Agri 412 Lecture 4 PDF

ASSESSMENT, MASS PRODUCTION AND FIELD RELEASES BY: AGR. CAIRA LAYKA M. PANGANIBAN A. ASSESSMENT OF EFFECTIVENESS OF A NATURAL ENEMY  A. ASSESSMENT OF EFFECTIVENESS OF A NATURAL ENEMY ASSESSMENT OF EFFECTIVENESS IN AUGMENTATIVE BIOLOGICAL CONTR...

ASSESSMENT, MASS PRODUCTION AND FIELD RELEASES BY: AGR. CAIRA LAYKA M. PANGANIBAN A. ASSESSMENT OF EFFECTIVENESS OF A NATURAL ENEMY  A. ASSESSMENT OF EFFECTIVENESS OF A NATURAL ENEMY ASSESSMENT OF EFFECTIVENESS IN AUGMENTATIVE BIOLOGICAL CONTROL PROGRAMS IS PROBABLY AS IMPORTANT AS RELEASING THE NATURAL ENEMIES. THE TOOLS IN ASSESSING EFFECTIVENESS OF NATURAL ENEMIES INCLUDE: 1. COMPREHENSIVE LIFE TABLE STUDIES 2. AN UNDERSTANDING OF EXPECTED YIELD GAINS ATTRIBUTABLE TO NATURAL ENEMIES 1. COMPREHENSIVE LIFE TABLE STUDIES WHICH SHOW THE EXTENT OF INDISPENSABLE MORTALITY ATTRIBUTABLE TO A SPECIFIC NATURAL ENEMY AND CAN BE USED TO MEASURE THE EXPECTED IMPACT ON THE TARGET PEST. 2. AN UNDERSTANDING OF EXPECTED YIELD GAINS ATTRIBUTABLE TO NATURAL ENEMIES IS ALSO A USEFUL MEASURE THAT MAY BE USED IN DECIDING WHETHER TO EMPLOY AUGMENTATIVE BIOLOGICAL CONTROL. THIS APPROACH WILL ALSO ALLOW THE DEVELOPMENT OF A MEANINGFUL MEASURE OF EFFECTIVENESS. TO WHAT EXTENT A NATURAL ENEMY REDUCES DEPENDENCE ON CHEMICAL OR OTHER PEST MANAGEMENT OPTIONS. B. NUTRITION AND MASS PRODUCTION OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS NUTRITION OF NATURAL ENEMIES  NUTRITION OF NATURAL ENEMIES NUTRITION IS THE TRANSFORMATION OF FOOD SUBSTANCES INTO ENERGY AND BODY MATERIALS NECESSARY FOR LIFE. IT IS INFLUENCED BY GENETIC FACTORS AND ESSENTIAL FOR SURVIVAL AND REPRODUCTION. RESEARCH FOCUS: MOST RESEARCH HAS FOCUSED ON IMPROVING INSECT REARING TECHNIQUES RATHER THAN DEEPLY UNDERSTANDING INSECT NUTRITION. ARTIFICIAL DIETS HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED FOR SOME SPECIES, BUT PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS IN BIOLOGICAL CONTROL ARE STILL LIMITED. Parasitoid Development: Parasitoid growth is closely tied to the physiology of their hosts. Changes in the host's internal environment can benefit parasitoid development. Hormonal synchrony between host and parasitoid is crucial but not fully understood. Ecological and Behavioral Factors: Insects’ nutritional needs are influenced by their ecological interactions, behavior, and food supply. A comprehensive understanding of nutrition must consider the insect’s “nutritional ecology.” Genetic Factors and Manipulation: Strains of insects differ in nutritional value, affecting parasitoid yields. Genetic selection for traits like improved nutrition and field effectiveness holds promise. Advances in genetic engineering, such as recombinant DNA technology, could modify nutritional traits, but practical applications are still evolving.  HISTORY OF PARASITOID NUTRITION 1. EARLY STUDIES: 1. SALT (1941): FIRST EMPHASIZED THE COMPLEXITY OF PARASITOID NUTRITION, SHOWING THAT HOSTS INFLUENCE THE PARASITOID’S GROWTH, SURVIVAL, SEX RATIO, FECUNDITY, LONGEVITY, AND VIGOR. 2. ARTHUR & WYLIE (1959) AND OTHERS: FURTHER EXPLORED THESE COMPLEXITIES, SHOWING THE IMPORTANCE OF HOST SIZE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOLITARY PARASITOIDS. 2. HOST SIZE AND PARASITOID SIZE: 1. THERE IS A DIRECT CORRELATION BETWEEN HOST SIZE AND THE SIZE OF PARASITOIDS, PARTICULARLY IN SOLITARY PARASITOIDS. 2. LARGER PARASITOIDS DEVELOP FROM LARGER HOSTS, ESPECIALLY WHEN THE HOST’S SIZE IS FIXED (E.G., EGGS AND PUPAE). 3. STUDIES BY SANDLAN (1982), MELLINI & BECCARI (1984), AND OTHERS SUPPORTED THIS CORRELATION. 4. EXCEPTIONS: ECTOPHAGOUS PARASITOIDS (EXTERNAL FEEDERS) DO NOT ALWAYS FOLLOW THIS PATTERN. 3. Gregarious Parasitoids: For gregarious parasitoids (those that lay multiple eggs per host), there is a relationship between host size and total parasitoid biomass or numbers. Research by Wylie (1965) and Bouletreau (1971) explored how gregarious organisms adjust their development based on host size. 4. Behavioral Responses to Host Size: Host size affects parasitoid behavior and development: Larger females may avoid small hosts, while smaller females accept hosts of various sizes. In some species, host size influences male wing development and female fecundity. Larger parasitoids tend to have longer lifespans, affecting their reproductive success. 5. Nutritional Factors and Parasitoid Success: Host nutrition directly affects parasitoid success. Smith (1957) and Atwal & Sethi (1963): Different host plants and prey species impact parasitoid development, mortality rates, size, sex ratio, and reproductive rates due to variations in food quality and protein content MASS PRODUCTION AND RELEASES OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS  NATURAL SUPPLIERS AND PRODUCERS OF BIO- CONTROL AGENTS PARASITOIDS AND PREDATORS ARE LIVING ORGANISMS WHICH CAN INTERVENE THE LIFE CYCLE OF INSECT PESTS IN SUCH A WAY THAT THE CROP DAMAGE IS MINIMIZED IN NATURE EVERY ECOSYSTEM EXISTS IN A BALANCE. GROWTH AND MULTIPLICATION OF EACH ORGANISM DEPENDS ON THE FOOD-CHAIN, ITS PREDATORS, PARASITES, PARASITOIDS, COMPETITORS ETC. IN BIOLOGICAL CONTROL SYSTEM, THESE INTERRELATIONS ARE EXPLOITED. THE NATURAL ENEMY OF A PEST, DISEASE OR WEED IS SELECTED. AMONG THE ALTERNATIVES, BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF PESTS IS ONE OF THE IMPORTANT MEANS FOR CHECKING PEST PROBLEMS IN ALMOST ALL AGRO- ECOLOGICAL SITUATIONS.  IMPORTANCE OF MASS PRODUCTION MASS PRODUCTION IS CRUCIAL FOR BIOLOGICAL CONTROL EFFORTS, ESPECIALLY WHEN LARGE-SCALE RELEASES OF NATURAL ENEMIES ARE NEEDED AT TIMES WHEN THEY’RE SCARCE IN THE ENVIRONMENT. HOWEVER, THE NUMBERS REQUIRED VARY WIDELY DEPENDING ON THE PEST PROBLEM.  MASS REARING OF BIO-CONTROL AGENTS AN ESSENTIAL TOOL IN THE PEST MANAGEMENT TO BRING ABOUT CHANGES FROM NATURAL TO A SPECIFIC BIOLOGICAL CONTROL HENCE, INFORMATION ON IMPORTANCE, BIOLOGY, REARING TECHNIQUE, EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES REQUIRED FOR MASS MULTIPLICATION OF BIOCONTROL AGENTS ARE MOST IMPORTANT.  MASS-PRODUCTION OF PARASITES AND PREDATORS IS USEFUL TO INCREASE PARASITISM OR PREDATION BY MASS RELEASES OF ENTOMOPHAGES OVER A WIDE AREA AT A TIME IN THE SEASON WHEN THESE NATURAL ENEMIES ARE FEW OR ABSENT. WHEN NATURAL HOST PLANTS OR TARGET HOST INSECTS ARE UNAVAILABLE, SUITABLE ALTERNATE HOSTS OR ARTIFICIAL DIETS ARE TO BE UTILIZED FOR MASS- PRODUCTION OF PARASITES AND PREDATORS TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL: AUGMENTATIVE CONTROL: THIS INVOLVES RELEASING LARGE QUANTITIES OF ENTOMOPHAGES AT CRITICAL TIMES TO INCREASE PEST SUPPRESSION. THESE RELEASES DEPEND ON WEATHER AND SEASONAL VARIATIONS. CLASSICAL CONTROL: THIS APPROACH INTRODUCES A NON- NATIVE NATURAL ENEMY TO ESTABLISH A LONG-TERM, SELF- SUSTAINING POPULATION THAT MANAGES PEST LEVELS OVER TIME. CHALLENGES IN MASS PRODUCTION: TIMING AND QUANTITY: ACHIEVING THE RIGHT NUMBER OF ENTOMOPHAGES AT THE APPROPRIATE SEASON CAN BE CHALLENGING, PARTICULARLY DUE TO UNPREDICTABLE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS. AVOIDING CONTAMINANTS: ENSURING MASS-PRODUCED ENTOMOPHAGES ARE FREE FROM DISEASES AND HYPERPARASITES (PARASITES OF PARASITES) IS VITAL FOR EFFECTIVENESS. HOST PRODUCTION: PRODUCING OR COLLECTING HOST SPECIES IN SUFFICIENT NUMBERS IS OFTEN NECESSARY FOR REARING ENTOMOPHAGES, REQUIRING SIGNIFICANT RESOURCES.  MAJOR ADVANTAGES OF MASS PRODUCTION AND RELEASES OF BIO-CONTROL AGENTS PARASITOIDS AND PREDATORS ARE PREFERRED OVER CHEMICAL PESTICIDES FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS NO HARMFUL RESIDUES TARGET SPECIFIC AND SAFE TO BENEFICIAL ORGANISMS LIKE POLLINATORS, PREDATORS, PARASITES ETC. GROWTH OF NATURAL ENEMIES OF PESTS IS NOT AFFECTED, THUS REDUCING THE PESTICIDE APPLICATION ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY COST-EFFECTIVE IMPORTANT COMPONENT OF IPM AS 1ST LINE AND 2ND LINE OF DEFENSE CHEMICALS BEING THE LAST RESORT  EXAMPLE OF SUCCESSFUL UTILIZATION OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS THE PHILIPPINES HAS SUCCESSFULLY UTILIZED BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS IN AGRICULTURE, ESPECIALLY TO MANAGE PESTS IN KEY CROPS. HERE ARE A FEW NOTABLE EXAMPLES: 1. TRICHOGRAMMA WASPS FOR CORN AND SUGARCANE: TRICHOGRAMMA, A TINY PARASITIC WASP, IS USED WIDELY IN THE PHILIPPINES TO CONTROL CORN BORERS AND OTHER LEPIDOPTERAN PESTS IN CORN AND SUGARCANE PLANTATIONS. BY LAYING EGGS INSIDE THE EGGS OF PESTS, TRICHOGRAMMA HELPS PREVENT INFESTATIONS, REDUCING THE NEED FOR CHEMICAL PESTICIDES AND PROMOTING HEALTHIER CROP YIELDS. 2. METARHIZIUM ANISOPLIAE AGAINST RICE BLACK BUGS: THIS ENTOMOPATHOGENIC FUNGUS HAS BEEN APPLIED IN RICE FIELDS TO CONTROL RICE BLACK BUG POPULATIONS, A NOTORIOUS PEST IN RICE FARMING. METARHIZIUM INFECTS AND KILLS THE PESTS, PROVIDING AN EFFECTIVE, ECO- FRIENDLY SOLUTION AND ENHANCING CROP PRODUCTION. 3. Eulophid wasps against coconut leaf beetles: The Eulophid wasp (Tetrastichus brontispae) has been introduced to control the coconut leaf beetle, Brontispa longissima, which can severely damage coconut trees. These wasps parasitize the beetle larvae, effectively reducing its population and helping protect the coconut industry. 4. Predatory beetles for sugarcane: The introduction of earwigs and coccinellid beetles to control pests like sugarcane borers has shown promise in Philippine sugarcane plantations. These predatory insects feed on the pests’ larvae, controlling infestations naturally. 5. Trichoderma for vegetable crops: Trichoderma spp., a beneficial fungus, is used in the Philippines to manage soil-borne diseases in vegetables like tomatoes, eggplants, and peppers. By colonizing plant roots and enhancing nutrient absorption, Trichoderma outcompetes harmful pathogens, promoting plant growth and improving crop resilience. MAJOR TYPE OF BIO-AGENTS AVAILABLE FOR COMMERCIAL IN PHILIPPINES PARASITOIDS Trichogramma Aphidius spp. colemani Tetrastichus Cotesia spp. brontispae PREDATORS Cryptolaemus Coccinellid montrouzieri beetles (Ladybird beetles) Chrysoperla Orius spp. carnea (Green (Minute pirate lacewing): bugs)  IDEAL LOCATIONS OF BIO-CONTROL UNITS CARE BE TAKEN TO SET UP BIOCONTROL PRODUCTION UNITS IN AREAS WHICH HAVE APPROPRIATE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. (WHERE THERE IS NO EXTREME CONDITIONS). THE PROXIMITY OF THE LOCATION OF BIOCONTROL PRODUCTION UNITS AND CONSUMER MARKET (FARMING AREAS) IS AMONGST THE MOST IMPORTANT ASPECTS. CARE BE TAKEN TO PREVENT THE CONTAMINATION IN PRODUCTION FACILITIES TO BE CAUSED BY INSECTICIDES FROM THE FARMING AREAS. AIR POLLUTION CAN DAMAGE BIOCONTROL AGENTS, THE PRODUCTION SHOULD BE LOCATED AWAY FROM INDUSTRIAL AND URBAN AREAS.  REARING OF PARASITOIDS & PREDATORS FOR BIOLOGICAL CONTROL THE MAIN CHALLENGE FOR AUGMENTATIVE BIOLOGICAL CONTROL IS A WIDE AVAILABILITY OF CHEAP AND EFFECTIVE NATURAL ENEMIES FOR THE GROWERS COST- EFFECTIVE AND RELIABLE MASS PRODUCTION OF HIGH-QUALITY NATURAL ENEMIES IS ESSENTIAL. INSECT PREDATORS CAN BE REARED IN MASS SCALE KEEPING THE FOLLOWING ASPECTS IN VIEW: FOODS: NATURAL, FACTITIOUS, ARTIFICIAL PLANT MATERIALS AND ALTERNATIVES REARING TECHNIQUES AND COLONY MAINTENANCE QUALITY ASSURANCE REARING SYSTEMS FOR BIOCONTROL AGENTS, BASED ON THEIR FOOD TYPES NATURAL REARING SYSTEMS: USE THE NATURAL OR TARGET PREY FOR PRODUCTION OF THE PARASITOIDS AND PREDATORS, USUALLY ON A HOST PLANT SYSTEMS USING FACTITIOUS PREY: ORGANISM THAT IS UNLIKELY TO BE ATTACKED BY A NATURAL ENEMY IN ITS NATURAL HABITAT, BUT THAT SUPPORTS ITS DEVELOPMENT AND/OR REPRODUCTION; USUALLY A SPECIES THAT IS EASIER AND LESS EXPENSIVE TO REAR; WITH OR WITHOUT PLANT MATERIALS ARTIFICIAL REARING SYSTEMS: USE INANIMATE (LIFELESS) ARTIFICIAL FOODS AND PREFERABLY NO PLANT MATERIALS NATURAL REARING SYSTEMS IN NATURAL REARING SYSTEMS THE BENEFICIAL IS REARED ON ITS TARGET PREY OR HOSTS, WHICH ITSELF IS MAINTAINED ON ITS HOST PLANT (OR ON PLANT PARTS) "TRITROPHIC" SYSTEM. POSSIBLE DRAWBACKS ARE: TRITROPHIC REARING SYSTEMS ARE EXPANSIVE DUE TO SPACE AND LABOR NEEDED FOR PLANT PRODUCTION THERE MAY BE DISCONTINUITY PROBLEMS AT ONE OR MORE OF THE TROPHIC LEVELS TO BE MAINTAINED (E.G. DISEASES OR OTHER PESTS ATTACKING HOST PLANTS) PLANT MATERIALS SHOULD BE FREE OF PESTICIDE RESIDUES THERE ARE RISKS OF CONTAMINATION ASSOCIATED WITH THE RELEASE OF BENEFICIALS REARED ON NATURAL SUBSTRATES TRITROPHIC INTERACTIONS AS THEY RELATE TO PLANT DEFENSE AGAINST HERBIVORY DESCRIBE THE ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF THREE TROPHIC LEVELS ON EACH OTHER: THE PLANT, THE HERBIVORE, AND ITS NATURAL ENEMIES, PREDATORS OF THE HERBIVORE.  FACTITIOUS, UNNATURAL OR ALTERNATIVE FOODS THE USE OF FACTITIOUS FOODS MAY ALLOW SOME RATIONALIZATION OR AUTOMATION OF PRODUCTION OR RELEASE. FACTITIOUS HOST OR PREY: ORGANISM THAT IS UNLIKELY TO BE ATTACKED BY A NATURAL ENEMY IN ITS NATURAL HABITAT, BUT THAT SUPPORTS ITS DEVELOPMENT AND/OR REPRODUCTION. USUALLY, A SPECIES THAT IS EASIER AND LESS EXPENSIVE TO REAR. EXAMPLES: o STORAGE MITES FOR PREDATORY MITES (PHYTOSEIIDAE, LAELAPIDAE) o EGGS OF LEPIDOPTERANS FOR INSECT PREDATORS o BRINE SHRIMP CYSTS FOR PREDATORY INSECTS AND MITES ARTIFICIAL DIETS THE AVAILABILITY OF AN ARTIFICIAL DIET MAY OFFER FURTHER POSSIBILITIES TO AUTOMATE THE REARING PROCESS. TYPES OF DIETS: DIETS WITH AND WITHOUT INSECT COMPONENTS (E.G., WHOLE INSECT BODIES, HEMOLYMPH) OLIGIDIC, MERIDIC AND HOLIDIC DIETS: - HOLIDIC: CHEMICALLY DEFINED DIETS (AMINO ACIDS, FATTY ACIDS, SUGARS, VITAMINS, MINERALS...) - MERIDIC: HOLIDIC BASE WITH ONE OR MORE UNREFINED OR CHEMICALLY UNKNOWN SUBSTANCES (E.G., YEAST, LIVER EXTRACT...) - OLIGIDIC: CONTAINING ONLY CRUDE ORGANIC MATERIALS (E.G., MEAT DIETS)