Introduction To Research In Education PDF

2  pa rt one Introduction to Research 1-1 Sources of Knowledge How do educators know? How do they acquire reliable information needed to make valid professional decisions ab...

2  pa rt one Introduction to Research 1-1 Sources of Knowledge How do educators know? How do they acquire reliable information needed to make valid professional decisions about the teaching–learning situation and the effective- ness of practices they follow? Throughout history, people have used various sources of knowledge. They learned through personal experience or through observation of others’ experiences. People gained information in the form of stories about people and events. But it’s difficult or often impossible to learn what we need by personal experience. In this case, people often turn to an authority; that is, they seek knowledge from someone who is recognized as having expertise in a particular field. A classroom teacher might turn to another teacher who has been successful using a particular teaching method. This source can be effective, but often experts give answers that represent opinion and not fact or the answer does not fit the particular situation. Closely related to authority is tra- dition (or custom). When faced with a problem, we ask “How has this been done in the past?” One may learn something from these sources, although it might not be reliable or adequate for making a decision in a new or somewhat different situation. 1-1a Deductive Reasoning The ancient Greek philosophers made perhaps the first significant contribution to the development of a systematic approach for gaining knowledge. Aristotle introduced the deductive reasoning use of deductive reasoning, which is a thinking process in which one proceeds from A thinking process in which general to specific knowledge through logical argument. one proceeds from general to specific knowledge through A major type of deductive reasoning is the syllogism. A syllogism consists of a ma- logical argument. jor premise and a minor premise followed by a conclusion. For example, “All men are mortal” (major premise); “The king is a man” (minor premise); “Therefore, the king is mortal” (conclusion). In deductive reasoning, if the premises are true, the conclusion is necessarily true. Deductive reasoning has its limitations. To arrive at true conclusions, one must be- gin with true premises. Because it is difficult to establish the universal truth of many statements dealing with phenomena of interest, deductive reasoning is not sufficient as a source of new knowledge. For example, in the Middle Ages, people substituted dogma for true premises. Thus, they reached invalid conclusions. Francis Bacon (1561–1626) was the first to call for a new approach to knowing. inductive reasoning Reaching a conclusion by generalizing from examples of the whole class or category. 1-1b Inductive Reasoning Bacon believed that investigators should not accept premises handed down by the scientific approach A way of seeking knowledge that Church Fathers as absolute truth. Rather, investigators should establish conclusions involves both inductive and based on facts gathered through direct observation. In Bacon’s system, an investigator deductive reasoning to develop made observations on particular events in a class or category, and then made inferences hypotheses that are then about the whole class or category on the basis of the observations. subjected to rigorous and objective testing. This approach is called inductive reasoning. It is the reverse of deductive reasoning. Exclusive use of induction resulted in the accumulation of isolated facts and infor- theory A set of interrelated propositions or hypotheses mation that made little contribution to the advancement of knowledge. In the 19th that presents an explanation century, scholars began to integrate the most important aspects of the inductive and of some phenomenon. deductive methods into a new technique, namely the inductive-deductive method, or hypothesis A tentative propo- the scientific approach. sition suggested as a solution Charles Darwin (1809–1882) is generally recognized as the first to apply this to a problem; a statement of method in the pursuit of knowledge in developing his theory of evolution. His the researcher’s expectations about the relationship among procedure, involving only induction, was not very productive until he thought to the variables of a study. add a hypothesis to explain the facts that he had gathered through observation. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  ch a p ter 1 The Nature of Research in Education  3 scientific method A way of He then proceeded to test the hypothesis by making deductions from it and gathering seeking knowledge that uses additional data to determine whether these data would support the hypothesis. both inductive and deductive reasoning to develop hypoth- This method was endorsed by John Dewey (1938) and became known as the eses that are then subjected to scientific method. objective testing. 1-2 The Scientific Method The scientific method is a method of acquiring knowledge in which researchers move in- ductively from their observations to hypotheses and then deductively from the hypothe- ses to the logical implications of the hypotheses. That is, they deduce the consequences that would follow if the hypothesis is valid. If the deduced implications are compatible with the organized body of knowledge, researchers test them by gathering more empiri- cal data. Based on the evidence they find, they accept or reject the hypothesis. 1-2a An Example of the Scientific Method Following is a brief example of a study that used the scientific approach (Retelsdorf, Schwartz, & Asbrock, 2015): According to expectancy-value theory, the gender stereotypes of significant others such as parents, peers, or teachers affect students’ competence beliefs, values, and achievement- related behavior. Stereotypical gender beliefs about reading favor girls. The aim of this study was to investigate whether teachers’ gender stereotypes in relation to reading— their belief that girls outperform boys—have a negative effect on the reading self-concept of boys but not girls. The hypothesis was that teachers’ gender stereotypes about reading would have a negative relationship with boys’ reading self-concepts. The sample con- sisted of 54 teachers and 1,358 students. A longitudinal study involving data collection at two points in time, toward the begin- ning of Grade 5 (T1) and in the second half of Grade 6 (T2), was conducted. Researchers controlled for T1 reading self-concept, reading achievement, and school track. Analysis of the data showed a negative relationship between teachers’ gender stereotypes at T1 and boys’ self-concepts at T2, as the hypothesis predicted. There was not a significant relationship for girls. They concluded that the results provided empirical support for the idea that gender differences in reading self-concept may be due to the stereotypical beliefs of teachers as significant others. 1-2b Steps in the Scientific Method The example presented in Section 1-2a illustrates the steps followed in the scientific method: 1. Identification of the problem. The problem may involve a question about something, a discrepancy in findings, or a gap in knowledge. 2. Statement of the problem. The investigator clarifies and states more precisely the na- ture and scope of the problem. 3. Formulation of hypotheses. The investigator formulates hypotheses about possible solutions of the problem. The hypothesis is really a prediction about the results of the observations. A review of related research helps one to formulate the hypothesis. 4. Prediction of consequences. The investigator next predicts the consequences of each hypothesis testing Collection hypothesis; that is, what should result if the data support the hypothesis. of observations to determine 5. Testing of hypotheses. The researcher gathers objective data to evaluate the adequacy of whether these observations confirm or fail to confirm a each hypothesis in hypothesis testing. If the data support the hypothesis, it is accepted hypothesized relationship. as a reasonable explanation. If the data do not support the hypothesis, it is rejected. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 4  pa rt one Introduction to Research 1-3 Assumptions and Attitudes of Researchers In addition to the steps researchers follow as they seek reliable knowledge, there are certain attitudes and assumptions characteristic of one conducting research. 1-3a Assumptions Two fundamental assumptions researchers make are the following: 1. Researchers assume that the events they investigate are lawful or ordered, not capricious. universal determinism The Science is based on the assumption of universal determinism, the belief that all natu- belief that all natural phenom- ral phenomena have antecedent factors. Scientists do not look to supernatural expla- ena have antecedent factors. nations of events but depend on the observation of nature itself to provide answers. 2. Researchers assume that reliable knowledge can derive only from empirical evidence. This assumption that knowledge is based on observation is referred to as empiricism. Thus, it follows that only phenomena that are subject to observation lie within the realm of systematic investigation. 1-3b Attitudes Researchers exhibit certain characteristic attitudes as they pursue their work: 1. Researchers are essentially doubters and are skeptical of research findings until they can be verified by further investigation by themselves or others. Verification occurs when repeated observations yield the same or similar results. Thus, the researcher makes the research design, measurements, and conclusions known so that others may replicate the study and verify, or fail to verify, the findings. 2. Researchers are objective and impartial. They take care to observe and collect data in such a way that their personal biases do not influence their observations, and they accept the findings even when the findings are contrary to their own opinions. It has happened, however, that some researchers, being human, have reported only find- ings that agreed with their contention or have even fabricated data to support their belief. A few years ago, a respected British medical journal published a paper by a physician, A. Wakefield, that reported finding a link between standard vaccines and autism in children (Wakefield et al., 1998). A decade of research by other scientists found several examples of questionable and unethical procedures in the study. They concluded that Wakefield’s data did not support a link between vaccines and autism. Without verification by other investigators the journal officially retracted the paper (Wallis, 2010). 3. Researchers deal with facts, not values. They do not indicate the potential moral impli- cations of their findings. They provide the data concerning the relationship among events, but one must go beyond the study to make a decision about whether a certain consequence is desirable. 1-4 Educational Research When the scientific method is applied to the investigation of educational questions, it is called educational research. Educational research asks a question, formulates a hy- pothesis, gathers appropriate data, analyzes the data, and reaches a conclusion about the original question. Educational research is the process whereby we acquire depend- able and useful information about the educative process. Figure 1.1 shows the steps in the research process. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  ch a p ter 1 The Nature of Research in Education  5 Select the problem Report the Review the findings literature Interpret Design the the data study Analyze the Collect the data data Figure 1.1 Stages in the Research Process 1-4a A Brief History of Educational Research The acceptance of the scientific method in education lagged far behind its acceptance in the physical sciences. In 1897, J. M. Rice, a pioneer in educational research, asked the educators attending the annual meeting of the National Education Association’s Department of Superintendence if it would be possible to determine whether students who are given 40 minutes of spelling each day learn more than students given 10 min- utes each day. Rice (1912) reported: To my great surprise, the question threw consternation into the camp. The first to re- spond was a very popular professor engaged in training teachers in the West. He said, in effect, that the question was one which could never be answered; and he gave me a rather severe drubbing for taking up the time of such an important body of educators in asking them silly questions. (17–18) Rice did, in fact, collect empirical data on his question and found that the differ- ences in achievement between those spending 10 minutes a day and those spending 40 minutes a day were negligible. He also pointed out that many words children were required to learn had little practical value. His work led other investigators, such as documentary analysis The Edward L. Thorndike, to use documentary analysis to determine the frequency of use systematic examination of of words in the English language. Their work, in turn, led to improvements in language documents to investigate specific topics or themes. arts texts and curricula. Educational research had its origins in the early 20th century when the eminent American philosopher, John Dewey, recommended it as the best way to obtain ob- jective and reliable answers to educational questions. Educational research has grown tremendously in recent decades partly due to the development of new technology and advanced statistical tests that facilitate the handling and analysis of large amounts of data. Two major issues in the 21st century have influenced the growth of educational re- search and the way it is conducted. The first is the federal No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation of 2001, which requires schools and districts that do not make adequate progress toward certain goals to implement programs and interventions that research indicates are effective in raising achievement. The federal government will provide money for the programs but only if the interventions are consistent with “scientifically based research.” This research is also called evidence-based research. The second factor influencing educational research is standards-based reform, which aims to provide accurate information about national content standards for math, Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 6  pa rt one Introduction to Research science, and other subject areas. Supporters of standards say that they improve student achievement, indicate the degree of student progress toward expectations, and equalize student opportunities. For example, research reported in Fall 2016 investigated students’ performance on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) science test, which measures students’ knowledge in the areas of physical science, life science, earth, and space sci- ence in Grades 4, 8, and 12. Results showed that the average scores for students in both fourth and eighth grades went up from 2009 to 2015. The average scores for high school seniors have remained flat since 2009. The gap between the performance of African American students and their white peers decreased at the fourth- and eighth-grade lev- els but not at the high school level. At the fourth-grade level, there were no significant differences between the average scores of girls and boys. In eighth grade, boys scored an average of 3 points higher than girls. There were no significant differences at the twelfth-grade level. The findings of this type of research are useful to educational prac- titioners and policymakers. They can see where achievement scores have improved and where additional emphasis needs to be placed. Two other developments in 2002 had an influence on educational research. The presi- dent signed the Education Scientific Reform Act, which led to the development of the In- stitute of Education Sciences (IES) whose purpose is to provide reliable knowledge about education at all levels from early childhood through postsecondary to parents, educators, researchers, policymakers, and the general public. Also, in 2002 the National Research Council published Scientific Research in Education, which provides a list of principles to guide educational research and for judging the quality of empirical studies. The emphasis is now on the importance of evidence-based research to provide reli- able knowledge about education. 1-5 Evidence-Based Research One conducts a research study by following a sequence of steps. A researcher in need of knowledge in a particular area states a specific question that can be investigated empir- ically. Next, the researcher selects the method appropriate for gathering the necessary data. The data are then analyzed and interpreted. The researcher draws conclusions that provide an answer to the research question. 1-5a Steps in Evidence-Based Research The steps in evidence-based research are: 1. Select a significant question that can be investigated empirically. An empirical question is one that can be answered by evidence gathered through systematic research. 2. Review the literature to gain more insight into the question and to determine what has already been reported on the question. 3. Choose a research method that is appropriate for gathering the data. 4. Analyze the data. 5. Interpret the findings, and state the conclusions. 6. Report the results. It is probably rare for researchers to follow precisely the sequence we have described in the preceding discussion. These activities often overlap, and researchers move back and forth from one stage to another. Each of these steps is discussed at length in later chapters of this text. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  ch a p ter 1 The Nature of Research in Education  7 1-6 Difficulties Encountered in Conducting Scientific Research in Education and Other Social Sciences Difficulties encountered in educational research include the complexity of subject mat- ter, difficulties in observation and replication, interaction of observer and subjects, dif- ficulties in control, and measurement problems. 1-6a Complexity of Subject Matter Research in education and the social sciences differs from research in the natural sciences. Several limitations hinder the application of the scientific method in the social sciences. A major obstacle is the complexity of the subject matter. Educational researchers don’t study physical or inert objects but rather human beings engaged in complex behavior. We study their behavior as individuals with different characteristics and personalities and also their behavior as members of groups. A group of first-graders in one situation will not behave like first-graders in another situation. It can be risky to make generalizations from one study to an- other because the data gathered from one group might not have validity for a different group. 1-6b Difficulties in Observation Observation in the social sciences is often less objective because it requires interpreta- tion on the part of observers. People’s motives, values, and attitudes are not open to inspection; observers must make subjective interpretations when they decide that the behavior observed indicates a particular motive or attitude. 1-6c Difficulties in Replication A chemist can observe the reaction between two chemicals in a test tube and the findings re- ported to others who can easily replicate the observation. Replication is much more difficult to achieve in education and other social sciences. An American educator cannot reproduce the conditions of a French educator’s experimental teaching method with the same preci- sion as an American chemist could replicate a French chemist’s experiment. Social phenom- ena are singular events and cannot be totally repeated for purposes of observations. 1-6d Interaction of Observer and Subjects Another problem is that mere observation of social phenomena may produce changes that might not have occurred otherwise. Researchers may think that X is causing Y, when in fact their observation of X may cause Y. For example, you may remember from Psychology 101 the well-known Hawthorne experiments in which changes in worker productivity resulted not from the varying working conditions under investigation but from the mere fact that the workers knew they had been singled out for observation. One must always consider that the presence of researchers as observers may change the behavior of your human subjects. 1-6e Difficulties in Control The range of possibilities for controlled experiments on human subjects is much more lim- ited than in investigations in the natural sciences. Educational researchers must deal with many variables simultaneously and must work under less precise conditions. They try to identify and control as many variables as possible, but it’s sometimes very difficult. Without control it’s impossible to evaluate unambiguously the effects of an experimental treatment. 1-6f Measurement Problems Measurement of the variables is very important in a research study. The tools for mea- surement in the social sciences are much less perfect and precise than the tools used in Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 8  pa rt one Introduction to Research chemistry or physics. In the social sciences we measure only those variables that are pres- ent at the time of measurement; factors that have influenced human behavior in the past are not measurable in the present. Because of the problems listed earlier, it is difficult to make broad generalizations from a study. Fortunately, we can conduct several studies in a particular area before making generalizations. If the studies consistently confirm the initial findings, then researchers can be more confident in reporting their generalizations. 1-6g Ethical and Legal Considerations Because educational research involves mainly human subjects, the researcher is ethically re- sponsible for protecting the rights and safety of the participants in a study. There are federal laws and regulations from one’s institution that must be followed in the conduct of a study to ensure a lack of risk to subjects, their right to privacy, and confidentiality of the data col- lected. These regulations sometimes influence the kind of studies that can be conducted. 1-7 Language of Research Before we look at educational research methodology, it is important that we introduce some of the language that researchers use to describe and summarize their observations in an area. Researchers may use words from everyday language but often ascribe new and specific meanings to them. Or they use new terms that are not a part of everyday language. One of these terms is construct. 1-7a Constructs construct Abstractions Constructs are abstractions that cannot be observed directly but are useful in interpreting that cannot be observed empirical data and building theories. For example, one can observe that individuals dif- directly but only by their effects, such as creativity, fer in what they can learn and how quickly they can learn it. To account for this observa- anxiety, or intelligence. tion, scientists invented the construct called intelligence. Other examples of constructs are motivation, anxiety, reading readiness, underachievement, creativity, and self-efficacy. In order to avoid misunderstanding, it is important that researchers provide precise constitutive definition definitions for the constructs. Constructs may be defined in two ways: (1) a constitutive A definition in which a word is definition, which gives their general meaning, like a dictionary type of definition. In- defined by using other words. telligence might be defined as the ability to think abstractly or the capacity to acquire operational definition knowledge; (2) an operational definition gives meaning to a construct by specifying the A definition that specifies the operations that researchers would perform to measure or manipulate the construct. In procedure or operation to be followed in producing or research, investigators collect data in terms of observable events. An operational defi- measuring a concept. nition ensures that everyone concerned understands the specific way the term is being used. An operational definition defines a variable by specifying the operations used to measure or manipulate it. For example, a researcher investigating the relationship be- tween intelligence and creativity might state, “For this study, intelligence is defined as the subjects’ scores on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children.” 1-7b Variables Researchers, especially quantitative researchers, study variables and the relationships variable A representation that exist among them. A variable is a construct or a characteristic that can take on dif- of a construct that takes ferent values or scores across people or things. Height, weight, intelligence, vocabulary on a range of values. scores, and gender are examples of variables. For example, assume one wants to deter- mine the relationship between science aptitude scores and science achievement scores. The variables in this case are science aptitude scores and science achievement scores. Types of Variables There are several ways to classify variables. Variables can be categorical, or they can be continuous. When researchers classify subjects by sorting them into mutually exclusive Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  ch a p ter 1 The Nature of Research in Education  9 groups, the attribute on which they base the classification is called a categorical vari- able. Home language, father’s occupation, marital status, state of birth, and school within which one is enrolled at the university are examples of categorical variables. The simplest type of categorical variable has only two mutually exclusive classes dichotomous variable and is called a dichotomous variable. Pass–fail, citizen–immigrant, in-state or out-of- A categorical variable that state resident are examples of dichotomous variables. When a variable has an infinite has only two classes. number of values within a range, it is a continuous variable. Height, weight, age, and achievement test score are examples of continuous variables. Another important classification is whether the variable in a study is the independent variable or a dependent variable. The independent variable is the antecedent variable that an investigator manipulates in order to determine its effect on another variable called the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the variable we observe and measure. 1-7c Constants The opposite of variable is constant. A constant is a fixed value within a study. If all sub- jects in a study are sixth graders, then grade level is a constant. In a study comparing the attitudes toward school of high school seniors who plan professional careers with those who do not plan professional careers, high school senior level is a constant; whether they plan professional careers is the independent variable, and their attitudes toward school constitute the dependent variable. Figure 1.2 illustrates a process for classifying variables and constants. START Is this description LABEL true of all subjects Yes CONSTANT in the study? No LABEL VARIABLE Is this variable LABEL assumed to Yes DEPENDENT depend on another VARIABLE antecedent variable? No LABEL Can Yes INDEPENDENT independent/ VARIABLE dependent variable take ADD LABEL on an infinite “CONTINUOUS” number of values TO VARIABLE within a range? DESCRIPTION No ADD LABEL “CATEGORICAL” TO VARIABLE DESCRIPTION Figure 1.2 Flow Chart for Classifying Variables and Constants Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 10  pa rt one Introduction to Research 1-8 Educational Research Methods Educational research uses a variety of methodological approaches, which are typically quantitative research classified as quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative research uses objective measure- Research that gathers ment in a controlled setting to gather numeric data that are used to answer questions or numeric data through con- trolled procedures and analy- test predetermined hypotheses. Qualitative research, in contrast, uses different forms of ses to answer predetermined inquiry that focus on understanding social phenomena from the perspective of human questions or test hypotheses. participants in natural settings. It does not begin with formal hypotheses, but it may qualitative research result in hypotheses as the study unfolds. A generic term for a variety of Historically, research in education has used the quantitative approach. In the research approaches that generally gather nonnumeric late 20th century, however, scholars began to call for an alternative to the quan- data to study phenomena, titative approach in educational research (Guba & Lincoln, 1988). They wanted without predetermined an alternative that considered the participants’ perspectives and experiences. For a hypotheses. time, researchers engaged in a “paradigm debate” that viewed the two approaches as being directly opposed. Gradually, researchers began to see the two methodologies mixed methods research as complementary rather than adversarial and a new methodology called mixed Combining quantitative methods research was introduced. As the name indicates, this method combines and qualitative research in different ways with both quantitative and qualitative approaches in the same investigation with each each approach adding approach contributing to the understanding of the research question. Proponents something to the believe that the mixed methods approach may provide a more complete explana- understanding of tion of the research findings than either method alone could provide. Whether re- the phenomenon. searchers choose quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods should be determined not by philosophical preference, but by determining which method is most appro- priate and likely to provide the data that will answer the research question. You simply use what will work. We should note that it may be more difficult to carry out a mixed methods study because one must have knowledge and an understanding of both quantitative and qualitative methodologies. A mixed methods study also typically involves more ex- tensive data collection and analysis and thus may require more time and effort to complete. To take an example of a mixed methods study, assume a researcher wants to know the impact of a newly instituted dress code at an inner-city middle school. Depending on exactly what kind of data the researcher wants, a quantitative, qual- itative, or mixed methods approach could be used. In a quantitative approach, one could measure subsequent attendance, frequency of violations of the code, and/or the number of suspensions for failure to comply. One might administer a survey that assesses students’ attitudes toward the new policy or one that asks teachers about the policy’s effect on the incidence of disciplinary problems in the school. The numerical data would be gathered and analyzed. In a qualitative study, one might observe student behavior in classes and also interview groups of students to obtain in-depth information on how the new dress code has affected their motiva- tion and learning in the classroom, their self-image, and their general attitude to- ward school. Parents might be interviewed to assess their reaction to the dress code and how they think it has affected their children. The result could be a rich verbal description of the personal and social meaning that the new policy has for students. Combining approaches in a mixed methods study would provide the most com- plete information on the effect of the dress code. Table 1.1 compares the quantita- tive and qualitative approaches. Quantitative and qualitative research can be classified according to the design for conducting the investigation. The design refers to the researcher’s plan for conducting the investigation. Let us first consider quantitative research, which can be further clas- sified as using experimental or nonexperimental designs. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  ch a p ter 1 The Nature of Research in Education  11 Table 1.1 Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Quantitative Qualitative Purpose To study relationships; cause and effect To examine a phenomenon as it is, in rich detail Design Developed prior to study Flexible; evolves during study Approach Deductive; tests theory Inductive; may generate theory Tools Uses preselected instruments The researcher is primary data collection tool Sample Uses large samples Uses small samples Analysis Statistical analysis of numeric data Narrative description and interpretation 1-8a Quantitative Research Quantitative research may be further classified as either experimental or nonexperi- mental. Experimental Research Researchers study variables, which are characteristics that take on different values across experimental research people or things. Experimental research involves a study of the effect of the system- Research in which the atic manipulation of one variable(s) on another variable. The manipulated variable investigator manipulates one or more independent variables is called the independent variable or the experimental treatment. The observed and (the treatment) and observes measured variable is called the dependent variable. In a true experiment, subjects are the effect on one or more randomly assigned to an experimental group, which receives the treatment, and to at dependent variables. least one control group, which does not receive the treatment. This type of research, independent variable which uses random assignment and a control group, is often referred to as the “gold A variable that is antecedent standard” of methodology. For example, assume a university professor wants to inves- to the dependent variable. tigate the effect of providing online feedback to students immediately following the dependent variable A course examinations (independent variable). With two sections of economics taught variable that is a consequence by the same professor, the researcher would use a random procedure (a coin toss) to of or dependent on an anteced- ent (independent) variable. select one section to receive immediate online feedback about their test performance. Of course, the test was multiple choice and graded by machine; students’ test scores were put online and could be accessed almost immediately. The other section would receive feedback two or three days later during their next class session. The researcher would compare the two sections’ exam scores and students’ final course grades (de- pendent variable). If test scores and final grades were higher than could be accounted for by chance in the section receiving online feedback, the researcher could tentatively conclude that there is evidence that the online feedback contributed to greater learning than did the delayed in-class feedback. In experimental research, the researcher seeks to control all other variables (extrane- ous variables) that might influence the dependent variable. In the foregoing example, the researcher would make sure that both sections had the same instructor; that both sections met at the same time of day but on different days; that lecture notes, readings, and the exams were the same; and so on. The researcher might also check the ability level and background of the students in the two sections to make sure that one section was not a superior group. To ensure a “true” experiment, the researcher must use a random process to assign the available subjects to the experimental treatments. With random assignment, each subject has an equal and independent chance of being assigned to any group; thus, the assignment is independent of the researcher’s personal preference or judgment or the characteristics of the subjects themselves. Sometimes, however, it is not feasible for a researcher to randomly assign subjects to experimental groups for a study. In the preceding example, the economics professor would not draw a random sample from the total number of students enrolled in an Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 12  pa rt on e Introduction to Research economics course. Instead, the researcher would randomly use two already assembled classes and randomly designate one the experimental group and the other the control group. In this case, the research is called quasi-experimental. Experimental research is discussed in Chapter 10. Nonexperimental Research ex post facto research A Ex post facto research is similar to an experiment, except the researcher does not ma- type of research that attempts nipulate the independent variable, which has already occurred in the natural course to determine the causes for, or the consequences of, of events. The researcher simply compares groups differing on the preexisting inde- differences that already exist pendent variable to determine any relationship to the dependent variable. For ex- in groups of individuals. ample, assume a researcher wants to investigate the question, “What is the effect of part-time work on the school achievement of high school students?” The researcher would not manipulate the lives of high school students by having some take part- time jobs and a comparable group that would not and then compare their grade point average. Instead, the researcher would identify a group of students who already work part-time and compare their achievement with a comparable group of students who do not work. Because many factors are not controlled in an ex post facto inves- tigation, one must be careful in interpreting the results. We discuss ex post facto in detail in Chapter 11. Correlational Research correlational research Correlational research investigates the relationship (correlation) between two or more Research that attempts to variables. The investigator gathers data from a group of individuals on two (or more) determine the extent and the direction of the relationship variables and then seeks to determine if the variables are related (correlated). The ques- between two or more variables. tion might ask, “Is there a relationship between scores on a language aptitude test and success in a foreign language course?” The relationship between the variables is expressed by a statistic called the coefficient of correlation. Its size and direction show the nature of the relationship between the two variables. A positive correlation shows that high values on one variable are associated with high values on the other (aptitude scores and achievement scores). A negative correlation means that high scores on one variable are associated with low scores on the other variable (days absent from school and achievement test scores). The strength of the relationship is expressed by the size of the correlation coefficient. It can range from 11.00 (perfect positive) through 0 indicat- ing no relationship to 21.00, a perfect negative relationship. We discuss correlational research in detail in Chapter 12. Survey Research Surveys use instruments such as questionnaires and interviews to gather data from groups of individuals. Researchers in education and the social sciences use surveys widely. For example, a group of citizens in a community might be surveyed to deter- mine support for a referendum that calls for a small tax increase for the schools. A sur- vey of teachers could reveal their attitudes toward a number of reforms recommended by the school superintendent. Opinion polls are surveys that researchers conduct to determine whom people are likely to vote for or what positions they take on certain issues. We discuss surveys in Chapter 13. Figure 1.3 summarizes the major types of quantitative research. 1-8b Qualitative Research Qualitative research seeks a deeper understanding of a phenomenon by focusing on the total picture rather than breaking it down into variables and analyzing it numeri- cally. For example, social scientists have long observed that differences in educational Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  ch a p ter 1 The Nature of Research in Education  13 START Are the data Words primarily in the form Numbers of Numbers or Words? QUALITATIVE see Chapters QUANTITATIVE 15 and 16 Does the researcher EXPERIMENTAL Yes have control over an independent variable? TRUE Yes Is random EXPERIMENTAL assignment used? see Chapter 10 No No QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL see Chapter 10 NONEXPERIMENTAL Is the study SURVEY investigating how No see Chapter 13 variables change together? Yes Is the direction and EX POST strength of the FACTO No relationship of two see Chapter 11 or more variables among the same subjects or paired subjects studied? Yes CORRELATIONAL see Chapter 12 Figure 1.3 Major Types of Quantitative Educational Research background do not account for the difficulties black students often encounter in a pre- dominantly white university. A question for qualitative research to explore is “How do black students perceive their academic experience in a white university?” The study would focus on a relatively few black students who would be studied in great detail through observation, in-depth interviews, or case studies. There are many different types of qualitative research. Eight of the most widely used are: basic interpretative studies, case studies, document (or content) analysis, ethnog- raphy, grounded theory, historical studies, narrative inquiry, and phenomenological studies. Each of these is discussed in greater detail in later chapters. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 14  pa rt one Introduction to Research Basic Interpretative Studies A basic interpretative study is the most simple and most common qualitative study. This type of study provides descriptive accounts targeted to understanding a phenom- enon using data that might be collected in a variety of ways, such as interviews, obser- vations, and document review. The purpose is to understand the world or experience of another. Describing how teachers perceive their role as disciplinarians in a middle school classroom is an example. Case Studies case study A qualitative A case study is a type of ethnographic study that focuses on a single unit, such as examination of a single one individual, one group, one organization, or one program. The goal is to arrive at individual, group, event, or institution. a detailed description and understanding of the entity (the “case”). Case studies use multiple methods, such as interviews, observations, and documents, to gather data. For example, one might conduct a case study of a particular inner-city school to learn why its students have achieved at a high level on standardized tests when other inner-city schools are struggling. Content Analysis content analysis A research Content analysis focuses on analyzing and interpreting recorded material to learn method applied to written or about human behavior. The material may be public records, textbooks, letters, dia- visual materials to analyze characteristics of the material. ries, tapes, films, reports, or other documents. Content analysis begins with a ques- tion that the researcher believes can best be answered by studying documents. For example, what was the employment situation like for married women teachers in the early 20th century? Ethnography ethnography A form Ethnography is an in-depth study of naturally occurring behavior within a culture or of qualitative research that social group. Ethnography is sometimes called field research because it is conducted aims for a holistic picture of a cultural group; it uses in-depth in a natural setting or “field.” The researcher observes group behavior as it occurs nat- interviewing and prolonged urally without any simulation or imposed structure. It uses a variety of data-gathering participant observation. procedures, such as prolonged observation of the setting, interviews with members of the culture, and studying documents. An example might be an investigation of the drug culture in a small county in Appalachia. Grounded Theory grounded theory Theory Grounded theory research is designed to develop a theory of social phenomena derived inductively from based on the field data collected in a study. An examination of the data generates the data collected rather than from a priori insights, hypotheses, and questions, which leads to further data collection. From an ideas or theories. inductive analysis of the data, the researcher forms a theory by proposing plausible relationships among concepts. The theory is said to be “grounded” in the data. For example, a researcher interested in mainstreaming in elementary school could observe a number of classrooms, conduct interviews with teachers and students, an- alyze the data, and come up with a theory about mainstreaming in the elementary school. Historical Research historical research Historical research analyzes documents and artifacts and/or uses interviews with eye- A systematic attempt to witnesses to gain insight into past events. The researcher must establish the authenticity establish facts and arrive at conclusions about the past. of the documents as well as the validity of their contents. An educational researcher might want to investigate the trends in preschool education in a particular school dis- trict from its beginnings to the present. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  ch a p ter 1 The Nature of Research in Education  15 Narrative Inquiry narrative inquiry A form In narrative inquiry, researchers examine the stories people tell about their lives and of qualitative research, also co-construct a narrative analysis of those stories, also referred to as life stories. The re- called biography, life stories, and life narratives, that searcher and those telling their stories have an equal voice in determining the meanings provides accounts of a attributed to the experiences. person’s experiences. Phenomenological Studies phenomenological Phenomenological studies are based on the assumption that multiple realities are rooted studies Qualitative in subjects’ perspectives. Thus, an experience has different meanings for each person. research that focuses on understanding the meaning Through unstructured interviews, the investigator explores the subject’s thoughts and events have for individuals in feelings to elicit an individual’s experience. The question, “What is the relationship particular situations. like between a beginning teacher and his or her mentor?” could be answered through a phenomenological study. 1-8c S  imilarities Across Quantitative and Qualitative Research We have examined a number of quantitative and qualitative designs used in educa- tional research. It is important to remember, however, that there are underlying charac- teristics common to all these approaches. Bachman (2009) identifies four fundamental commonalities in all approaches to research in education: 1. Empirical research is aimed at creating new knowledge.