important animals the most important livestock, while in Sahara include sheep, cattle, goats and horses. and Asiatic deserts, sheep, goats and camel Products such as meat, wool, hides and skin are reared. In the mountainous areas of Tibet are processed and packed scientifically and and Andes, yak and llamas and in the Arctic exported to different world markets. and sub Arctic areas, reindeer are the most Rearing of animals in ranching is important animals. organised on a scientific basis. The main 24 Fundamentals of Human Geography Reprint 2024-25  Fig. 4.4: Areas of Nomadic Herding AGRICUL AGRICULTURE TURE Agriculture is practised under multiple combinations of physical and socio-economic conditions, which gives rise to different types of agricultural systems. Based on methods of farming, different types of crops are grown and livestock raised. The following are the main agricultural systems. Subsistence Agriculture Subsistence agriculture is one in which the farming areas consume all, or nearly so, of the Fig. 4.5: Commercial Livestock Rearing products locally grown. It can be grouped in two categories — Primitive Subsistence Reindeer rearing in the northern regions of Alaska where Agriculture and Intensive Subsistence most of the Eskimos own about two-third of the stock. Agriculture. emphasis is on breeding, genetic improvement, Primitive Subsistence Agriculture disease control and health care of the animals. New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting Uruguay and United States of America are cultivation is widely practised by many tribes important countries where commercial livestock in the tropics, especially in Africa, south and rearing is practised (Fig. 4.6). central America and south east Asia (Fig. 4.7). Primary Activities 25 Reprint 2024-25  Fig. 4.6: Areas of Commercial Livestock Rearing Fig. 4.7: Areas of Primitive Subsistence Agriculture 26 Fundamentals of Human Geography Reprint 2024-25  The vegetation is usually cleared by fire, Basically, there are two types of intensive and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil. subsistence agriculture. Shifting cultivation is thus, also called slash (i) Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated and burn agriculture agriculture. The cultivated patches by wet paddy cultivation: This type of are very small and cultivation is done with very agriculture is characterised by dominance primitive tools such as sticks and hoes. After of the rice crop. Land holdings are very sometime (3 to 5 years) the soil looses its fertility small due to the high density of and the farmer shifts to another parts and clears population. Farmers work with the help other patch of the forest for cultivation. The of family labour leading to intensive use of farmer may return to the earlier patch after land. Use of machinery is limited and most sometime. One of the major problems of shifting of the agricultural operations are done by cultivation is that the cycle of jhum becomes manual labour. Farm yard manure is used less and less due to loss of fertility in different to maintain the fertility of the soil. In this parcels. It is prevalent in tropical region in type of agriculture, the yield per unit area different names, e.g. Jhuming in North eastern is high but per labour productivity is low. states of India, Milpa in central America and (ii) Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated Mexico and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia. by crops other than paddy: Due to the Find out other areas and the names with which difference in relief, climate, soil and some shifting cultivation is done. of the other geographical factors, it is not practical to grow paddy in many parts of Intensive Subsistence Agriculture monsoon Asia. Wheat, soyabean, barley and sorghum are grown in northern This type of agriculture is largely found in China, Manchuria, North Korea and North densely populated regions of monsoon Asia. Japan. In India wheat is grown in western Fig. 4.8: Areas of Intensive Subsistence Farming Primary Activities 27 Reprint 2024-25  sugarcane plantations in the Philippines. The Dutch once had monopoly over sugarcane plantation in Indonesia. Some coffee fazendas (large plantations) in Brazil are still managed by Europeans. Today, ownership of the majority of plantations has passed into the hands of the government or the nationals of the countries concerned. Fig. 4.9: Rice Transplantation parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains and millets are grown in dry parts of western and southern India. Most of the characteristics of this type of agriculture are similar to those dominated by wet paddy except that irrigation is often used. Fig. 4.10: Tea Plantation The Europeans colonised many parts in The slopes of hills are used for tea plantations because the world and they introduced some other forms of favourable geographical conditions. of agriculture such as plantations which were mainly profit-oriented large scale production Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation systems. Commercial grain cultivation is practised in the Plantation Agriculture interior parts of semi-arid lands of the mid- latitudes. Wheat is the principal crop, though Plantation agriculture as mentioned above was other crops like corn, barley, oats and rye are introduced by the Europeans in colonies also grown. The size of the farm is very large, situated in the tropics. Some of the important therefore entire operations of cultivation from plantation crops are tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas and ploughing to pineapples. harvesting are The characteristic features of this type of mechanised (Fig. farming are large estates or plantations, large 4.11). There is capital investment, managerial and technical low yield per acre support, scientific methods of cultivation, single but high yield per crop specialisation, cheap labour, and a good person. Why does system of transportation which links the estates this happen? to the factories and markets for the export of the products. Fig. 4.11: Mechanised Grain The French established cocoa and coffee Farming plantations in west Africa. The British set up Combine crews are large tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka, rubber capable of harvesting plantations in Malaysia and sugarcane and grain over many banana plantations in West Indies. Spanish and hectares in a single day. Americans invested heavily in coconut and 28 Fundamentals of Human Geography Reprint 2024-25  Fig. 4.12: Areas of Extensive Commercial Grain Farming This type of agriculture is best developed building, extensive use of chemical fertilisers in Eurasian steppes, the Canadian and and green manures and also by the skill and American Prairies, the Pampas of Argentina, the expertise of the farmers. Velds of South Africa, the Australian Downs and the Canterbury Plains of New Zealand. (Locate Dairy Farming these areas on the world map). Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type of rearing of milch animals. It is highly capital Mixed Farming intensive. Animal sheds, storage facilities for This form of agriculture is found in the highly fodder, feeding and milching machines add to developed parts of the world, e.g. North-western the cost of dairy farming. Special emphasis is Europe, Eastern North America, parts of laid on cattle breeding, health care and Eurasia and the temperate latitudes of veterinary services. Southern continents (Fig. 4.14). Mixed farms are moderate in size and usually the crops associated with it are wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder and root crops. Fodder crops are an important component of mixed farming. Crop rotation and intercropping play an important role in maintaining soil fertility. Equal emphasis is laid on crop cultivation and animal husbandry. Animals like cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry provide the main income along with crops. Mixed farming is characterised by high capital expenditure on farm machinery and Fig. 4.13: A Dairy Farm in Austria Primary Activities 29 Reprint 2024-25  Fig. 4.14: Areas of Mixed Farming It is highly labour intensive as it involves There are three main regions of commercial rigorous care in feeding and milching. There is dairy farming. The largest is North Western no off season during the year as in the case of Europe the second is Canada and the third belt crop raising. includes South Eastern Australia, New Zealand It is practised mainly near urban and and Tasmania (Fig. 4.16). industrial centres which provide neighbourhood market for fresh milk and dairy Mediterranean Agriculture products. The development of transportation, refrigeration, pasteurisation and other Mediterranean agriculture is highly specialised preservation processes have increased the commercial agriculture. It is practised in the duration of storage of various dairy products. countries on either side of the Mediterranean Fig. 4.15 (a): A vineyard in Switzerland Fig. 4.15 (b): Collection of grapes in a collective farm of Kazakhstan 30 Fundamentals of Human Geography Reprint 2024-25  Fig. 4.16: Areas of Dairy Farming sea in Europe and in north Africa from Tunisia located where there are good transportation to Atlantic coast, southern California, central links with the urban centre where high income Chile, south western parts of South Africa and group of consumers is located. It is both labour south and south western parts of Australia. and capital intensive and lays emphasis on the This region is an important supplier of citrus use of irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilisers, fruits. insecticides, greenhouses and artificial heating Viticulture or grape cultivation is a in colder regions. speciality of the Mediterranean region. Best This type of agriculture is well developed quality wines in the world with distinctive in densely populated industrial districts of flavours are produced from high quality grapes north west Europe, north eastern United States in various countries of this region. The inferior of America and the Mediterranean regions. The grapes are dried into raisins and currants. This Netherlands specialises in growing flowers and region also produces olives and figs. The horticultural crops especially tulips, which are advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is that flown to all major cities of Europe. more valuable crops such as fruits and The regions where farmers specialise in vegetables are grown in winters when there is vegetables only, the farming is know as truck great demand in European and North American farming. The distance of truck farms from the markets. market is governed by the distance that a truck can cover overnight, hence the name truck Market Gardening and Horticulture farming. Market gardening and horticulture specialise In addition to market gardening, a modern in the cultivation of high value crops such as development in the industrial regions of Western vegetables, fruits and flowers, solely for the Europe and North America is factory farming. urban markets. Farms are small and are Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle Primary Activities 31 Reprint 2024-25  Figure 4.17 (a): Vegetables being grown in the Figure 4.17 (b): Vegetables being loaded into a truck vicinity of the city and cycle carts for transporting to city markets rearing, is done in stalls and pens, fed on Collective Farming manufactured feedstuff and carefully The basic principle behind this types of farming supervised against diseases. This requires heavy is based on social ownership of the means of capital investment in terms of building, production and collective labour. Collective machinery for various operations, veterinary farming or the model of Kolkhoz was services and heating and lighting. One of the introduced in erstwhile Soviet Union to improve important features of poultry farming and cattle upon the inefficiency of the previous methods rearing is breed selection and scientific of agriculture and to boost agricultural breeding. production for self-sufficiency. Types of farming can also be categorised The farmers used to pool in all their resources like land, livestock and labour. according to the farming organisation. Farming However, they were allowed to retain very small organisation is affected by the way in which plots to grow crops in order to meet their daily farmers own their farms and various policies of requirements. the government which help to run these farms. MINING Co-operative Farming The discovery of minerals in the history of A group of farmers form a co-operative society human development, is reflected in many stages by pooling in their resources voluntarily for in terms of copper age, bronze age and iron age. more efficient and profitable farming. Individual The use of minerals in ancient times was largely farms remain intact and farming is a matter of confined to the making of tools, utensils and cooperative initiative. weapons. The actual development of mining Co-operative societies help farmers, to began with the industrial revolution and its procure all important inputs of farming, sell the importance is continuously increasing. products at the most favourable terms and help in processing of quality products at cheaper Factors Affecting Mining Activity rates. The profitability of mining operations thus, Co-operative movement originated over a depends on two main factors: century ago and has been successful in many (i) Physical factors include the size, grade and western European countries like Denmark, the mode of occurrence of the deposits. Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc. In (ii) Economic factors such as the demand for Denmark, the movement has been so successful the mineral, technology available and used, that practically every farmer is a member of a capital to develop infrastructure and the co-operative. labour and transport costs. 32 Fundamentals of Human Geography Reprint 2024-25  SHAFT MINING OPEN-CAST OR (STRIP MINING) Fig. 4.19: Methods of Mining has to be used. In this method, vertical shafts have to be sunk, from where underground galleries radiate to reach the minerals. Minerals are extracted and transported to the surface through these passages. It requires specially designed lifts, drills, haulage vehicles, Fig. 4.18: Oil drilling operation ventilation system for safety and efficient in the Gulf of Mexico movement of people and material. This method is risky. Poisonous gases, fires, floods and Methods of Mining caving in lead to fatal accidents. Have you ever Depending on the mode of occurrence and the read about mine fires and flooding of coal nature of the ore, mining is of two types: surface mines in India? and underground mining. The surface mining The developed economies are retreating also known as open-cast mining is the easiest from mining, processing and refining stages of and the cheapest way of mining minerals that production due to high labour costs, while the occur close to the surface. Overhead costs such developing countries with large labour force and as safety precautions and equipment is striving for higher standard of living are relatively low in this method. The output is both becoming more important. Several countries large and rapid. of Africa and few of south America and Asia When the ore lies deep below the surface, have over fifty per cent of the earnings from underground mining method (shaft method) minerals alone. Primary Activities 33 Reprint 2024-25  EXERCISES 1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below. (i) Which one of the following is not a plantation crop? (a) Coffee (c) Wheat (b) Sugarcane (d) Rubber (ii) In which one of the following countries co-operative farming was the most successful experiment? (a) Russia (c) India (b) Denmark (d) The Netherlands (iii) Growing of flowers is called: (a) Truck farming (c) Mixed farming (b) Factory farming (d) Floriculture (iv) Which one of the following types of cultivation was developed by European colonists? (a) Kolkoz (c) Mixed farming (b) Viticulture (d) Plantation (v) In which one of the following regions is extensive commercial grain cultivation not practised? (a) American Canadian prairies (c) Pampas of Argentina (b) European Steppes (d) Amazon Basin (vi) In which of the following types of agriculture is the farming of citrus fruit very important? (a) Market gardening (c) Mediterranean agriculture (b) Plantation agriculture (d) Co-operative farming (vii) Which one type of agriculture amongst the following is also called ‘slash and burn agriculture’? (a) Extensive subsistence agriculture (b) Primitive subsistence agriculture (c) Extensive commercial grain cultivation (d) Mixed farming (viii) Which one of the following does not follow monoculture? (a) Dairy farming (c) Plantation agriculture (b) Mixed farming (d) Commercial grain farming 2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words. (i) Future of shifting cultivation is bleak. Discuss. (ii) Market gardening is practised near urban areas. Why? (iii) Large scale dairy farming is the result of the development of transportation and refrigeration. 34 Fundamentals of Human Geography Reprint 2024-25 3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words. (i) Differentiate between Nomadic Herding and Commercial Livestock Rearing. (ii) Discuss the important characteristic features of plantation agriculture. Name a few important plantation crops from different countries. Project/Activity Visit a nearby village and observe the cultivation of some crops. Ask the farmers and list the various operations. Primary Activities 35 Reprint 2024-25