Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) - A General Introduction PDF

Dr Shabnam Abdoola  AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION A GENERAL INTRODUCTION From Augmentative and Alternative Communication: Models and Applications, Second Edition By Filip Loncke. Copyright © 2022...

Dr Shabnam Abdoola  AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION A GENERAL INTRODUCTION From Augmentative and Alternative Communication: Models and Applications, Second Edition By Filip Loncke. Copyright © 2022 by Plural Publishing, Inc. All rights reserved. WHAT IS AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION? Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) is the term used to indicate the methods, tools and theories to use non-standard linguistic forms of communication by and with individuals without or with limited functional speech.  The materialization of the communication act The use of non-standard modalities: manual signs, and speech- generating devices. The modification of any parameter in the communication Explains how different modalities work together in the mind of the AAC user. The impact on language acquisition by users. Social impact. Educational aspect. STANDARD AND NON-STANDARD FORMS OF COMMUNICATION Standard forms are Non-standard forms are communication forms that communication forms that (1) serve as background channels, and/or most people use on a daily (2) will be activated if standard forms are not accessible basis: or not available ▪ Speech/Listening Examples: ▪ Reading/writing ▪ gestures ▪ Vocalization ▪ Body position and orientation ▪ Graphic symbols ▪ Eye gazing STANDARD LINGUISTIC FORMS OF COMMUNICATION Speaking – listening Writing - reading But… standards can change. For example, text messaging is becoming more standard each day  EARLY ASSUMPTIONS Success depends on the cognitive and linguistic skills (and potential) of the user This is true, but communication partners play a huge role. AAC should be considered only after traditional speech approaches have failed AAC is a solution for communication problems  If the communication partner has a low expectations, does not respond, or does not provide communication opportunities, the AAC user’s development will suffer. The is no incompatibility between modalities. The use of highly accessible modalities reinforces early development. AAC is considered an integral part of the intervention. E;g; graphic symbols are widely used as an educational tool. TERMINOLOGY 1 Aided communication -The use of aids external to the communicator’s body. Unaided communication - Communication that is entirely established without external aids Natural speech Sign language gesturing AAC user, consumer, person who uses AAC, Person with Complex Communication Needs (CCN), Person who uses AAC (PWUAAC).  Communication TERMINOLOGY 2 Language speech Communication: the exchange of information between at least two partners Language: socially shared code that is a specific rule-governed system consisting of phonology, morphology, and syntax. Speech: is one modality to express language, speech is the result of encoding phonological sequences into articulatory gestures Symbol: something that refers to or represents an object, a person, or an idea (referential tool) Verbal – nonverbal: ambiguous term Vocal – nonvocal: the presence or absence of natural speech. Linguistic – nonlinguistic: whether linguistic principles underlying the communication. LEARNABILITY OF SYMBOLS Iconicity: means that the symbol has an image value (the opposite is arbitrariness) Transparency – you can look through the symbol and extract its meaning. A picture of a house Translucency – when the relationship between the meaning is obvious after one reveals it. ASL for YEAR Words – arbitrary Manual signs and graphic symbols – iconic Iconicity is almost impossible to achieve for verbs A MODEL FOR AAC-COMMUNICATION The receiver decodes the message that has been encoded by the sender Criticism: The encoder might be limited by the choices offered by the device But this model describes a number of characteristics of AAC. AAC AS SENDER SUPPORT (EXPRESS WHAT THEY WANT TO SAY) The pathway from intention to articulation in typical speakers 1. Having an intention 2. Finding the syntactic structure(statement, command, question) 3. Finding the words (elements) 4. Putting the words (elements) in the right order 5. Identifying the phonological structure 6. Activating the articulators LESS IS MORE One application of AAC is to help the person establish intentionality- the understanding that specific behaviors can have a meaning and ca n be sequential. Core vocabulary - words and phrases that are useful in everyday life. Combinatoriality principle - create words and phrases by combining elements of the selection set Introduce the combinatorial principle in generating messages E.g.: the alphabetic principle Minspeak as a picture-based combinatorial message generator EXAMPLES OF SENDER SUPPORT - Intentionality: knowing that your behavior is communicative (that it has a message value/ that it can make a difference/ cause effect) - Articulation of the message (speech or other form)(what you do and how you do it)  AAC AS SUPPORT OF SIGNAL TRANSMISSION Materialized exchange of messages through message cards (e.g., the picture exchange communication System (PECS)), Activity-based. Help individuals with cognitive-social limitations to grasp the concept of what communication is and how they can play an active role. Multimodality Partner assisted techniques  AAC AS SUPPORT OF RECEIVER It is not enough to be able to send messages – you need to be able to receive too The receiver’s task is to: Pay attention to the signals Decode them make sense of them BAKER’S BASIC ERGONOMIC EQUATION Using AAC is often very effort - intensive Suggest that the actual production of a communication utterance is dependent on a number of factors Motivation to use a method and/or device Physical effort + cognitive effort + linguistic effort + time = success or failure BEYOND THE COMMUNICATOR – PARTNER INTERACTION Microlevel: the level of the person himself and the person’s own characteristics. Exolevel: person functions 1. in/dependency (the more independent, the more the need to communicate) 2. Time schedule (how many opportunities for communication are there?) 3. Economic affordability Mesolevel: the level of the person's interaction with the daily environment. How acceptable are the new AAC users in the environment? Macrolevel: social perception of an AAC user (how acceptable to be different?) Employment opportunities. Recognition of rights of individuals. TO SUM UP 1. AAC can best be described with a “general” communication model 2. AAC has three components: tools, methods, and theories POINTS TO REMEMBER - 1 Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) is the term used for the methods, the tools, and the theories of the use of non-standard linguistic and non-linguistic forms of communication by and with individuals without or with limited functional speech. AAC taps into a person’s ability to combine multiple modalities of expression to form a communication message. AAC does not impede the development of natural speech.  POINTS TO REMEMBER - 2 AAC is more likely to be effective if it is introduced in an early stage of development or after a communication disability has been detected. The sender – message – receiver model provides an adequate framework to comprehend AAC as interventions or modifications at the level of the sender, the message transmission, or the sender. AAC is a translational discipline, using information from developmental psychology, psycholinguistics, educational sciences, rehabilitation science, sociology, neuropsychology, computer sciences, and perception psychology.  Chapter 2 Access and Message Management From Augmentative and Alternative Communication: Models and Applications, Second Edition By Filip Loncke. Copyright © 2022 by Plural Publishing, Inc. All rights reserved.  Typical Processes Involved in the Micro- Genesis of Speech (1) an intention (2) determination of a message structure (3) lexical selection (4) morphological modulations (5) a phonetic plan (6) a transmission from the phonetic plan into an articulation program. Levelt’s Blueprint of the Speaker (the Microgenesis of Speech) Partial sequential and partially parallel way: 1. Lexical selection 2. Syntactic planning 3. Phonological encoding Lexical Access: the ability of the speaker to find a word in their internal lexicon and activate it. AAC users manage two lexicons – an internal lexicon(in his head) and an exernal lexicon (in the device)  A Proposed Framework to Understand Access The sender-Message-Reciever form model serves as a framework for understanding processes (and interventions) in AAC. Most of the typical AAC processes are related to access facilitation, that is, ways to reinforce, accelerate, circumvent, or provide alternatives for the typical speech processes. Rate of typical speech (200 words a minute) The slowdown of the utterance speed is a major issue of concern in regard to AAC. Augmented speech requires more effort, speakers may tend to simplify and economize linguistic structures (trade-off).  Rate of Expressive Communication Interaction of cognitive planning and communicative expression. In AAC, waiting time of the planned utterance is likely to be increased. Frustration? Trade-off between invested effort and result. Willingness and ability of the communication partners to participate in the exchange.  Access: the facilitation of components in the communication processes Physical access this is about observable behaviors It is about finding alternatives for the physical production of the message (point, sign, touch) Influences by other factors such as seating and positioning Mental access this is about internal processes AAC intervention is geared toward making symbols more accessible(easier to comprehend) it is about structuring information. E.g., visualization, such as on a board/display. Another way to improve mental access is to limit available lexical items. Portability: The possibility to have the aid available at all times. It is important to develop unaided strategies E.g., left and right wristband  Sender Access Facilitation Intentionality: explicit efforts to establish a behavioral understanding of a relationship between one’s own behaviors and responses from others in the environment. Lexicon accessibility Lexicon: an internalized database of words It is often recommended to put highly functional and frequent words on the surface to make them easy to find. Lexicon size: how many lexical items guarantee fluent and effective communication? (core words?) Mental access to the lexicon The better the symbols are organized, the easier and faster they are to retrieve (semantic (food), linguistic categorical (noun, verbs) way)  Are symbol systems better than symbol sets? Symbol Set - graphic symbols with no clear or well-defined common principle among the symbol. Symbol System- graphic symbols that are created according to formational and combinational rules, in which the same principles are recognizable. Symbol systems are supposedly appealing to linguistic capacities  Navigation with Minspeak Determine whether screen navigation or icon sequencing works better for a specific user Navigation requires time and memory (knowing where the message is stored)-The pathways that lead to individual words are known as the 'navigation' system. Navigation through a binder or through a communication device. Icon sequencing (such as Minspeak)- combining words and phrases Minspeak is a combination of symbols (called icons) that, for the most part, do not represent direct meanings. Users will have to navigate through the pages (called dynamic displays) because one button often opens a new screen to identify the symbol or the message that they need.  Other Navigation Systems Different navigation systems offer various methods for accessing and using AAC tools, each designed to meet specific needs and preferences. These include: - PECS: Picture-based communication using physical cards. - Grid-Based Systems: Organized grids of symbols for easy access. - Visual Scene Displays (VSDs): Contextual images to represent communication concepts. - Text-Based Systems: Typing and word prediction for text communication. - Hybrid Systems: Combining symbol-based and text-based methods. - Eye-Tracking Systems: Eye movement-based selection for users with limited motor control. The choice of navigation system depends on the user's abilities, communication goals, and personal preferences. Each system provides different advantages and can be customized to enhance the user’s communication experience.  Access to Message Assembly Techniques Syntax and morphology techniques (pre-stored phrases) ▪ Often may have to be sacrificed to meet the requirements of speed in the conversation Spelling (word prediction) and keystroke economy ▪ Keystroke: pressing on a key ▪ Minimize the number of the keystrokes ▪ Word prediction systems have been able to accelerate the speed of AAC expression as long as the user is literate.  Message Externalizing Selection of accessible modalities Expressive strategies 1. Visual modality Direct access: when a user has direct Graphic symbols control. 2. Tangible modality Scanning: presenting stimuli to which the person can respond. Tangible symbol – small objects that are passed between sender and Vocalization: the production of vocal receiver sounds. Could refer to real-life objects or Speech: spoken word production. to events and activities Eye gaze: looking and fixating through an 2D Or 3D element. Gesturing: movements of arm and body Touching-often related to pointing Typing Brain activity –by Brain-Computer Interaction (BCI)  Tools Speech generating devices Devices that have synthetic or digitized speech output. Barcode readers and QR code readers Usually combined with synthetized speech Communication Boards (and symbol displays) Oldest and most used, they come in non, low and high tech Tactile symbols Objects that are held in hand, shown to a communication partner and handed over as a communicative act. Switches The single-movement response that may be repeated several time. Non-dedicated devices (e.g., cell phones, binders, computers)  Cognitive Processes when using AAC Word finding Motor patterns Pattern recognition  Message Transmission Multimodality Materialization principle  The Receiver’s Role Understanding the Message: Actively listen and interpret the message Providing Feedback: Acknowledge and seek clarification if needed Adapting Communication Style: Be patient and adjust as required Encouragement and Support: Show interest and empathy  Assistance from Communication Partner Facilitate Access: Help with setup and maintenance of the AAC system. Support Navigation: Assist with using the system and provide modeling. Encourage Effective Use: Engage and provide feedback. Create a Supportive Environment: Ensure a conducive communication setting.  Points to Remember Success of AAC is dependent not only on the user but on the communication partner (e.g., there must be strategic feedback and content feedback). Most of the typical AAC processes are related to access facilitation, i.e. ways to reinforce, accelerate, circumvent, or provide alternatives for typical speech processes. To understand AAC, it is necessary to pay attention to mental processes like word/symbol retrieval, combination of symbols, and short-term memory management. The AAC user uses intentionality, lexicon, message assembling, message externalizing, behaviors, and tools to communicate the message to the receiver, who helps with cause-effect grasping, providing choices, and providing strategic feedback.  Points to Remember Mental access involves the conceptualization of the message, retrieval of the symbol, and planning of the utterance. It is the internal act of planning the message or the intention. Physical access is the actual behavior required to convey the planned message. It is a sequence of coordinated and planned behaviors. Both mental access and physical access rely on automatization, memory, and cognitive processes. Access facilitation includes ways to reinforce, accelerate, circumvent, and/or provide alternatives for the typical speech process. AAC combines both physical access (behaviors) and mental access (internal processes) as alternative strategies to communicate. Symbols and messages can be found through different strategies, e.g., through screen navigation or through icon sequencing. Both strategies rely on different processes.  Chapter 2 No-Tech AAC Dr Shabnam Abdoola From Fundamentals of AAC: A Case-Based Approach to Enhancing AAC by Nerissa Hall, Jenifer Juengling- Sudkamp, Michelle L. Gutmann, and Ellen R. Cohn. Copyright © 2023 by Plural Publishing, Inc. All rights reserved.  Learning Objectives The learning objectives are to: Describe types of unaided and aided no-tech AAC systems Compare various grid display designs used with communication boards Explain factors necessary to design a lite-tech AAC system Summarize the importance of communication partner/family involvement and training from initial assessment stages Identify advantages and disadvantages of no- tech/lite-tech AAC  Key Words No-tech AAC - AAC systems that are often paper- based (do not have a battery with no voice output) and are also known as low-tech and/or lite/light-tech systems. Low-tech communication devices - have a simple electronic component; however, they can be purchased off the shelf at novelty stores and include adapted photo frames, greeting cards, etc. These devices usually require minimal programming and are sometimes limited single messages. Iconicity - An icon’s meaning and how it relates to its referent. The meaning can be clear (transparent), understood with a little explanation (translucent), or require information to make the connection (opaque).  Key Words Display Representation - how the vocabulary is organized on the AAC system. Schematic Organization - displays that are organized by a specific activity. Semantic-syntactic Organization - displays that are organized according to parts of speech and spoken word order. Taxonomic Organization - displays that are organized by categories. Alphabetical Organization - displays that are organized alphabetically. Chronological Organization - displays that are organized by the sequence of events or activities.  Key Words Pragmatic Organization Dynamic Display (PODD; Porter, 2014) - represents a combination of display options with the first page of the book usually displaying phrase starters paired with a number representing the number of the next page to turn to to complete the phrase with more specific choices. Picture Exchange Communication system (PECS) – A specific and clearly defined approach developed by Bondy & Frost (2001) to train individuals with Autism to communicate by exchanging cards (line drawings) representing objects or items to communicate messages. It is a program consisting of six phases, where training starts with single pictures to multiple ones to formulate sentences. Visual Scene Displays - displays that are picture-based and present a scene/context with salient elements that can be pointed to or are manipulative (that can be exchanged with a communication partner).  No-Tech AAC Aided AAC Vary in design based on symbols, organization, and display A.k.a. paper-based, low-tech, lite-tech, light- tech No technology (no battery or voice output)  No-Tech AAC Visual referents – Communication boards – Picture Exchange Communication System (PECs) – Alphabet boards… Can contain words, pictures, or phrases – Board – Book – In the environment  Unaided vs Aided AAC Unaided Aided – Gestures – No-tech – Facial expressions – Mid-tech – Body language – High-tech – Signs/sign language – Eye blink – Tools and systems – Vocalizations external to the individual – Intrinsic, natural forms of communication – 2/3rds  No-Tech AAC: Symbols Real objects Partial objects Associated objects Photographs Line drawings Traditional orthography Symbol type depends on the individual (cognitive, comprehension, physical, & sensory skills)  No-Tech AAC: Iconicity An icon’s meaning and how it relates to its referent – Transparent: the meaning can be clear – Translucent: the meaning can be understood with a little explanation – Opaque: information is required to make the connection between the symbol and its meaning Vary according to how concrete the symbols is (object or photograph vs. opaque symbol or line drawing) Need to be meaningful to the individual and their communication partner(s)  Designing a No- Tech System Based on feature- matching specific to the PWUAAC – Number of icons – Size of icons – Number of icons displayed at a given time – Overall size of display  Displays Vary depending on the individual’s cognitive skills, communication environments, their partners, age, vocabulary, and frequency of use. – Schematic - organized by a specific activity – Semantic-syntactic - organized according to parts of speech and spoken word order (often with color-coding) – Taxonomic - organized by categories – Alphabetical - organized alphabetically – Chronological - organized by the sequence of events or activities – Pragmatic Organization Dynamic Display (PODD; Porter, 2014) - represents a combination of display options with the first page of the book usually displaying phrase starters paired with a number representing the number of the next page to turn to to complete the phrase with more specific choices. – Visual scene displays  Displays – Different kinds of words and Color-Coding parts of speech can be color-coded. Proloquo2Go PRC Parts of Speech Goossens’, Crain, & Elders Fitzgerald Color Pronouns Orange Yellow (I, he, she, it, etc.) Verbs Pink/Magenta Green (like, want, have, etc.) Descriptors Blue Blue (adjectives) Prepositions Green Purple (in, out, under, over, etc.) Nouns Yellow Orange Question Words Grey Purple (who, what, why, when, where) Core Words White (eat, drink, etc.)  No-Tech Formats Piece of paper/material or book – language board/book – Direct: physical manipulation, pointing – Indirect: indicating correct targets (partner-assisted scanning/PAS) Specific board – eye-gaze/e-Tran – Direct: looking at specific targets – Indirect: indicating correct targets (PAS) Manipulative - like PECS, interactive boards, visual scene displays, PODD – Direct: physical manipulation or pointing No-Tech Formats  No-Tech Access Direct – Pointing to letters, words, pictures, or phrases Fingers Eye gaze Lights/lasers – Modifications Touchguide – raising the borders of icons/cells Increased padding/spacing Indirect – Partner-assisted scanning (PAS)  Advantages of No-Tech Can be stand-alone tool, compliment alternative tools, or serve as a back-up for a high-tech system – Ensure communication across environments (i.e., pool or gym) Accessible Affordable Replicable Supports immersion into the environment – Can be printed on multiple surfaces (waterproof) Can be made in any language Shared referent for shared understanding - engagement No battery needed  Disadvantages of No-Tech No voice output Increased vocabulary can lead it to be heavy Static and not dynamic Slow to access Time consuming to make Harder to correct mistakes Not always universally understood  Case Study: PG The Individual Their Communication Partners Their Environment  Case Study: PG The AAC System  Chapter 3 Non-Tech, Low-Tech, High-Tech, and Mobile Computing From Augmentative and Alternative Communication: Models and Applications, Second Edition By Filip Loncke. Copyright © 2022 by Plural Publishing, Inc. All rights reserved.  Assistive Technology Is the term used to indicate technological measures taken to facilitate a person’s functioning. AT plays an important role within AAC High-tech: higher end Low tech: materials or systems that are inexpensive, simple, and easy to obtain.  Non-Tech Solutions These include: Dry-erase boards Notebooks with photos Communication boards Communication vest Alphabet boards Wristbands Nontech solutions are often used in a complementary way alongside low-tech and high-tech solutions.  Steering Technology Pointing-based input systems (mouse, joystick, touch-screens, graphic tablets, pen-based input forms) Devices are steered by (often a combination of) vision, audition, or touch. Switch-based input systems (keyboards, used vision-based(device screens)) Audition-based input (Siri, Alexa, etc.) Haptic input systems: respond to skin and muscle pressure. Gestural steering: manual signs to direct a computer Eye-gaze steering  Movement-sensing devices Used to measure heartbeat, sleep patterns and balance  Multi-Input Strategies Brain-computer interaction (BCI) [direct neural interface / brain- machine interface] Neuroprosthetics Is the discipline that searches for substitutions for impaired motor, sensory, and cognitive functions through the use of a device that is controlled and directed by internal body parts. The best-known neuroprosthetic is a cochlear implant  Language Representation Technology Traditional keyboard (spelling and composition): Highly generative; it allows the users to produce all possible linguistic combinations. Minspeak (semantics and motor planning) - is constructed to reinforce the development of a psychomotor-based WordPower Users work from a limited lexicon of 100 core words that can be assessed and combined quickly and easily in order to generate unique messages. Gateway Dynamic display devices, that allow a user to navigate from screen to screen. Proloquo2Go Graphic-symbols word program developed for use on tablets and mobile computing platforms. Boardmaker Lingraphica  Output Technology Output technology implies the use of tools external to the communicator’s body (aided communication). Non-tech output (e.g., PECS, communication boards, communication vest) Device-generated speech Improvements in output voice quality Dedicated communication devices: devices that are built with the sole purpose to be an aid to communication. Non-dedicated devices: a number of functions and applications that are not limited to communication. Tablets and mobile devices [the use of Apps]  Lexicon-Technology Lexicon representation In AAC, the lexicon is represented in a multimodal fashion (graphic symbols + printed word) Positioning is more important than representation. The “super lexicon” – indicates a virtual lexicon that contains spoken representations, printed forms, and images of the gesture/manual signs, along with likely neighboring lexical items. Growing data-bases Using electronic forms of AAC has increasingly implied the possibility of electronically keeping track of all operations performed by the user.  Conversion Technology Conversion Description 1 -> 2 Conversion of Spoken language into written language (Speech recognition) In order to be able to comprehend 2 -> 1 Conversion of Written language into spoken language information it may be required that the (Speech synthesis) symbols used are converted into symbols 2 -> 2 Modifying written language (summarize, simplify, and systems that can be more easily shorten, paraphrase) accessed and interpreted by the user. 2 -> 4 Conversion of written language into Braille E.g, google translate 3 -> 1 Conversion of pictures, pictograms, animations, sign symbols into speech 2 -> 1 Conversion of text into pictures, graphic symbols, animations, manual signs  Recognition Technology Interpreting messages that have been expressed as spoken words, or manual signs into another form. Speech recognition: converting natural speech into text or other symbolic modality. Face recognition Gesture recognition Sign recognition Integration with Other Non-Communication Technology Smart house technology Avatar technology – refers to the use of a graphical and graphical character that represents the person. Used to animate manual signs and connect with other AAC users. Smart assistants – the AAC user can simply let the speech-generating device do the talking.  Conclusions Devices and solutions that have been cutting edge solutions (or only in the prototype stage) have become available, miniaturized, more affordable, and more powerful than before. It is to be expected that this evolution will only continue – and that AAC users and their partners will greatly benefit from this. it is important to judge where in the communication process the device or the solution is to be situated: is it essentially a word finding (and expression) device? Is it a conversion device? Does it emulate multimodal processing? In the end, these are psycholinguistic processes. Therefore, an evidence- based model of message generation should remain central when one considers the benefits and the effects of a device.  Points to Remember Assistive technology involves the use of tools to teach or aid an individual with the goal of allowing them to function more easily in everyday life. Assistive technology requires information, training, modeling, counseling, and feedback. Recent advancements in technology have allowed AAC devices to be more portable, affordable, and easier to access. The advance in mobile computing devices has changed the nature of AAC to become less clinician directed and more client directed because they choose the tablet format and may even start "self-treatment" before seeking advice from clinicians or other professionals.  Points to Remember Neuro-prostethics is a discipline that seeks to help impairments with motor, sensory and cognitive functions that uses internal body operations to control the device. One-message generating devices may be beneficial for beginning communicators, especially when learning intentional communication (cause-effect relationships). In developing intervention plans, it may be beneficial to start with a simple one-message communication device and then progress to two or more of these devices. It is important to keep in mind the level of cognitive functioning of the AAC user when choosing the device, whether it is non tech, low tech, or high tech and also if it is a dedicated or non dedicated device. Some devices have different cognitive levels to facilitate development. Within the type of device, you want to also consider the following regarding the lexicon: multimodal, how they are presented in relation to one another, navigability of the device, core vocal vs. fringe vocabulary, if the device has word prediction technologies. There is a right solution for every person.  Points to Remember There are many ways to steer/manipulate/direct an AAC device. This includes the following types of input systems: switch-based input system (uses switches or a single switch), pointing based input system (ex: mouse, joy-stick, touch screen), audition based input system (uses voice recognition), and haptic input systems (responds to skin and muscle pressure). High tech and low tech usually refer to the higher and lower price end of the devices. With the rate at which new technologies continue to become available, at reduced costs, terms like “high” and “low” technology are relative and should be considered on a dynamic continuum. That’s why we should focus more on the functions, components, and processes within communication that can be technologically supported.