Karthikeyan_Pethusamy_Biochemistry_for_Undergraduates_Passing_MBBS (1).pdf

Q Biomedical Importance of Carbohydrates Q Glycosidic Linkage Q Definition of Carbohydrates ~ Types of the Glycosidic Bond Q Classification of Carbohydrates ,...

Q Biomedical Importance of Carbohydrates Q Glycosidic Linkage Q Definition of Carbohydrates ~ Types of the Glycosidic Bond Q Classification of Carbohydrates , “ Therapeutic Glycosides G Isomerism in Carbohydrates Q Disaccharides “ Functional lsomers Q Oligosaccharides “ Stereoisomers Fermentable Oligosaccharides ~ Enantiomers ‘ Q Polysaccharides - Diastereoisomers ; » ‘ Homopolysaccharides - Epimers “ Heteropolysaccharides - Anomers ‘ Q Mutarotation Q Derivatives of Monosaccharides ~ = Amino Sugars - Deoxy Sugars = Fucose ; cawestesedse : ne bauecescatdsdeueed e es esses eneeseeen terse es eed veseee , bh teen cce cnt ceece eee bd ae vadedcedsVac wesedbebodss BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE OF CARBOHYDRATES Carbohydrates are the most abundant dietary source of energy. ° source. oouoduodo Neurons and RBCs are exclusively dependent on glucose as the energy Glucose is the only molecule that can be utilized anaerobically. fasting. Glycogen serves as the source of energy during ules, Carbohydrates are precursors for other biomolec like fats, amino acids. functions (cell growth, adhesion Glycoconjugates are important for the structure of cell membrane and cellular and fertilization).. Q Ribose and deoxyribose are the components of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and nucleotides. DEFINITION OF CARBOHYDRATES —tbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds which produce them on hydrolysis. Polyhydroxy aldehydes —> Glucose, Mannose Valar Dohaeris yk Valar Morghulis lvhydroxy ketones — Fructose, Ribulose | Starch, Glycogen, etc. 5 comeount which produce these on hydrolysis > Lactose CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES Q saccharides: Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones a Q iiiaeciariles Two monosaccharides linked by glycosidic linkage QO Oligosaccharides: 2 to 10 monosaccharides linked by glycosidic linkage (oligosaccharides include dis accharides Polysaccharides: >10 monosaccharides linked by glycosidic linkage also!) a. e... MONOSACCHARIDES All monosaccharides can be considered as the hydrates of carbon. Their molecular formula is C,(H,0),. Fora molecule to bea polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone, it should have at least 3 carbons (one carbon for the carbonyl group and | the other two for hydroxyl groups). H “t= OH Glyceraldehyde and dihydroxy acetone are the simple sugars, Glyceraldehyde is a 3-carbon H —cC— OH functional group while dihydr carboh ydrate with an aldehyde | oxy acetone is a ketone. H Classification of Monosa Glyceraldehyde, Dihydroxyacetone, | ccharides Based on the an aldotriose a ketotriose Functional Group and Number of Carbons Number of carbons Functional group Name : § 3 Example Aldehyde Aldotriose 8 Glyceraldehyde Ketone Ketotriose 3 4 Dihydroxyacetone Aldehyde Aldotetrose Ss ° Erythrose Aldehyde Aldopentose > Ribose Ketone Ketopentose 3 i) Ribulose 6 Aldehyde Aldohexose. Glucose Ketone Ketohexose g u Fructose Ketone ; Ketoheptose Sedoheptulose £ ee Deoxy sugar BY 4 Neuraminic acid = | § | SOMERISM IN CARBOHYDRA - TES ; % | 7 understand the concep t of iso merism, we should first unders W | asymmetric Carbon. tand the asymmetric carbon is a car See Look at the Struct bon which is attached to fou ures of Glyceraldehyde and r different ‘gure 1. The second carbon of Dihydroxyacetone in glyceraldehyde is attached to while dihydroxyacetone doe 4 different groups s not contain any asymmetric carbon, [An asymmetric carbon] Valar Dohaeris Valar Morghulis |. GH,0H | ] | GHIOn CH,OH _D-Glycerald é ehydyde e h has D i _ one chiral carbon. a Chitaleatone ener Fig. 1: In our body, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate are produced from the break down of glucose in the glycolytic pathway Functional Isomers or Constitutional Isomers Look at the structures of glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone again. They have the same molecular formula but the functional groups are different, i.e. the order of attachment of atoms is different. So, these two are functional isomers of each other. Isomerases are a class of enzymes that catalyse the reversible interconversion of isomers. eg. Phosphoglucose isomerase catalyses the interconversion of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate. Other Functional Isomers OT $s: g Glucose and Fructose g Ribose and Ribulose Oe a Xylose and Xylulose SP Stereoisomers Chapter 9 Chemistry of Carbohydrates Stereoisomers have the same functional group but the atoms differ in their spatial arrangement around one or multiple carbons. The number of possible stereoisomers of a molecule is known by the formula 2". n is the number of chiral carbons. Tee FE Glyceraldehyde has one asymmetric carbon. So, it can have two stereoisomers. Stereoisomers are of 2 types. SD 1. Enantiomers 2. Diastereoisomers fi Mirror 2) | Enantiomers CHO CHO Enantiomers are pair of stereoisomers that are non- H | os HO | iy superimposable mirror images of each other, e.g. D and L forms CH,OH CH,OH are enantiomers, Dand Lisomers are usually represented by Fischer projection ( the adjacent (see.. : ). illustration ‘D-Glyceraldehyde L-Glyceraldehyde y y i! a Diastereoisome rs Diastereoisomers (diastereomers) are stereoisomers which are NOT mirror images of each other. There are two Speci. F Peclal types of diastereoisomers: Epimers ‘ Anomers Epimers Epjnos are diastereoisomers that differ. : around the configuration of a single asymmetric carbon other than the etic carbon Valar Dohaeris  Valar Morghulis ; -— C2-epimers J Mnemonic: CHO bd ri CHo | Sacer Epim of er glucosescan be remembered as ae Ase HO == : H H—Cvast | is the C2 epimer, Allose is the C3 dalam —OH H~cW 0} Galactos I Ho=c—Hi C4 epimer, and L-Idose is the CS epimer. HO—C—H HO~¢_,, | , gis i Note: ; - H—-C—OH H—-C—OH = |HO=c3y th | ‘ | 2 Glucose and galactose are epimers of each other.. | H—-C—OH H—C—OH H —C~o4 Glucose and mannose are epimers of each other. |. l = But mannose and galactose are not epimers of each © CH,OH CH,OH HOH other. They are diastereomers because they differ in the orientation of more than one carbon atoms. - | 2 _ D-Mannose D-Glucose D-Galactose Epimerases are a type of isomerase enzy ems which zi \ ~~ — convert one epimer to the other. e.g. UDP-glucose er: 4-epimerase catalyses the reversible conversion glucose to UDP-galactose. of UDP. Anomers Amomers are special type Seleti caae s of diastereomers that = around the anomeric carbon differ only —first carbon in glucose, Hy 2 carbon in fructose second R'-OH H. Anomerism 1s seen only in ring structure. + ri == R’0—-C-0H _. R. ul Anomerism is due to Alcohol Aldehyde Cyclization of Sugars Hemiacetal To understand the anomer ism, we need to first cyclization of Sugars. understand the To unders tand the cyclization, ' Oo understand the hemiaceta we need to Rr R’ ! l and hemiketal for ‘eZ An alcohol reacts with mation RAE | | an aldehyde to produce we rh Section Il Intermediary Metabolism An alcohol reacts with a hemiacetal R = ee | ketone to produce hemiketa Alcohol Glucose l. R is a polyhydroxy alde hyde. So, it has both ° Ketone and aldehyde group alcohol Hemiketal required for the for Hydroxyl group of mation of hemiacetal 5® carbon of glucose reacts Fig. 2: Note th group (1* carbon) to pro duce a intramolecular with aldehyde Carbon of aldehy ; i results in the formation ofa 6- membered cyclic hemiacetal This become chiral afterde op eevousty iin 2s pyranose ring (pyran structure known ~~.0Ne group has l is a 6-membered cyclic f SMiacetal or hemiketa hydrocarbon), ormation Intramolecular CH,OH hemiacetal formation | fe) H iy H ®.8 So~ OH ®CH,OH a H HO OH H—C—OH s| on be j HO-C—H —+ H/ on OH | NY. a-D-G] “COPYranose H—-C—OH vy} \L rc iar9 Cx CH,OH OH Ss HA OH D-Glucose OH H ae (Open-chain form) ~ H _. Structure of pyran H OH i _ B-D-GlEsucopyranos Fig. 3: hE, Valar Dohaeris  Valar Morghulis This cyclization conver chain1 to anna asymm etric carb ted the Previously symmetric ‘ on. Thi s new asymmetric carbon is carbon of the linear ‘ the ano 2 Ifthe OH group of the anomer ic carbon is above the. or at the same e P plane of the C6, itis known as 8 anomer, plane of the pyranose ring 2 Ifthe OH gro up of the ano Meric carbon is below the plane of the pyr an ose ring or to the opposite plane of C6, it is known as a | 20H cHoH CH,OH 2 O OH anomer. When the C5 OH | HO HO sroup of fructose reacts with the keto group at the 2nd catbon,a OH CH,OH 5-membered furanose | OH ring is formed - Fruc OH can form both pyranose tose and furano Se rings, | a-D-Fructofuranose B-D-Fructofuranose Structure of pyran ) Phosphorylat ed fructose exists exclus 9 i vely as furanose ring. ———— Constitutional isomer s Differ in the order of att achment Stereoisomers of atoms Atoms are connected in the same H Order but differ in Spatia l ‘ov CH,OH arrangement a he OH C=OH CH,OH Glyceraldehyde Dihydr CH,OH oxyacetone Enantiomers _y a Nonsuperimposable mirror iastereoisomers (C3H,O,) (C3H,O,) images isomers that are QO not mirror images ag H OA Se CHO | GHO HO—C—H Chapter 9 Chemistry of Carbohydrates H—C—OH HO-C—H H-C—oH | H-G—oy CH,OH CH,OH HO—C—y D-Glyceraldehyde L-Glyc H—¢—on eraldehyde Hd oy, H—C—oH | (C3H,O,) (C,H,O,) Hd 50 | CH,OH buo1 D-Altrose | D-Glucose (C.H,,0,) pt (C.H,,0,) ' | i 4 i ! Epimers differ at one of several asymmetric carbon atoms Isomers that differ at a New carb asymmetric on atom formed on ring closure CHO CHO CH,OH CH,OH HO=C=H) Q Qo] i | HO—C—H Oe OH OH H-C—oH H—G—OH HO HO =o: | H—C—OH OH i f oe I OH CH,OH a-D-Glucose B-D-Glucose CH,OH (C,H,,0,) (C,H, 20.) | D-Glucose D-Mannose =e | | (CgH,20¢) (CgH420¢) | Valar Dohaeris  Valar Morghulis "| | | | Mutarotation: The Interconversion of Anomers ' : i | Crystalline glucose is in the a-D-glucopyranose form. When dissolved ri a a — ructure o of ne eda form linear chain and closes again to from B-D-glucopyranose. After the final equi , Nd 64% of 8 anomer exist in the solution. tation This spontaneous anomeric interconversion in solution is known as mutarotation. Mutarotation is accelerated by acids/bases. Mutarotation is prevented when the anomeric carbon is involveg in the formation of glycosidic bond (Fig. 4). a teenth Crystalline glucose («-D-glucopyranose) (+112°) Dissolved in water y Spontaneous conversion of « anomer to 6 — chang e in optical rotation (+1 8.7°) Vv Final Equilibrium reached — optical rotation stable (+52.7°). tn a J This is not the average of the abo ve 2 values as equilibrium mix : ture is NOT equimolar of « (36%) and B (64%)0). CHO = ) H——~—OH CH,OH OH H—+—oy E OH ons OH rc) CH,OH 2 c Fig. 4: Optical rotation of o Cd * a-D-glucose is +112° contains 36% of a anomer 12° and that of = and 64% of B anom the maths, you will get the val i D-glucose Is +18.7° = = ue around +52° , mf oPlcal rota tion wil be (112 x 0.36) + ha &. ena-64)eou. Ifili youorum do xe} o Elen 7 =~ =. quired for undeStrgra either ; duate et. or boat c vel. cS) = ~] Y i] Deoxy Sugars; Fu cose ino sugar: N-acetyl glucosamine N-acety] Neuraminic acid (Sialic acid) derstandi i rentii anding, let me diffe ‘ ate the first three derivates listed above ina tabula fi Tilorm, Valar Dohaeris  Valar Morghulis Slucuronte acid Sorbitol ’ N TARA ot G abat e LH Nviwrau Oxidation of © hydroxyl group to cat boxylle , ville Reduction of C,= aldehyde grouy rroup will ca pr artdorytic acid acid produce the polyol, sorbitol with 6 alcohol RS" COON ; HrOUpS, re ” “ OR if] ‘ OW GhyOl “ee HO-G-H mA pnd= | ete Ot OR in| t OW m 2, ay Fe HO I Hl author H-C- On ot © Kt \ H=-G= OH TROT] GOOW I+: f. OW ‘ Ch,OH deat of byviteo A, Uronic acids (Glucuronte acid and Iduronte Osmotically active, Excessive autation of ghrdose by acid) are found in proteoglycans. Iduronic accumulation of sorbitol Is responsible for Meow orase enzyme acid ts an epimer of glucuronic aeld, damage to: aiather anidizing 2. Glucuronic acid is conjugated with water u Lens (dlabetic cataract) Wr insoluble substances to make them water UW Schwann cells (dlabetle neuropathy) soluble ag, Bilirubin is conjugated with u Perleytes (Diabetic retinopathy) glucuronic acid and excreted in urine as bilirubin diglucuronide, Failure of this conjugation results in hyperbilirubinemla, inositol is a Polyhydroxy Alcohol tnosital is nothing but cyclohexane-1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6-hex ol (Draw iw auviohenane Ada OH group to every carbon) ( Fie, OH OH CH,OH 5), rary Inositol is synthesized in the body trom glucose, — t Phosphatidylinositol is a component of the cell memb OH OH Chapter 9 Chemistry of Carbohydrates rane, oe Pytic acid is nothing but inositol hexaphosphat i) With the absorption of many minera e, It interferes | 4o\OH HO ls and is considered as an \OH antinuti ent, OH OH Inositol Glucose Amino Sugars are Components of Gly ! coconjugates 2 Inamino sugars, one hydroxyl gro Fig. 5: Compare tho structures up is replaced with an amino — Inos of | SOUP, ey, Glucosamine (GleN), itol and glucose. Glucose Is a 2 Antino SURAT are Usually acetylate polyhydroxy aldehyde. Inositol d, eg, N-Acetylglucosamine Is a (GleNAg), polyhydroxy alcoho! J Fructose-g. phos phate is the immediate precursor of amino sugar Amino Sugars are found in glycoc s, onjugates like glycoproteins, proteoglycans and Bingllosides GH,OH CH,OH | W vA 6 H HO H 2 OH H OH I+ HO OH H OH H NH, H NH, Glucosamine Galactosamino Valar Dohaeris Valar Morghulis Deoxy Sugars cy Deoxy sugars rs ears that have a hydrdroxyl group r eplaced withith aa hy hydrogen atom. For ey r are types of suga ribose is ribose in which OH group a t the 22" carbon is replaced with hy drogen. ample, de : Deoxy sugar Deoxyribose Constituent o fDNA Fucose i (e) oup substance Constituent of glycopr oteins e.g. blood gr Fuc ose is a Deoxy Sugar and it is the only pees. L-sug -Sugar found in Humans fe). Fucose is a deoxy sugar with a methyl group instead of CH,OH group in the 6th 3 eae learnt that all the Sugars in the body are D-sugars. Fucose is an exception. position. We HO~c~y | GDP-fucose is synthesized from GDP-ma re i SS, nnose. Fucosy] transferase enzymes to various glycoconjugates like glyc transfer fucose oproteins and proteoglycans, e.g. contain L-fucose. ABO blood group antigens C—O People with Bombay blood group lack L-fucosyl transfer H—C-4 ase enzyme. N-acetyl Neuraminic acid dy, (Sialic Acid) Neuraminic acids are L-Fucose _ 9-carbon compounds derived from the co Oocog N or O-substituted ndensation of Pyru derivatives of neur vate and D-mannos yl Neuraminic acid aminic acid are kn amine. ow n as Sia lic 4 (NANA) is aci oO Q ds. Q a the Predominant sialic acid in our body. of glycoprotein, 2 Ganglioside classificati (G it, rangilewie) on is based on the number of Sia+lic. ; acid residues — GM ; _ (Monosialo gangliosi ry Metabolism de), GD. j ;. a = Section Il Intermedia oO 6. s Qa. 3 ri po] < ay Fy 3, S. com a o a = g 2 S. a = iQa. 2, 4 3 4 ® GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE °. —— 5 s F ® sy ; BlYCosidic bo B. E £2 “ecw another alcohol, it produces QC ketal. Formation of ~ A -ROH HOpa l R RO O 7 H Aldehyde H oo Ps 4 “emiacetal Acecettala O AL ROH, NO X2) Non-reducing 7 i s ugar, ‘ | rose ae Sues) acs am Rare deficiency of sucrase leads to sucrose | Intolerance. | | Maltose (malt sugar) j in of starch to gener, Glucose and a(1>4) Amylase hydrolyse linear cha Benielgte | Glucose maltose Isomaltose Glucose and a (1-6) eee hydrolyse br anch P point of starch to generate | Glucose isomaltose Trehalose Glucose and a(1—-1) Non-reducing sugar; (mushroom sugar) — Glucose Rare deficiency of trehalase leads to trehalose intolerance Lactose (milk sugar) Galactose and B(1->4) Deficiency of lactase leads to lactose intolerance Glucose Lactulose Galactose and B(1>4) Synthetic sugar; can’t be digested by human enzymes; Fructose fermented by intestinal bacteria. used as a mild-laxative, Sucrose, Trehalose and Raffinose: Non-reducing Sugars 4 Fehling’s and Benedict's tests are based on the reduc ing property of sugars. °CH,OH a Reducing property of sugars is due to the i presence of HOCH, free aldehyde or ketone group (anomeri Oo i} c carbons). a All monosaccharides are reducing sugars. i | | 4 Disaccharides with free aldehyde or keton Bre H HO /° | e group are reducing sugars, e.g. Lactose, Maltose CH,OH | C, of glucose and C, of fructose condense 34] { to form sucrose. As there is no free aldehyde or keto group OHH present in a-D-Glucose B-D-Fructose sucrose, sucrose is a non-reducing sugar. | E bn Trehalose, in which 2 glucose molecules are linked by a r-) (11) linkage, is also a non-reducing disaccharide Fig. 8: Structure of 2 , sucrose oc Raffinose is a non-reducing trisaccharide. Y 5 ad Lookat the structure of sucrose - glycosidic bond ; invo = Anomeric carbon of glucose is. C,. Anomeric carbon of fruclves the anomerj tose is C, (Fig. 8).IC carbons of both glucose and fructose. a de Bs OLIGOSACCHARIDES TG Y rss E Oligosaccharidesareshortchains ofcarbohydrates(2to 10) linked byglycosidiclinka or he are usually foundin association with other macromolecules = like lipid ins. Oligosaccharides covalentlyandlinke linked to proteins are known as glycoprote protein,. Olga oe een = d to lipids are kn Charides covalen lipids Own as glycolipids. e Fermentable Oligosaccharides ° ‘These are the oligosaccharides which can’t be digested by ew uv the human digestive en 7 ”n the intesti nal flora. Fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) are short chains of fructose, Gslactorcin chains of galactose. euee i ermented by 80saccharide s are short SeWarrison’s Corner Fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosa ccharides, and polyols (FODMApPs) are poorly absorbed bythe: small intestine and fermented by bacteria in the colon to produce gas and in FODMAPs has been shown to be helpful in 1BS patients. (Ref. Harriso osmotically active carbohydrates.A dietlow n 20th Ed., p, 2280) paecten sty Valar Dohaeris  Valar Morghulis poLYSACCHARIDES accharides are large chains of sug ar (>10) units joined together. They may be linear or branched. The sugar oY any pe same or different. unl allulose is 8 purely linear polysaccharide while glycogen, starch and dextran are branched polysaccharides. Homoglycans (homopolysaccharides) are polymers made up of only one type of monosaccharide. 9 Polymers of glucose are known as glucosans, e.g. Starch and cellulose 9 Polymers of fructose are known as fructosans, e.g. Inulin 2 Heteroglycans (heteropolysaccharides) are polymers made up of more than one type of monosaccharide, e.g. Glycosamino glycans ; Homopolysaccharides Heteropolysaccharides _ Unbranched Branched Two monomer Multiple monomer types, unbranched _ types, branched x Chapter 9 Chemistry of Carbohydrates e.g. Cellulose, e.g. Glycogen, e.g. Glycosamino Chitin Strach glycans Polysaccharides can be also classified into structural and storage polysaccharides. 1 Cellulose and Chitin are the structural polysaccharides of plants and insects respectively. J Starch and glycogen are storage polysaccharides of plants and animals respectively. Polysaccharide Monomericunit _ Linkage Role Cellulose Glucose ‘Apes Ptbao ay, Sessa ©. Structural polysaccharide of plants - Starch Glucose a (1—> 4) and less a(1—> 6) Storage polysaccharide of plants Major carbohydrate in diet Glycogen ay Glucoce a alo 4) and more o. - Storage polysaccharide ofanimals _(1 > 6) compared to starch Hae ORS Dextran Giteore o. (1-96) and a-(1 > 3) Used as plasma expander, lubricant in eye drops and vaccine preservative Chitin i N-acetyl glucosamine B(1—> 4) Structural polysaccharide of insects and _ ate fungi Inulin 4 ce B (1 2) | Dietary fiber ein i D-Galacturonicacid = a(1— 4) Dietary fiber aman body doesn’t contain any enzyme to break down the B-glucosidic bonds. These polysaccharides constitute * dietary fibre, (Dietary fibers will be elaborately discussed in Chapter 32) (Refer to page no. 503). Valar Dohaeris  J tructo in oligdva Inulin is a homopolysaccharide of fructose (fructose an) biepresent state:= echatdaetc, garlic, onion, 2 Breakdown of inulin by bacteria produces fermentable MY Cause discomfort to patients with irritable bowel syndrome. tubes Injected inulin is neither absorbed nor secreted by oe ee ae co Inulin clearance provides a near-accurate estimate of Glom Chitin is a homopolysaccharide made up of N-Acetylglucosamine Hea B a ae Blycosidic linkage o 2 Itisa structural polysaccharide found in exoskeleton of insects and cell wall of fungi. — Giveogen structure will be described in Chapter 10.4 (Refer to page no. 141 ). a Glycoproteins and Proteoglycans will be discussed in detail in Chapter 41 (Refer to page no. ; Competency) ai - BIB.1 Discuss and differentiate monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides giving examples of main carbohydrates as energy fuel, structural element and storage in the human body eee LLL danasttt ELIT Cir irr ratrtstety ST FV Vet T Vt treet tri stertr tT etveev er ere ve Ct vev Te rrett ertSeaanscgnh® Ckttan AT Sace rv nee teennaebense Key Points ~ Dihydroxy acetone is the only carbohydrate without a chiral carbon. — L-fucose is the only L-sugar present in the body. — Enantiomers are structures which are non-superimposable mirror images of each other, e.g. D and L forms. — Epimers differ in the orientation of substituents around one of their chiral carbons. Mannose is a C-2 epimerof glucose. Galactose is a C-4 epimer of glucose. But, Mannose and galactose are diastere oisomers of each other. ~ When the C, OH group of glucose reacts with the C, aldehyde group, an intramolecular hemiacetal is formed, and the linear glucose gets cyclized. - 5 ~ Anomeric carbon of glucose is C, and that of fructose is Cc. = J a-D-glucose and B-D-glucose are anomers. 2a a-D-glucopyranose is the naturally occurring form of glucose and it is the one which can be acted upon i +]. ; a “i a ¢ body enzymes. by our ; = ~ Mutarotation is the spontaneous interconversion of a and B anomers in solution. a 5 inwert sugar is the equimolar malsture of D-glucose and D-fructose formed by hydrolysis of sucrose & + Inulin is a polymer of fructose linked by B (12) linear linkage. This B linkage can’t ¥ be broken in the bod inulin like fructans are prebiotics because of the B configuration of anomeric carbon E — Our body can break fi-galactosidic linkage of : lactose but not B-glucosidic linkage of cellulose c 4 Trehalose is :a non-reducing disaccharide found in mushroo ms. The e nz = of the small intestine. yme trehalase is present in brush h bords!bores _ Dextran is a plasma volume expander, Dextrin is a derivative of star rotate! c D-Glucose. ydrolysis. Dextrose is the dextro ro ae o4 1 mole of 9 glucose = 180 gram of glucose (5 MIiimole millimo! s/L of glucose is equal to 90 @ | — Lyxose isa pentose sugar predominantly found in cardiac muscles mg/dL) ee ik wn : s fk |_____eEea o Short Answer Questions 3. Describe the’ structure of glycogen. How it different from the structure of starch? Ho 1. Differentiate between epimers and anomers with Useful for the function of glycogen? the help of suitable examples. A. Wh ; 2. What Is a glycosidic bond? : can’t lulose Name a therapeutic Naitians digeaticellu why they drug which is a glycoside, + Name two non-reducing sugars. Explain are non-reducing. Valar Dohaeris Valar Morghulis will & Name any two disaccharides and Mention the ; ' th of these molecules pond connecting the Individual monosaccharide, ' ee oi a els jn tonal? 7, Classify polysaccharide with sultable examples, i. Maltose and Sucrose g What are the monomeric units of Inulin? Mention b. Maltose and Trehalose the dietary sources and clinical utility, C. Sucrose and Lactose d, Lactose and Maltose uitiple Choice Questions 7% Alpha amylase acts ont —— a a1 4 bond b, al» Gbond 1, Which of the following is NOT seen in the = earre Aen d, ie Chen human body? 8%. All of the following are heteropolysaccharides, a. _L-Rucose abd tal b. L-Fructose a. Chitin b, Heparin c. D-Glucose c. THyaluronicacid = d, Chondroitin sulfate a. D-Fructose 9. The structural polysaccharide chitin is a 2. Which of the following pair is an example of polymer of which of the following: enantiomers? a. Galactosamine a. D-Galactose and L-Glucose b, Glucosamine b. D-Glucose and D-Galactose c. N-Acetyl galactosamine c. D-Glucoseand L-Galactose d. N-Acetyl glucosamine d. D-Glucose and L-Glucose 10. A deoxy-sugar characteristic of blood group 3. a-D-glucose and {§-D-glucose are of antigens is: each other: a. L-Raffinose b. L-Fucose a. Epimets c. 2-deoxy-D-ribose d. 6-deoxy-L-mannose b. Anomers 11. Which is the predominant monomeric unit of c. Diastereoisomers pectin? 3g d. Functional isomers a. Glucose b. Galactose Hd 4. Mutarotationis due to: c. Glucuronicacid d. Galacturonic acid Z a. Interconversion of glucose and fructose 12. Which of the following cardiac b. Hydrolysis of amylase blycosides S inhibits NatK*ATPase pump? a c. Conversion of glucoseto galactose a. Streptomycin b. Diosgenin S d. Anomeric interconversion of a and B c. Digoxin d. Auxin we D-glucose 13. Aglycone in digoxin is:. 3. Select the wrong statement: a. Protein is a Mannose and galactose are epimers of each b. Steroid E other c. Alkaloid a b. Xylulose and Ribulose are epimers of each d. Purine & other 14. Neuraminic acid is derived from: c Glucuronic acid and Iduronic acid are a. Lysine and methionine rt 3 — of each other b. Pyruvate and Mannosamine S cose and Galactose are epimers of each c. Pyruvate and methionine i) other d. Lysine and mannosamine o i ? 2. d. 3. b 4. d, 5. a, 6. b, es 8. a. d. 10. b. 11. d. 12.) 13, b Valar Dohaeris