INSECTA Fundamentals of Entomology (2).pdf

 TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY CENTRE FOR PLANT PROTECTION STUDIES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY AEN 101 (1+1) Fundamentals of Entomology L...

 TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY CENTRE FOR PLANT PROTECTION STUDIES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY AEN 101 (1+1) Fundamentals of Entomology LECTURE SCHEDULE 1. Study of insects and their importance in Agriculture. History of Entomology in India – Position of insects in the Animal Kingdom – relationship with members of Arthropoda. 2. Insect dominance – structural, morphological and physiological factors responsible for dominance. 3. Insect body wall – its structure and function – moulting process in insects. 4. Structure of insect head, thorax and abdomen – their functions. 5. Digestive system in insects – structure of alimentary canal, modifications in certain groups, enzymes, digestion and absorption of nutrients. 6. Excretory system in insects – malpighian tubules – accessory excretory organs – physiology of excretion. 7. Respiratory system in insects – structure of trachea – tracheoles – types of respiratory system – types of spiracles – respiration in aquatic and endoparasitic insects. 8. Circulatory system in insects – haemocoel and dorsal vessel – circulation of blood – composition of haemolymph – blood plasma – haemocytes and their functions. 9. Mid-semester examination. 10. Nervous system in insects – structure of neuron – central nervous system – conduction of nerve impulses – axonic and synoptic transmission. 11. Male and female reproductive systems in insects – their structures – types of reproduction – oviparous, viviparous, paedogenesis, polyembryony and parthenogenesis. 12. Structure of sense organs – types of sensilla – photoreceptors, chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors. 13. Structure of glands – exocrine and endocrine glands and their location and simple function – effect on metamorphosis and reproduction. 14. Tropism in insects - primary and secondary orientation – kinesis and taxis and their importance. Biocommunication in insects – sound and light production. 15. Classification and nomenclature of insects. 16. Important characters of insect orders – Exopterygota – Orthoptera Hemiptera and Thysanoptera ; Endopterygota – Lepidoptera and families of agricultural importance with significant characters. 17. Important characters of insect orders – Coleoptera, Diptera and Hymenoptera and families of agricultural importance with significant characters. PRACTICAL SCHEDULE 1. Observations on external features of grasshopepr / cockroach 2. Methods of insect collection, preservation, pinning, labelling, display and storage 3. Mounting of types of insect head and types of antenna – making sketches 4. Mounting of insect mouth parts of cockroach – examining the modifications in the mouth parts of plant bug, female mosquito, honeybee, thrips, antlion grub, housefly, moths and butterflies 5. Structure of thoracic appendages – mounting and examining the modifications in insect legs and wings – wing venation, regions and angles – wing coupling. 6. Examining and sketching of modifications in the appendages of insect abdomen – pregenital and genital appendages. 7. Recording types of metamorphosis – observing and sketching the immature stages of insects viz., egg, nymph, naiad, caterpilalr, maggot, grub and pupa. 8. Dissection of grasshopper / blister beetle / cockroach to note and sketch the alimentary canal. 9. Dissection of grasshopper / blister beetle / cockroach to observe and sketch the male and female reproductive systems. 10. Experimental studies on the location of sense organs – response to food, taste, light and defense behaviour of insects – behavioural, structural, chemical and colourational defense. 11. Observing the characters of important orders of Exopterygota – Orthoptera (Acrididae, Tettigonidae, Gryllidae and Gryllotalpidae), Hemiptera – Heteroptera (Reduvidae, Pentatomidae, Miridae, Coreidae, Pyrrhocoridae, Lygaeidae, Anthocoridae), Homoptera (Cicadellidae, Delphacidae, Aphididae, Aleyrodidae, Coccidae, Pseudococcidae and Psyllidae). 12. Observing the characters of orders Thysanoptera and Diptera (Cecidomyiidae, Agromyzidae, Tephritidae and Muscidae) and Hymenoptera (Tenthredinidae and Megachilidae). 13. Noting the external features of Coleoptera and study of important families of Agricultural importance (Curculionidae, Cerambycidae, Melalonthidae, Tenebrionidae, Bruchidae and Bostrychidae). 14. Observing the characters of Lepidoptera and its families of agricultural importance (Nymphalidae, Lycaenidae, Pieridae, Papilionidae, Crambidae, Pyraustidae, Noctuidae, Arctiidae, Sphingidae, Lymantriidae and Hesperidae) 15. Visit to different ecosystems to collect insects and study them in their natural habitat – Rice, Sugarcane, Orchard and Forest ecosystems. 16. Identification and naming of collected insects based on characters – order and family 17. Practical examination SKILLS TO BE ACQUIRED 1. Collection and preservation of insects 2. Developing skill to identify insects 3. To become familiar with habitats  Contents Lecture Title Page Number 1 History of Entomology in India 3 2 Position of insects in animal kingdom and their 7 relationship with other Arthropods 3 Insect dominance 10 4 Body wall-its structure and function 12 5 Moulting (Ecdysis) 14 6 Organisation of Insect Body 16 7 Types of insect heads and antennae 19 8 Types of insect mouthparts 21 9 Types of insect legs 25 10 Types of insect wings 28 11 Abdominal structures in insects 31 12 Digestive system 34 13 Excretory system 38 14 Respiratory system 41 15 Circulatory system in insects 43 16 Nervous system 46 17 Sense organs 49 18 Reproductive system 52 19 Types of reproduction 55 20 Glandular system 57 21 Metamorphosis and immature stages in insects 59 22 Tropism in insects 65 23 Insect Communication 66 24 Offense And Defense Behaviour In Insects 68 25 Taxonomy, principles and procedures 71 26 Nomenclature and identification 73 27 Classification of insects 75 28 Study of insect orders 78 28 Collection and preservation of insects 101  Acknowledgement This book is compiled based on the information drawn from many different text books including those listed below. The authors /publishers of the original reference books are gratefully acknowledged. Awasthi, V.B. 1997. Introduction to general and applied entomology. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, 379 p. Borror, D.J., C.A. Triple Horn and N.F.Johnson. 1987. An introduction to the study of insects (VI Edition). Harcourt Brace College Publishers, New York, 875p. Chapman, R.F. 1981. The Insects: Structure and function. Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd, London, 919p. Gullan, P.J. and Cranston, P.S. 2001. The insects- An outline of entomology, II edition, Chapman & Hall, Madras, 491p. Mani, M.S. 1968. General entomology. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt Ltd., New Delhi, 912p. Nayar, K.K., T.N.Ananthakrishnan and B.V. David. 1976. General and applied entomology, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, 589p. Pedigo, L.P. 1999. Entomology and pest management. III Edition. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA, 691p. Richards, O.W. and R.G. Davies. 1977. Imm’s general text book of entomology, Vol.1&2, Chapman and Hall Publication, London, 1345p. Romoser, W.S. 1988. The Science of Entomology, McMillan, New York, 449p. Saxena, S.C. 1992. Biology of insects. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 366p. Srivastava, P.D. and R.P.Singh. 1997. An introduction to entomology, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 269 p. Tembhare, D.B. 1997. Modern Entomology. Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai,623p.  1. History of Entomology in India Entomology is a biological science dealing with a specific group of organisms, the insects. Man originated about a million years ago, and insects at least 500 million years ago. Insects constitute the largest Class of the whole living organisms and about 72 per cent of all living animals are insects with 9-15 lakh known species. Insects are omnipresent and each crop we cultivate is being attacked by at least a dozen of insect species called as pests. Apart from the pest insects there are several productive and useful insects. Insects are considered as one of the major constrain in increasing agricultural productivity. Hence it is important to understand about the insects, their biology, classification and management. Our earliest knowledge about insects dates back to 6000 yrs as our Indian ancestors were well versed in the art of rearing silk worms and weaving silk cloth. Even during 3870 BC an Indian king sent various silken materials as presents to a Persian king. There are lot of mentions about insects in our mythological epics, the Ramayana (2550-2150 BC) and Mahabharata (1424-1366 BC). Mentions about silk, honey and lac were found in these epics. The first detailed classification of insects was done by Umaswati (0-100 AD).Classification of bees by the Indian physician Charaka (1200-1000BC) and classification of ants, flies and mosquitoes by the surgeon Sushruta (100-200 AD) are the evidences for our earliest knowledge about insects. Entomology in modern India must have taken its place in Natural History some time after the 16th century. It is possible to define the modern history of entomology in India under the following two headings. 1. From the advent of the early Christian Missions and the establishment of East India Company at Calcutta. The contributions made by several eminent amateur entomologists, otherwise serving in the army, Indian Forest Service, Indian Medical Service and Indian Civil service. 2. Entomology in India during 1900-1950. 1758- The beginning of the modern era of Indian Entomology came with the publication of the tenth edition of Carl Linnaeus’s “Systema Naturae”. This contained the earliest record of 28 species of Indian insects. The first entomologist who made any extensive study of Indian Insects was J.C.Fabricius. He was a Danish Professor of political economy turned in to a systematist and classified the insects in to 13 orders based on type of mouth parts. 1767-1779- J.G.Koenig, a medical Officer from Denmark, a student of Carl Linnaeus and friend of Fabricius, for the first time during the 18th century collected number of insects from Coromandel area and Southern Peninsular India and his collections were studied and named by Professor Linnaeus himself. He also published a special account of the termites of Thanjavur District. Fabricius, made Koenig's name remembered for ever by naming the well known and destructive red cotton bug of this country as Dysdercus koenigi. 1782 - Dr. Kerr published on account of lac insect. 1785- Asiatic Society of Bengal started in Calcutta. 1791- Dr. J. Anderson issued a monograph on Cochineal scale insects. 1799- Dr.Horsfield, an American doctor and first Keeper of the East India Museum published his famous book “A catalogue of the Lepidopterous Insects in the Museum of the Honourable East India Company, 2 vols. (1857, 1858-59). 1800- Buchanan (Traveler studying the natural wealth of India) wrote on the cultivation of lac in India and on sericulture in some parts of South India. 1800- Edward Denovan published an illustrated book entitled “An epitome of the natural history of insects of India and the Islands in the Indian seas” which was the first pictorial documentation on the insects of Asia and was revised in 1842 by West Wood. 1875- Foundation of the “Indian Museum” at Calcutta. 1883- “Bombay Natural History Society” was started. After the foundation of these two organisations scientific studies received greater attention in India. Numerous contributions of Indian insects were published in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History. 1883- Commencement of “Fauna of British India” series under the editorship of W.T.Blandford. 1892- Entomological part of the “Fauna of British India” (now Fauna of India) series started with Sir George Hampson contributed first of the four volumes on the moths of India. 1893- Rothney published on Indian Ants (earliest record of biological pest control in India) i.e. White ants attack on stationary items was kept free by red ants. 1889-1903 Indian Museum, Calcutta published the “Indian Museum Notes” in five volumes, which contributed much on economic entomology and applied entomology in India. 19th Century marks the major progress and expansions in the field of applied entomology. 1901- Lionel de Nicevelle was posted as the first entomologist to the Government of India 1903- Professor Maxwell Lefroy succeeded Nicevelle as Government Entomologist. 1905- Establishment of Imperial Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa, Bihar and Professor Lefroy became the first Imperial Entomologist. He convened a series of entomological meetings on all India basis to bring together all the entomologists of the country. From 1915 five such meetings were held at the Imperial Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa. While the Proceedings of the first meeting was not published, proceedings of subsequent four meetings became a treasure of entomolgical knowledge, which can never be overlooked by any student of Indian Entomology. Another contribution of Fletcher is the publication of series under the "Catalogue of Indian Insects" which marked another era in the history of Indian Insect Taxonomy. 1906- ‘Indian Insect Pests’ by Professor Lefroy. 1909- “Indian Insect Life”- Professor Lefroy. Subsequently State Governments also took up entomological work. Madras, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh appointed their first State/ Provincial Government Entomologists in 1912, 1919 and 1922 respectively. 1912- Plant Quarantine Act was enforced. 1914- Destructive Insects and Pests Act was enforced. 1914- T.B.Fletcher, the first Government Entomologist of Madras State, published his book "Some South Indian Insects". 1914- ‘Indian Forest Insects of Economic Importance: Coleoptera’ was published by the first Imperial Forest Entomologist E.P.Stebbing 1916- Imperial Forest Research Institute was established at Dehra Dun, and E.P.Stebbing was appointed as Forest Zoologist. 1916- The Natural History Section of the Indian Museum was formed as the Zoological Survey of India. 1921- Indian Central Cotton Committee to investigate on pests of cotton. 1925- Indian Lac Research Institute started. 1934- Hem Singh Pruthi who succeeded Fletcher as Imperial Entomologist, made efforts to bring all the entomological workers still closer which resulted into the foundation of ‘Entomological Society of India’ in 1938. Afzal Hussain was the first President of the Entomological society of India and the Vice-President were Hem Singh Pruthi and Ramakrishna Ayyar. The official publication of the Society is the ‘Indian Journal of Entomology’. 1939- Locust Warning Organisation was established. 1940- Dr. T.V. Ramakrishna Ayyar published the book "Handbook of Economic Entomology for South India" and revised second edition was published in 1963. Other useful publications by Indian authors were 1941- C.F.C.Beeson published “The ecology and control of the forest Insects of India and Neighboring countries” 1963- Text book of Agricultural Entomology by H.S.Pruthi 1968- Dr. M.S. Mani's "General Entomology" 1969- Dr. Pradhan's "Insect Pests of Crops" 1946- ‘Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage’ of GOI started. 1960- "The Desert Locust in India" monograph by Y.R. Rao. 1968- The Govt. of India enacted ‘Central Insecticide Act’which came into force from 1st January, 1971. 1969- "The monograph on Indian Thysanoptera" was published by Dr.T.N.Ananthakrishnan.  2. Position of insects in animal kingdom and their relationship with other Arthropods Insects are invertebrates grouped in the phylum Arthropoda (Arthro-joint, poda- foot) and subphylum Uniramia. Characters of the Phylum Arthropoda are 1. Segmented body 2. Segments grouped into 2 or 3 regions (tagma) known as Tagmosis. 3. Renewable chitinous exoskeleton 4. Grow by molting. 5. Bilateral symmetry of body. 6. Body cavity filled with blood and called as haemocoel. 7. Tubular alimentary canal with mouth and anus at anterior and posterior ends. 8. Dorsal heart with valve like ostia. 9. Dorsal brain with ventral nerve cord. 10. Striated muscles (with dark and light bands). 11. No cilia (hair like vibratile structure on the surface of the cell). 12. Paired, segmented appendages. Phylum Arthropoda is Classified in to 7 classes. 1. Onychophora (claw bearing) e.g. Peripatus 2. Crustacea (Crusta - shell) e.g. Prawn, crab, wood louse 3. Arachnida (Arachne - spider) e.g. Scorpion, spider, tick, mite 4. Chilopoda (Chilo - lip; poda - appendage) e.g. Centipedes 5. Diplopoda (Diplo - two; poda- appendage) e.g. Millipede 6. Trilobita (an extinct group) 7. Hexapoda (Hexa- six; poda-legs) or Insecta (In- internal; sect – cut) e.g. Insects.  Relationship of insects with other arthropods Characters Onychophora Crustacea Arachnida Chilopoda Diplopoda Insecta/ Hexapoda 1. Habit Terrestrial Aquatic and few Terrestrial Terrestrial Terrestrial Many terrestrial terrestrial and very few aquatic 2. Body regions Not distinct Two- Three-Pro, Two-Head and Two-Head and Three-Head, Cephalothorax Meso and multisegmented multisegmented thorax and and abdomen Metasoma eg. trunk trunk abdomen Scorpion. Two-Pro and Opisthosoma eg. Spider 3.Antenna I pair 2 pair - No antenna One pair One pair One pair Antennule and Antenna 4. Visual organs Not distinct One pair - One pair - One pair-simple One pair-simple Both simple eyes Stalked simple eyes eyes eyes and compound compound eyes eyes (one pair) 5. Locomotor Many pairs of Minimum five Four pairs One pair per Two pair per Three pairs of organs unjointed legs pairs of biramous segment (First segment (No legs on three legs pair of legs poison claws) thoracic segments modified as and two pairs of poison claw) wings on meso and metathorax 6. MOUTH PARTS Non Mandibulate No mandibulate, Mandibulate Mandibulate Mandibulate mandibulate (1 pair) but possess (I pair) (1 pai r) (1 pair) chelicerae 7. RESPIRATION Cutaneous Gill breathing Booklungs Tracheal Tracheal Tracheal (Scorpion) and tracheal. (spiders) 8. Body fluid Haemolymph Haemolymph Haemolymph Haemolymph Haemolymph Haemolymph 9. Circulatory Heart with ostia Heart with ostia Heart With ostia Heart with ostia Heart With ostia Heart With ostia system 10. Development Anamorphosis Anamorphosis Metamorphosis Metamorphosis Metamorphosis Metamorphosis absent scorpion; Metamorphosis present-mites 11. Habit Feed on organic Herbivorus and Phytophagous Carnivorous Herbivorous Phytophagous, matter Carnivorous and predators predators and parasitoides 12. Special features Link between Classification Life cycle; Opisthogenital- Progogenital- Genital Annelida and strengthens Egg-larva- gonopore present gonopore in 3rd structures on 8th Arthropoda exoskeleton nymph-adult. in the terminal segment and 9th larva With 3 pairs segment abdominal of legs and segments. Brain Nymph with 4 with proto, deuto pairs of legs and tritocerebrum.  3. Insect dominance Measures of dominance: 1. More number of species 2. Large number of individuals in a single species: e.g. Locust swarm comprising of 109 number of individuals, occupying large area. 3. Great variety of habitats 4. Long geological history Reasons for dominance: There are several structural, morphological and physiological factors responsible for insect dominance. They are: 1. Capacity for flight 2. More adaptability or universality 3. Smaller size: Majority of insects are small in their size conferring the following physiological and ecological advantages. 4. Presence of exoskeleton: Insect body is covered with an outer cuticle called exoskeleton which is made up of a cuticular protein called Chitin. This is light in weight and gives strength, rigidity and flexibility to the insect body. 5. Resistance to desiccation: Insects minimise the water loss from their body surface through prevention of water loss (wax layer of epicuticle, closable spiracles, egg shell) conservation of water (capable of utilizing metabolic water, resorption of water from fecal matter, use less quantity of water to remove the nitrogenous waste) 6. Tracheal system of respiration: This ensures direct transfer of adequate oxygen to actively breathing tissues. Spiracles through their closing mechanism admit air and restrict water loss. 7. Higher reproductive potential: Reproductive potential of insect is high eg. Egg laying capacity (fecundity) of queen termite is 6000 - 7000 eggs per day for 15 long years. Short development period. e.g., Corn aphid produces 16 nymphs per female which reaches the adulthood within 16 days. Presence of special types of reproduction other than oviparity and viviparity like Polyembryony, Parthenogenesis and Paedogenesis 8. Presence of complete metamorphosis: More than 82 per cent of insects undergo complete metamorphosis (holometabolous insects) with four stages. As the larval and adult food sources are different, competition for food is less. 9. Presence of defense mechanisms: By different defense mechanisms, insects escape from the enemies to increase their survival rate. 10. Hexapod locomotion: Insects uses 3 legs at a time during locomotion, while the remaining 3 legs are static, which gives greater stability.  4. Body wall-its structure and function Insect body wall is called as Integument or Exoskeleton. It is the external covering of the body which is ectodermal in origin. It is rigid, flexible, lighter, stronger and variously modified in different body parts to suit different modes of life. Structure: Body wall consists of an inner cellular layer (epidermis) and an outer non cellular part (cuticle). Epidermis: It is an inner unicellular layer resting on basement membrane with the following function. i. Cuticle secretion ii. Digestion and absorption of old cuticle iii. Wound repairing iv. Gives surface look Cuticle: It is an outer non cellular layer comprising of three sub layers. i. Endocuticle: It is the innermost and thickest layer. This layer is made up of chitin and arthropodin. This layer is colourless, soft and flexible. ii. Exocuticle: Outer layer, much thicker with the composition of chitin and sclerotin. This layer is dark in colour and rigid. Endocuticle and exocuticle put together are called as procuticle iii. Epicuticle: Outer most layer which is very thin. Pore canals present in the exocuticle helps in the deposition of epiculticle. This layer is differentiated into the following layers. a. Inner epicuticle: It contains wax filaments. b. Outer epicuticle: It makes the contact with cuticulin. c. Cuticulin : Non chitinous polymerised lipoprotein layer. d. Wax layer: It contains closely packed wax molecules which prevents desiccation. e. Cement layer: Outer most layer formed by lipid and tanned protein. It protects wax layer. Composition of cuticle: i.Chitin: It is the main constituent of cuticle, which is nitrogenous polysaccharide and polymer of N-acetylglucosamine. It is water insoluble but soluble in dilute acids, alkalies and organic solvents. ii.Arthropodin: An untanned protein, which is water soluble. iii.Sclerotin: Tanned protein, which is water insoluble. iv.Resilin: An elastic protein responsible for the flexibility of wing sclerites. Endoskeleton : Cuticular in growth of body wall providing space for muscle attachment is known as endoskeleton. There are two types i. Apodeme: Hollow invagination of body wall (ridge like). ii. Apophysis: Solid invagination of body wall (spine like). Cuticular appendages: Non-cellular: Non cellular appendages have no epidermal association , but rigidly attached. Eg. minute hairs and thorns. Cellular: Cellular appendages have epidermal association and it may be unicellular, multicellular. i. Unicellular structures: a. Clothing hairs, plumose hairs. e.g. Honey bee. b. Bristles. e.g.flies. c.Scales - flattened out growth of body wall e.g. Moths and butterflies d. Glandular seta. et. caterpillar e. Sensory setae - associated with sensory neuron or neurons f. Seta - hair like out growth from epidermis. Epidermal cell generating seta is known as Trichogen, while the socket forming cell housing trichogen is known as Tormogen. Study of arrangement of seta is known as Chaetotaxy. ii. Multicellular structures: e.g. Spur – movable ; Spine- immovable.  5. Moulting (Ecdysis) Ecdysis: Periodical process of shedding the old cuticle accompanied by the formation of new cuticle is known as moulting or ecdysis. The cuticular parts discarded during moulting is known as exuvia. Moulting occurs many times in an insect during the immatured stages before attaining the adult-hood. The time interval between the two subsequent moulting is called as stadium and the form assumed by the insect in any stadium is called as instar. Steps in moulting: 1. Behaviroual changes: Larva stops feeding and become inactive. 2. Changes in epidermis: In the epidermis cell size, its activity, protein content and enzyme level increases.Cells divide miotically and increases the tension, which results in loosening of cells of cuticle. 3. Apolysis: Detachment of cuticle from epidermis 4. Formation of subcuticular space 5. Secretion of moulting gel in the sub cuticular space which is rich with chitinase and protease. 6. New epicuticle formation: Cuticulin layer is laid over the epidermis. 7. Procuticle formation: Procuticle is formed below the epicuticle. 8. Activation of moulting gel: Moulting gel is converted into moulting fluid rich in enzymes. This activates endocuticle digestion and absorption. 9. Wax layer formation: Wax threads of pore canals secrete wax layer. 10. Cement layer formation: Dermal glands secretes cement layer (Tectocuticle). 11. Moulting: This involves two steps i. Rupturing of old cuticle: Insect increases its body volume through intake of air or water which enhances the blood flow to head and thorax. There by the old cuticle ruptures along predetermined line of weakness known as ecdysial line ii. Removal of old cuticle: Peristaltic movement of body and lubricant action of moulting fluid helps in the removal of old cuticle. During each moulting the cuticular coverings of body, legs, internal linings of foregut, hindgut and trachea are discarded. 12. Formation of exocuticle: The upper layer of procuticle develops as exocuticle through addition of protein and tanning by phenolic substance. 13. Formation of endocuticle: The lower layer of procuticle develops as endocuticle through addition of chitin and protein. This layer increases in thickness. Control of Moulting: It is controlled by endocrine glands like prothoracic gland which secrete moulting hormone. Endocrine glands are activated by prothoracico-tropic hormones produced by neurosecretory cells of brain.  6. Organisation of Insect Body (Structure of Insect Head, Thorax and Abdomen) Insect body is differentiated into three distinct regions called head, thorax and abdomen. Grouping of body segments into distinct regions is known as tagmosis and the body regions are called as tagmata. 1. Head: First anterior tagma formed by the fusion of six segments namely preantennary, antennary, intercalary, mandibular, maxillary and labial segments. Head is attached or articulated to the thorax through neck or cervix. Head capsule is sclerotized and the head capsule excluding appendages formed by the fusion of several sclerites is known as cranium. Sclerites of Head i. Vertex: Summit of the head between compound eyes. ii. Frons: Facial area below the vertex and above clypeus. iii. Clypeus: Cranial area below the frons to which labrum is attached. iv. Gena: Lateral cranial area behind the compound eyes. v. Occiput : Cranial area between occipital and post occipital suture. Sutures of Head: The linear invaginations of the exoskeleton between two sclerites are called as suture (some times referred as sulcus). i. Epicranial suture/ ecdysial line: Inverted `Y' shaped suture found medially on the top of head, with a median suture (coronal suture) and lateral sutures (frontal suture). ii. Epistomal suture/ Fronto clypeal suture: Found between frons and clypeus. (epi –above; stoma- mouth parts) iii. Clypeo-labral suture: Found between clypeus and labrum (upper lip). iv. Postoccipital suture: Groove bordering occipital foramen. Line indicating the fusion of maxillary and labial segment. Posterior opening of the cranium through which aorta, foregut, ventral nerve cord and neck muscles passes is known as occipital foramen. Endoskeleton of insect cuticle provides space for attachment of muscles of antenna and mouthparts, called as tentorium. The appendages like a pair of compound eyes, 0-3 ocelli, a pair of antenna and mouth parts are called as cephalic appendages. Functions of Head i. Food ingestion ii. Sensory perception iii. Coordination of bodily activities iv. Protection of the coordinating centers 2. Thorax: Second and middle tagma which is three segmented, namely prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. Meso and metathorax which bear wings are called as Pterothorax. Thoracic segments are made up of three sclerites namely, dorsal body plate tergum or nota, ventral body plate sternum and lateral plate pleuron. Thoracic nota: Dorsal body plate of each thoracic segments are called as pronotum, mesonotum and metanotum respectively. Pronotum: This sclerite is undivided and saddle shaped in grasshopper and shield like in cockroach. Pterothoracic notum: Have 3 transverse sutures (antecostal, prescutal and scuto-scutellar) and 5 tergites (acrotergite, prescutum, scutum, scutellum and post-scutellum). Thoracic sterna: Vental body plate of each thoracic segments are called as prosternum, mesosternum and metasternum. Thoracic sterna is made up of a segmental plate called eusternun and an intersternite called spinasternum. Eusternum is made up of three sternites viz., presternum, basisternum and sternellum. Thoracic pleura: Lateral body wall of thoracic segment between notum and sternum. Selerites of pleuron is called as pleurite and they fuse to form pleural plate. Pleural plate is divided into anterior episternum and posterior epimeron by pleural suture. Pterothoracic pleuron provides space for articulation of wings and legs. Thoracic appendages are three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings. Two pairs of spiracles are also present in the mesopleuron and metapleuron. Functions of thorax: Mainly concerned with locomotion. 3. Abdomen: Third and posterior tagma of insect body. This tagma is made up of 9-11 uromeres (segments) and is highly flexible. Abdominal segments are telescopic in nature and are interconnected by a membrane called conjunctiva. Each abdominal segment is made up of only two sclerites namely dorsal body plate (tergum) and ventral body plate (sternum). In grass hopper eight pairs of spiracles are present in the first eight segments, in addition to a pair of tympanum in the first segment. Eight and ninth abdominal segments bears the female genital structure and ninth segment bears male genital structure. Abdominal appendages in adult insects are genital organs and cerci. Function: Concerned with reproduction and metabolism.  7. Types of insect heads and antennae Based on the inclination of long axis of the head and orientation of mouth parts there are three types of insects heads. 1. Hypognathous: (Hypo-below ; gnathous-jaw) This type is called orthopteroid type. The long axis of the head is vertical, it is at right angles to the long axis of the body. Mouth parts are ventrally placed and project downwards. E.g. grasshopper, cockroach. 2. Prognathous: (Pro-infront ; ganthous-jaw) This type is also called coleopteroid type. The long axis of the head is horizontal. It is in line with the long axis of the body. Mouth parts are directed forward. e.g. ground beetle. 3. Opisthognathuos: (Opistho-benind; gnathuos-jaw) This is also called hemipteroid type or opisthorhynchous type. Head is deflexed. Mouthparts are directed backwards and held in between the forelegs. e.g. stink bug. Structure of insect antenna: Antennae are also called feelers. They are paired, highly mobile and segmented. Antennae are located between or behind the compound eyes. All insects except protura have a pair of antennae. Antennae are well developed in adults and poorly developed in immature stages. The antenna is set in a socket of the cranium called antennal socket. The base of the antenna is connected to the edge of the socket by an articulatory membrane. This permits free movement of antennae. The basal segment is called scape. It is conspicuously larger than succeeding segments. The second antennal segment is called pedicle whcih immediately follow the scape. A mass of sence cells called Johnston's organ is present in the pedicel, which is used as a chordatonal organ in some of the insects like mosquitoes. Both scape and pedicel are provided with intrinsic muscles. The remaining annuli or flagellomeres are known as flagellum or clavola which lack individual muscle. Surface of the flagellum is supplied with many sensory receptors that are innervated by the duetocerebrum of brain. Flagellum may very in size and form. Function: Antenna is useful to detect chemicals including food and pheromones (chemicals secreted into air by opposite sex). It perceives smell, humidity changes, variation in temperature, vibration, wind velocity and direction. Antenna is useful to perceive the forward environment and detect danger. It is useful for hearing in mosquitoes and communication in ants. Rarely it is also useful to clasp the mate (e.g. Flea) and grasp the prey. Types of antennae: 1. Setaceous: (Bristle like) Size of the segments decreases from base to apex. e.g. Leafhopper, Dragonfly, Damselfly. 2. Filiform: (Thread like) Segments are usually cylindrical. Thickness of segments remains same throughout. e.g. Grasshopper. 3. Moniliform: (Beaded) Segments are either globular or spherical with prominent constriction in between e.g. Termite. 4. Serrate: (Saw like) Segments have short triangular projections on one side. e.g. Longicorn bettle 5. Unipectinate: (Comb like) Segments with long slender processes on one side e.g. Sawfly 6. Bipectinate: (Double comb like) Segments with long slender lateral processes on both the sides e.g. Silkworm moth 7. Clavate: (Clubbed) Antenna enlarges gradually towards the tip. e.g. Blister beetle 8.Capitate: (Knobbed) Terminal segments become enlarged suddenly e.g. butterfly 9. Lamellate: (Plate like) Antennal tip is expanded laterally on one side to form flat plates e.g. lamellicorn beetle 10. Aristate: The terminal segment is enlarged. It bears a conspicuous dorsal bristle called arista e.g. House fly 11. Stylate: Terminal segment bear a style like process eg. Horse fly, Robber fly. 12. Plumose: (Feathery) Segments with long whorls of hairs e.g. male mosquito 13. Pilose: (Hairy) Antenna is less feathery with few hairs at the junction of flagellomeres. e.g. Female mosquito. 14. Geniculate: (Elbowed) Scape is long remaining segments are small and are arranged at an angle to the first resembling an elbow joint. e.g. Ant, weevil and honey bee.  8. Types of insect mouthparts Mouthparts of insects vary to a great extend among insects of different groups depending upon their feeding habits. They are mainly of two types viz., Mandibulate (feeding mainly on solid food) and haustellate (feeding mainly on liquid food). 1. Biting and chewing type: e.g. Cockroach & grasshopper. It is the primitive type of mouth part and consists of the following parts. i. Labrum : (Upper lip) It is flap like, bilobed and attached to the clypeus by an articular membrane. It is movable. It covers the mouth cavity from above. It helps to pull the food into the mouth. It holds the food in position so that mandibles can act on it. It forms the roof of the pre oral food cavity. ii. Labrum-epipharynx: Inner surface of the labrum is referred to as epipharynx. It is frequently membranous and continuous with the dorsal wall of pharnyx. It is an organ of taste. iii. Mandibles: There is a pair of mandibles. They are the first pair of jaws. They are also called as primary jaws or true jaws. Mandibles articulate with the cranium at two points. They are heavily sclerotised. They are toothed on their inner border. There are two types of teeth. Distal are sharply pointed and are called incisor or cutting teeth and proximal teeth are called molar or grinding teeth. They act transversely to bite and grind the food into small fragments. iv. Maxillae: They are paired and more complicated than mandibles. They are called secondary jaws or accessory jaws. At proximal end the first sclerite cardo joins the maxilla to head. The second sclerite is called stipes which articulates with cardo. Stipes carries a lateral sclerite called palpifer which bears a five segmented antenna like maxillary palp. On the distal end of the stipes, there are two lobes. The outer lobe is called galea and inner lobe is lacinia which is toothed. Maxille direct the food into the mouth. They hold the food in place when the mandibles are in action. They act as auxillary jaws and assist in mastication of food. Sense organs connected with the perception of touch, smell and taste are abundantly found in palpi. v. Hypopharynx : It is a tongue like organ. It is located centrally in the preoral cavity. Salivary gland duct opens through it. vi. Labium /lower lip: It is a composite structure formed by the fusion of two primitive segmented appendages. It bounds the mouth cavity from below or behind. It forms the base of the preoral cavity. It consists of three median sclerites viz., submentum (large basalsclerite), mentum (middle sclerite) and prementum (apical sclerite). On the lateral side of the prementum there are two small lateral sclerites called palpiger bearing three segmented labial palpi. Distally prementum bears two pairs of lobes. The other pair of lobes is called paraglossae and inner pair of lobes, glossae. Both pairs when fused are called ligula. 2. Piercing and sucking / hemipterous / bug type e.g. Plant bugs. Labium projects downwards from the anterior part of the head like a beak. Beak is four segmented and grooved throughout its entire length. At the base of the labium there is a triangular flap like structure called labrum. Labium is neither involved in piercing nor sucking. It functions as a protective covering for the four stylets (fascicle) found with in the groove. Both mandibles and maxillae are modified into long slender sclerotized hair like structure called stylets. They are lying close together and suited for piercing and sucking. The tips of the stylets may have minute teeth for piercing the plant tissue. The inner maxillary stylets are doubly grooved on their inner faces. When these are closely opposed they form two canals viz., food canal and salivary canal through sap and saliva are conducted respectively. Saliva contains enzymes or toxins that can distort plant cell wall to permit the stylets to penetrate down and reach phloem for suking the sap. Both palps are absent. 3. Piercing and sucking / dipterous / mosquito type : e.g. Female mosquito Mouthparts of female mosquito consists of an elongate labium which is grooved forming a gutter which encloses six stylets. The stylets are composed of labrum - epipharynx (enclosing the food canal), the hyphophrynx (containing the salivary canal), two maxillae and two mandibles. Both the ends of maxillary stylets and mandibular stylets are saw like and suited piercing flesh. The stylets are inserted into host's skin by a strong downward and forward thrust of body. Both mandibles and maxillae are reduced in male and they feed on plant nectar and juices of decaying fruits. Female pierces the skin of human beings into which it injects saliva containing an anticoagulant (to keep the blood flowing without clotting) and an anesthetic (to keep the victim unaware of the bite) and sucks up the blood. Labium does not pierce but folds up or back as stylets pierce. Maxillary palpi are present. 4. Chewing and lapping type : e.g. honey bee. Labrum and mandibles are as in biting and chewing type of mouth parts. But mandibles are blunt and not toothed. They are useful to crush and shape wax for comb building; ingest pollen grains and other manipulative functions. Maxillolabial structures are modified to form the lapping tongue. The tongue unit consists of two galea of maxillae, two labial palpi and elongated flexible hairy glossa of labium. The glossa terminates into a small circular spoon shaped lobe called spoon or bouton or flabellum which is useful to lick the nectar. 5. Rasping and sucking : e.g. Thrips Mouth cone consists of labrum, labium and maxillae. There are three stylets derived from two maxillae and left mandible. Right mandible is absent. Stylets are useful to lacerate the plant tissue and the oozing sap is sucked up by the mouth cone. Both maxillary palpi and labial palpi are present. 6. Mandibulosuctorial type : e.g. grub of antlion Mandibles are elongate sickle shaped and grooved on the inner surface. Each maxilla is elongated and fits against the mandibular groove to from a closed food canal. The body of the insect victim is pierced by the opposing mandibles and fluids are extracted. 7. Sponging type : e.g. House fly The proboscis is fleshy, elbowed, retractile and projects downwards from head. The proboscis can be differentiated into basal rostrum and distal haustellum. The proboscis consists of labium which is grooved on its anterior surface. Within this groove lie the labrum-epiphraynx (enclosing the food canal) and slender hypopharynx (containing the salivary canal). Mandibles are absent. Maxillae are represented by single segmented maxillary palpi. The end of the proboscis is enlarged, sponge like and two lobed which acts as suction pads. They are called oral discs or labella. The surfaces of labella are transvered by capillary canals called pseudotracheae which collect the liquid food and convey it to the canal. Labella function as sponging organs and are capable of taking exposed fluids. These insects often spit enzyme containing saliva onto solid foods to liquify them. 8. Siphoning type : e.g. Moths and butterflies Mouth parts consists of elongate sucking tube or proboscis. It is formed by two greatly elongated galeae of maxillae which are zippered together by interlocking spines and hooks. Galeae are grooved on their inner surface and when they are fitting together closely they form a suctorial food canal through which the nectar is sucked up. The proboscis is coiled up like watch spring and kept beneath the head when it is not in use. By pumping of blood into galeae, the proboscis is extended. The other mouth parts are reduced or absent except the labial palpi and smaller maxillary palpi.  9. Types of insect legs Structure: In almost all insects all the three thoracic segments viz., pro-, meso- and metathorax bear a pair of segmented legs. Each leg consists of five segments viz., coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsus. Coxa : (Pl. coxae) It is the first or proximal leg segment. It articulates with the cup like depression on the thoracic pleuron. It is generally freely movable. Trochanter: It is the second leg segment. It is usually small and single segmented. Trochanter seems to be two segmented in dragonfly, dameselfy and ichneumonid wasp. The apparent second trochanter is in fact a part of femur, which is called trochantellus. Femur: (Pl. femora) It is the largest and stoutest part of the leg and is closely attached to the trochanter. Tibia: (Pl. tibiae) It is usually long and provided with downward projecting spines which aid in climbing and footing. Tibia of many insects is armed with large movable spur near the apex. Tarsus: (Pl. tarsi) It is further sub-divided. The sub segment of the tarsus is called tarsomere. The number of tarsomeres vary from one to five. The basal tarsal segment is often larger than others and is named as basitarsus. Pretarsus: Beyound the tarsus there are several structure collectively known as pretarsus. Tarsus terminates in a pair of strongly curved claws with one or two pads of cushions at their base between them. A median pad between the claws is usually known as arolium and a pair of pads, at their base are called pulvilli (Pulvillus-singular). Leg pads are useful while walking on smooth surface and claws give needed grip while walking on rough surface. When one structure is used, the other is bent upwards. Types or modifications Legs are modified in to several types based on the habitat and food habit of insect and used for a wide variety of functions. 1. Ambulatorial (Ambulate - to walk; Walking leg) e.g. Fore leg and middle leg of grasshopper. Femur and tibia are long. Legs are suited for walking. 2. Cursorial: (Cursorial = adapted for running : Running leg) e.g.All the three pairs of legs of cockroach. Legs are suited for running. Femur is not swollen. 3. Saltatorial: (Salatorial = Leaping : Jumping Leg) e.g. hind leg of grasshopper. 4. Scansorial: (Scansorial = Climbing; climbing or clinging leg) e.g. all the three pairs of legs of head louse. 5. Fossorial: (Forrorial = Digging; Burrowing leg) e.g. Fore legs of mole cricket. 6. Raptorial: (Raptorial = predatory ; Grasping leg) e.g. Forelegs of preying mantis. 7. Natatorial: (Natatorial = pertaining to swimming; Swimming leg) e.g. hing legs of water bug and water beetle. 8. Sticking leg: e.g. all the three pairs of legs of house fly. 9. Basket like leg: e.g. Legs of dragonfly and damselfly. 10. Clasping leg: e.g. Forelegs of male water beetle. 11. Foragial leg: (Forage = to collect food material) e.g. Legs of honey bee. i. Forelegs : The foreleg has three important structures (Eye brush b. Antenna cleaner or strigillis: c. Pollen brush: ii. Middle legs : It has two important structures. a. Pollen brush: Stiff hairs on basitarsus form pollen brush which is useful to collect pollen from middle part of their body. b. Tibial spar: At the distal end of the tibia, a movable spur is present which is useful to loosen the pellets of pollen from the pollen basket of hind legs and to clean wings and spiracles. iii. Hind legs: It has three important structures viz., pollen basket, pollen packer and pollen comb. a. Pollen basket: It is also called corbicula. The outer surface of the hind tibia contains a shallow cavity. The edges of the cavity are fringed with long hairs. The pollen basket enables the bee to carry a larger load of pollen and propolis from the field to the hive. b. Pollen packer: It is also called pollen press. It consists of pecten and auricle. Pecten is a row of stout bristles at the distal end of tibia. Auricle is a small plate fringed with hairs at the basal end of basitarsus. Pollen packer is useful to load pollen in corbicula. c. Pollen comb: About ten rows of stiff spines are present on the inner side of hind basitarsus. The pollen comb is used to collect pollen from middle legs and from posterior part of the body. 12. Prolegs or False legs or Pseudolegs: e.g. abdominal legs of caterpillar. There are two to five pairs of abdominal legs termed prolegs in caterpillar. Prolegs are thick, fleshy and not segmented. They are shed with last larval moult. One pair of prolegs on the last abdominal segment are called anal prolegs or claspers. The tip of proleg is called planta upon which are borne hooks or claws known as crochets which are useful in crawling or clinging to surface.  10. Types of insect wings Among invertebrate animals, only insects posses wings. Wings are present only in adult stage. Number of wings vary from two pairs to none. Certain primitive insects like silverfish and spring tail have no wings (apterous). Ectoparasites like head louse, poultry louse and flea are secondarily wingless. Wings are deciduous in ants and termites. There is only one pair of wings in the true flies. Normally, two pairs of wings are present in insects and they are borne on pterothoracic segments viz., mesothorax and metathorax. Wings are moved by thoacic flight muscles attached to their bases. Wing is a flattened double - layered expansion of body wall with a dorsal and ventral lamina having the same structure as the integument. Both dorsal and ventral laminane grow, meet and fuse except along certain lines. Thus a series of channels is formed. These channels serve for the passage of tracheae, nerves and blood. Wing is nourished by blood circulating through veins. Later the walls of these channels become thickened to form veins or nervures. The arrangement of veins on the wings is called venation which is extensively used in insect classification. The principal longitudinal veins arranged in order from the anterior margin are costa (C), sub costa (Sc), radius (R), median (M), cubitus (Cu) and anal veins (A). Small veins often found inter connecting the longitudinal veins are called cross veins. Due to the presence of longitudinal veins and cross veins, the wing surface gets divided into a number of enclosed spaces termed cells. In insects like dragonfly and damesefly, there is an opaque spot near the coastal margin of the wing called pterotigma. Margins and angles: The wing is triangular in shape and has therefore three sides and three angles. The anterior margin strengthened by the costa is called coastal margin and the lateral margin is called apical margin and the posterior margin is called anal margin. The angle by which the wing is attached to the thorax is called humeral angle. The angle between the coastal and apical margins is called apical angle. The angle between apical and anal margins is anal angle. Wing regions: The anterior area of the wing supported by veins is usually called remigium. The flexible posterior area is termed vannus. The two regions are separated by vannal fold. The proximal part of vannus is called jugum, when well developed is separated by a jugal fold. The area containing wing articulation sclerites, pteralia is called axilla. Wing types: 1. Tegmina : (Singular : Tegmen) Wings are leathery or parchment like. They are protective in function. They are not used for flight. e.g. Forewings of cockroach and grasshopper. 2. Elytra : (Sigular : Elytron) The wing is heavily sclerotised. Wing venation is lost. Wing is tough and it is protective in function. It protects hind wings and abdomen. It is not used during flight. But during flight they are kept at an angle allowing free movement of hind wings. e.g. Fore wings of beetles and weevils. 3. Hemelytra : (Singular : Hemelytron) The basal half of the wing is thick and leathery and distal half is membranous. They are not involved in flight and are protective in function. e.g. Fore wing of heteropteran bugs. 4. Halteres: (Singular : Haltere) In true flies the hind wings are modified into small knobbed vibrating organs called haltere. Each haltere is a slender rod clubbed at the free end (capitellum) and enlarged at the base (scabellum). On the basal part two large group of sensory bodies forming the smaller hick's papillae and the large set of scapel plate. They act as balancing organs and provide the needed stability during flight. e.g. true flies, mosquito, male scale insect. 5. Fringed wings: Wings are usually reduced in size. Wing margins are fringed with long setae. These insects literally swim through the air. e.g. Thrips. 6. Scaly wings: Wings of butterfly and moths are covered with small coloured scales. Scales are unicellular flattened outgrowth of body wall. Scales are inclined to the wing surface and overlap each other to form a complete covering. Scales are responsible for colour. They are important in smoothing the air flow over wings and body. 7. Membranous wings: They are thin, transparent wings and supported by a system of tubular veins. In many insects either forewings (true flies) or hind wings (grass hopper, cockroach, beetles and earwig) or both fore wings and hind wings (wasp, bees, dragonfly and damselfly) are membranous. They are useful in flight. Wing coupling: Among the insects with two pairs of wings, the wings may work separately as in the dragonflies and damselflies. But in higher pterygote insects, fore and hind wings are coupled together as a unit, so that both pairs move synchronously. By coupling the wings the insects become functionally two winged. Types of wing coupling 1. Hamulate : A row of small hooks is present on the coastal margin of the hind wing which is known as hamuli. These engage the folded posterior edge of fore wing. e.g. bees. 2. Amplexiform : It is the simplest form of wing coupling. A linking structure is absent. Coupling is achieved by broad overlapping of adjacent margins. e.g. butterflies. 3. Frenate : There are two sub types. e.g. Fruit sucking moth. i. Male frenate : Hindwing bears near the base of the coastal margin a stout bristle called frenulum which is normally held by a curved process, retinaculum arising from the subcostal vein found on the surface of the forewing. ii. Female frenate : Hindwing bears near the base of the costal margin a group of stout bristle (frenulum) which lies beneath extended forewing and engages there in a retinaculum formed by a patch of hairs near cubitus. 4. Jugate : Jugam of the forewings are lobe like and it is locked to the coastalmargin of the hindwings. e.g. Hepialid moths.  11. Abdominal structures in insects Basic structures Segmentation is more evident in abdomen. The basic number of abdominal segments in insect is eleven plus a telson which bears anus. Abdominal segments are called uromeres. On eighth and nineth segment of female and nineth segment of male, the appendages are modified as external organs of reproduction or genitalia. These segments are known as genital segments. Usually eight pairs of small lateral openings (spiracles) are present on the first eight abdominal segments. In grasshoppers, a pair of tympanum is found one on either side of the first abdominal segment. It is an auditory organ. It is obliquely placed and connected to the metathoracic ganglia through auditory nerve. Modifications: Reduction in number of abdominal segments has taken place in many insects. In spring tail only six segments are present. In house fly only segments 2 to 5 are visible and segments 6 to 9 are telescoped within others. In ants, bees and wasps, the first abdominal segment is fused with the metathorax and is called propodeum. Often the second segment forms a narrow petiole. The rest of the abdomen is called gaster. In queen termite after mating the abdomen becomes gradually swollen due to the enlargement of ovaries. The abdomen becomes bloated and as a result sclerites are eventually isolated as small islands. Obesity of abdomen of queen termite is called physogastry. Abdominal appendages i. Pregenital abdominal appendages in wingless insects: 1) Styli : (Stylus : Singular) Varying number of paired tube like outgrowths are found on the ventral side of the abdomen of silverfish. These are reduced abdominal legs which help in locomotion. 2). Collophore or ventral tube or glue peg: It is located on the ventral side of the first abdominal segment of spring tail. It is cylindrical. It is protruded out by the hydrostatic pressure of haemolymph. It might serve as an organ of adhesion. It aids in water absorption from the substratum and also in respiration. 3). Retinaculum or tenaculum or catch: It is present on the ventral side of the third abdominal segment. It is useful to hold the springing organ when not in use. 4). Furcula or Furca: This is a 'Y' shaped organ. It is present on the venter of fourth abdominal segment. When it is released from the catch, it exerts a force against the substratum and the insect is propelled in the air. ii) Abdominal appendages in immature insects: 1) Tracheal gills: Gills are lateral outgrowths of body wall which are richly supplied with tracheae to obtain oxygen from water in naiads (aquatic immature stages of hemimetabolous insects). Seven pairs of filamentous gills are present in the first seven abdominal segments of naiads of may flyand are called as lateral gills. Three or two leaf like gills (lamellate) are found at the end of adbomen of naiad of damselfly and are called as caudal gills. In dragonfly the gills are retained within the abdomen in a pouch like rectum and are called as rectal gills. 2) Anal papillae: A group of four papillae surrounds the anus in mosquito larvae. These papillae are concerned with salt regulation. 3) Dolichasters: These structures are found on the abdomen of antlion grub. Each dolichaster is a segmental protuberance fringed with setae. 4) Proloegs: These are present in the larvae of moth, butterfly and sawfly. Two to five pairs are normally present. They are unsegmented, thick and fleshy. The tip of the proleg is called planta upon which are borne heavily sclerotised hooks called crochets. They aid in crawling and clinging to surface. iii) Abdominal appendages in winged adults : 1) Cornicles: Aphids have a pair of short tubes known as cornicles or siphonculi projecting from dorsum of fifth or sixth abdominal segment. They permit the escape of waxy fluid which perhaps serves for protection against predators. 2) Caudal breathing tube: It consists of two grooved filaments closely applied to each other forming a hollow tube at the apex of abdomen. e.g. water scorpion. 3) Cerci : (Cercus - Singular) They are the most conspicuous appendages associated normally with the eleventh abdominal segment. They are sensory in function. They exhibit wide diversity and form.  Long and many segmented :- e.g. Mayfly Long and unsegmented :- e.g. Cricket Short and many segmented :- e.g. Cockroach Short and unsegmented :- e.g. Grasshopper Sclerotised and forceps like : e.g. Earwig. Cerci are useful in defense, prey capture, unfolding wings and courtship. Asymmetrical cerci :- Male embiid. Left cercus is longer than right and functions as clasping organ during copulation. 4) Median caudal filament: In mayfly (and also in a wingless insect silverfish) the epiproct is elongated into cercus like median caudal filament. 5) Pygostyles: A pair of unsegmented cerci like structures are found in the last abdominal segment of scoliid wasp. 6) Anal styli: A pair of short unsegmented structure found at the end of the abdomen of male cockroach. They are used to hold the female during copulation. 7) Ovipositor: The egg laying organ found in female insect is called ovipositor. It is suited to lay eggs in precise microhabitats. It exhibits wide diversity and form. Short and horny : e.g. Short horned grasshopper Long and sword like : e.g. Katydid, long horned grasshopper Needle like : e.g. Cricket Ovipositor modified into sting : e.g. Worker honey bee. Pseudoovipositor: An appendicular ovipositor is lacking in fruit flies and house flies. In fruit flies, the elongated abdomen terminates into a sharp point with which the fly pierces the rind of the fruit before depositing the eggs. In the house fly the terminal abdominal segments are telescopic and these telescopic segments aid in oviposition. The ovipositor of house fly is called pseudoovipositor or ovitubus or oviscapt. Male genitalia: External sexual organs of male insects are confined to ninth abdominal segment. In damselfly, the functional copulatory organ is present on the venter of second abdominal segment  12. Digestive system The alimentary canal of insects is a long, muscular and tubular structure extending from mouth to anus. It is differentiated into three regions viz., Foregut, midgut and hindgut. 1. Foregut: It is ectodermal in origin. Anterior invagination of ectoderm forms foregut (Stomodeum). Internal cuticular lining is present. Terminal mouthparts leads into a preoralcavity. Preoralcavity between epipharynx and hypopharynx is called as Cibarium. Preoralcavity between hypopharynx and salivary duct is Salivarium. Behind the mouth a well musculated organ called Pharynx is present which pushes the food into oesophagous. Pharynx acts as a sucking pump in sap feeders. Oesophagous is a narrow tube which conduct food into crop. Crop is the dilated distal part of oesophagus acting as food reservoir. In bees crop is called as honey stomach where nectar conversion occurs. Proventriculus or Gizzard is the posterior part of foregut and is musculated. It is found in solid feeders and absent in fluid feeders or sap feeders. Food flow from foregut to midgut is regulated through cardial or oesophageal valve. The internal cuticle of gizzard is variously modified as follows. i. Teeth like in cockroach to grind and strain food. ii. Plate like in honey bee to separate pollen grains from nectar iii.Spine like in flea to break the blood corpuscles 2. Midgut: It is endodermal in origin and also called as mesentron. This part contains no cuticular lining. Midgut is made up of three types of epithelial cells. (i) Secretory cells (Columnar cells) (ii) Goblet cells (aged secretory cells), (iii) Regenerative cells which replaces secretory cells. Important structures present in midgut are as follows: a. Peritrophic membrane: It is the internal lining of midgut, secreted by anterior or entire layer of midgut epithelial cells. Present in solid feeders and absent in sap feeders. This layer is semipermeable in nature to digestive juices and digestion products. It lubricate and facilitate food movement. Envelops the food and protects the midgut epithelial cells against harder food particles. (ii) Gastric caecae: (Enteric caecae or Hepatic caecae) Finger like outgrowths found in anterior or posterior ends of midgut. This structure increases the functional area of midgut and shelter symbiotic bacteria in some insects. (iii) Pyloric valve: (Proctodeal valve) Midgut opens into hindgut through pyloric valve, which regulate food flow. In certain immature stages of insects midgut is not connected to hindgut till pupation. e.g. Honey bee grub. (iv) Filter chamber: It is a complex organ in which two ends of ventriculus and the begining of hind gut are enclosed in a sac. This is useful to short circuit excess water found in liquid food in homopteran insects. This process avoids dilution of digestive enzymes and concentrates food for efficient digestion. Also helps in osmoregulation by preventing dilution of haemolymph. 3. Hindgut: It is ectodermal in origin and produced by the posterior invagination of ectoderm. Internal cuticular lining is present, which is permeable to salts, ions, aminoacids and water. The main functions of hindgut are the absorption of water, salt and other useful substances from the faeces and urine. Hindgut is differentiated into three regions viz., ileum, colon and rectum. In the larva of scarabids and termites, illeum is pouch like for housing symbionts and acts as fermentation chamber. Rectum contains rectal pads helping in dehydration of faeces and it opens out through anus. Gut physiology: Primary functions of the gut is to digest the ingested food and to absorb the metabolites. Digestion process is enhanced with the help of enzymes produced by digestive glands and microbes housed in special cells. Digestive glands: a. Salivary glands: In Cockroach a pair of labial glands acts as salivary gland where the salivary ducts open into salivarium. In caterpillars mandibular glands are modified to secrete saliva, where the salivary glands are modified for silk production. Functions of saliva: 1. To moisten and to dissolve food 2. To lubricate mouthparts 3. To add flavour to gustatory receptors 4. In cockroach the saliva contains amylase for the digestion of starch. 5. In honey bee saliva contains invertase for sucrose digestion 6. In Jassid saliva contains lipase and protease for lipids and protein digestion. Jassid saliva also contains toxins which produces tissue necrosis and phytotoxemia on the plant parts. 7. In plant bug saliva contains pectinase which helps in stylet penetration and extra intestinal digestion. 8. In mosquito, saliva contains anticoagulin which prevents blood clotting. 9. In gall producing midges saliva contains Indole Acetic Acid (IAA). 10. In disease transmitting ectors the saliva paves way for the entry of pathogens. b. Hepatic caecae and midgut epithelial cells: It secretes most of the digestive juices. Two types of cells were involved in the enzyme secretion. Holocrine : Epithelial cells disintegrate in the process of enzyme secretion. Merocrine : Enzyme secretion occurs without cell break down. Digestive enzymes Insect Group Enzyme Substrate Phytophagous larvae Amylase Starch Maltase Maltose Invertase Sucrose Omnivorous insects Protease Protein Lipase Lipid Nectar feeders Invertase Sucrose Wood boring insects and Cellulase Cellulose Termites Meat eating maggots Collagenase Collagen and elastin Bird lice Keratinase Keratin C. Microbes in digestion: In the insect body few cells were housing symbiotic microorganisms called as mycetocyte. These mycetocytes aggregate to form an organ called mycetome. (i) Flagellate protozoa - It produces cellulase for cellulose digestion in termites and wood cockroach. (ii) Bacteria - It helps in wax digestion in wax moth.  (iii) Bed bug and cockroach obtain vitamin and aminoacids from microbes. These microbes were transmitted between individuals through food exchange (mouth to mouth feeding) called trophallaxis and through egg called as transovarial transmission. In plant bug and ant lion grub partial digestion occurs in the host body prior to food ingestion called as extra intestinal digestion. In most of the insects digestion occurs in mid gut. Absorption: In many insects absorption of nutrients occurs through microvilli of midgut epithelial cells by diffusion. Absorption of water and ions occur through rectum. In cockroach lipid absorption occurs through crop. In termites and scarabaeids (White grubs) absorption occurs through ileum. In solid feeders, resorption of water from the faeces occurs in the rectum and the faeces is expelled as pellets. In sap feeders (liquid feeders) the faeces is liquid like. The liquid faeces of homopteran bugs (aphids, mealy bugs, Scales and psyllids) with soluble sugars and amino acids is known as honey dew, which attracts ants for feeding.  13. Excretory system Removal of waste products of metabolism, especially nitrogenous compounds from the body of insects is known as excretion. The excretion process helps the insect to maintain salt water balance and thereby physiological homeostasis. Following are the excretory organs. 1. Malpighian tubules: Thin, blind-ending tubules, originating near the junction of mid and hindgut, predominantly involved in regulation of salt, water and nitrogenous waste excretion. This structure was discovered by Marcello Malpighi. 2. Nephrocytes: Cells that sieve the haemolmph for products that they metabolize (pericardial cells). 3. Fat bodies : A loose or compact aggregation of cells, mostly trophocytes, suspended in the haemocoel, responsible for storage and excretion. 4. Oenocytes: These are specialised cells of haemocoel, epidermis or fat body with many functions. One of the function is excretion. 5. Integument: The outer covering of the living tissues of an insect. 6. Tracheal system: The insect gas exchange system, comprising tracheae and tracheoles. 7. Rectum: The posterior part of hind gut. Among the above organs, malpighian tubules are the major organ of excretion. Excretion and Osmoregulation: Insect faeces, either in liquid form or solid pellets, contains both undigested food and metabolic excretions. Aquatic insects excrete dilute wastes from their anus directly into water by flushing with water. But, Terrestrial insects must conserve water. This requires efficient waste disposal in a concentrated or even dry form, simultaneously avoiding the toxic effects of nitrogen. Both terrestrial and aquatic insects must conserve ions, such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-), that may be limiting in their food or lost into the water by diffusion. Therefore the production of insect excreta (urine or pellets) is a result of two related processes: excretion and osmoregulation (maintenance of favourable osmotic pressure and ionic concentration of body fluid). The system responsible for excretion and osmoregulation is referred to as excretory system and its activities are performed largely by the Malpighian tubules and hindgut. However in fresh water insects, haemolymph composition is regulated in response to loss of ions to the surrounding water, with the help of excretory system and special cells. Special cells are called Chloride cells which are present in the hindgut, capable of absorbing inorganic ions from the dilute solutions. (e.g. Naids of dragonflies and damselflies). Malpighian Tubules: The main organ of excretion and osmoregulation in insects are the malpighian tubules, acting in association with rectum or ileum. Malpighian tubules are outgrowths of the alimentary canal and consist of long thin tubules formed of a single layer of cells surrounding a blind-ending lumen, they are absent in spring tail and aphids, 2 numbers in scale insects, 4 in bugs, 5 in mosquitoes, 6 in moths and butterflies, 60 in cockroach and more than 200 in locusts. Generally they are free, waving around in the haemolymph where they filter out solutes. Each tubule is externally covered by peritonial coat and supplied with muscle fibres (aiding in peristalsis) and tracheloes. Functional differentiation of the tubules was seen, with the distal secretory region and proximal absorptive region. Physiology: The malpighian tubules produce a filtrate (the primary urine) which is isosmotic but ionically dissimilar to the haemolymph and selectively reabsorbs water and certain solutes, but eliminates others. The malpighian tubules produces an iosmotic filtrate which is high in K+ and low in Na+ with Cl- as major anion. The active transport of ions especially K+ into the tubule lumen generates an osmotic pressure gradiant for the passive flow of water. Sugars and most amino acids are also passively filtered from the haemolymph via junctions between the tubule cells, where as amino acids and non- metabolizables and toxic organic compounds are actively transported into the tubule lumen. Sugar is resorbed from the lumen and returned to the haemolymph. The continuous secretory activity of each malpighian tubule leads to a flow of primary urine from its lumen towards and into the gut. In the rectum, the urine is modified by removal of solutes and water to maintain fluid and ionic homeostasis of the body. Nitrogenous excretion: Terrestrial insects excrete waste products as uric acid or certain of its salts called urates, which were water insoluble and requires less amount of water for waste product removal. This type of excretion is known as Uricotelism. In aquatic insects ammonia is the excretory product, which is freely soluble in water and requires more amount of water for waste product removal. This type of excretion is known as Ammonotelism. Cryptonephry: The distal ends of the Malpighian tubules are held in contact with the rectal wall by the perinephric membrane, which is concerned either with efficient dehydration of faeces before their elimination or ionic regulation. (e.g. Adult Coleptera, larval Lepidoptera and larval symphyta). Functions of malphighian tubule: Excretory in function, mainly concerned with removal of nitrogenous wastes. The other accessory functions are as follows: 1. Spittle secretion in spittle bug 2. Light production in Bolitophila 3. Silk production in larval neuroptera Storage Excretion: The excretory waste materials are retained within the body in different sites. i. Uric acid is stored as urates in the cells of fat body e.g., American cockroach. ii. Uric acid is stored in the body wall, giving white colour. e.g. Red cotton bug. iii. Uric acid is stored in the male accessory glands to produce the outer coat of spermatophore, which is excreted during copulation. iv. Uric acid is stored in the wing scales giving white colour. e.g., Pierid butterflies. v. Waste products of pupal metabolism (Meconium) is stored and released during adult emergence.  14. Respiratory system Similar to aerobic animals, insects must obtain oxygen from their environment and eliminate carbon dioxide respired by their cells. This is gas exchange through series of gas filled tubes providing surface area for gaseous exchange (Respiration strictly refers to oxygen-consuming, cellular metabolic processes). Air is supplied directly to the tissue and haemolymph (blood) is not involved in the respiratory role. Gas exchange occurs by means of internal air- filled tracheae. These tubes branch and ramify through the body. The finest branches called tracheole contact all internal organs and tissues and are numerous in tissues with high oxygen requirements. Air usually enters the tracheae via spiracular openings positioned laterally on the body. No insect has more than ten pairs (two thoracic and eight abdominal). Based on the number and location of functional spiracles respiratory system is classified as follows 1. Holopneustic:10 pairs, 2 in thorax and 8 in abdomen. e.g. grasshopper 2. Hemipneustic: Out of 10 pairs, one or two non-functional 3. Peripneustic: 9 pairs - 1 in thorax 8 in abdomen e.g. Caterpillar 4. Amphipneustic 2 pairs - One anterior, one posterior, e.g. maggot. 5. Propneustic: 1 pair -anterior pair e.g. Puparium 6. Metapneustic: 1 pair - posterior pair e.g.Wriggler 7. Hypopneustic:10 pairs - 7 functional (1 thorax + 6 abdominal), 3 non functional. e.g. head louse 8. Apneustic: All spiracles closed, closed tracheal system e.g. naiad of may fly. Organs of respiration Spiracles: Spiracles have a chamber or atrium with a opening and closing mechanism called atrial valve. This regulate air passage and minimise water loss. Each spiracle is set in a sclerotized cuticular plate called a peritreme. Tracheae are invaginations of the epidermis and thus their lining is continuous with the body cuticle. The ringed appearance of the tracheae is due to the spiral ridges called taenidia. This allow the tracheae to be flexible but resist compression. The cuticular linings of the tracheae are shed during moulting. Tracheoles are less than 1 µm in diameter and they end blindly and closely contact the respiring tissues. Taenidia and waxlayer is absent. Cuticulin layer is permeable to gases. It is intracellular in nature, but enclosed only in the cytoplasm of tracheal and cell called tracheoblast. Gaseous exchange occurs across tracheoles. There are four tracheal trunks viz., lateral, dorsal, ventral and visceral, helping in the passage of air. In the trachea, thin walled-collapsable sac like dilations are present, called as airsacs where taenidia is absent. Airsacs acts as oxygen reservoir. Provide buoyancy to flying and aquatic insects. Provide space for growing organs. Acts as sound resonator and heat insulators. Mechanism of respiration Oxygen enters the spiracle and passes through the length of the tracheae to the tracheoles and into the target cells by a combination of ventilation and diffusion along a concentration gradient, from high in the external air to low in the tissue. Where as the net movement of oxygen molecules in the tracheal system is inward (Inspiration), the net movement of CO2 and water vapour molecules is outward (Expiration). Respiration in aquatic insects: 1.Closed tracheal system: In some aquatic and many endoparasitic larvae spiracles are absent and the tracheae divide peripherally to form a network. This covers the body surface, allowing cutaneous gas exchange. e.g. Gills : Tracheated thin outgrowth of body wall. Lamellate gills - mayfly naiad Filamentous gills - damselfly naiad Rectal gills - dragonfly naiad 2. Open tracheal system: i. Air store: Air bubble stored beneath wings acts as physical gill, e.g. water bug. ii.Respiratory siphon - e.g. Wriggler iii.Caudal breathing tube -e.g. Water scorpion iv. Plastron : Closely set hydrofuge hairs of epicuticle hold a thin film of air indefinitely.  15. Circulatory system in insects Circulation in insects is maintained by a system of muscular pumps moving haemolymph through compartments separated by fibromuscular septa or membranes. The main pump is the pulsatile dorsal vessel. The anterior part may be called aorta and the posterior part the heart. The dorsal vessel is a simple tube, generally composed of one layer of myocardial cells and with segmentally arranged openings called ostia. The ostia permit the one-way flow of haemolymph into the dorsal vessel due to valves that prevent backflow. There may be up to three pairs of thoracic ostia and nine pairs of abdominal ostia. The dorsal vessel lies in the pericardial sinus, a compartment above a dorsal diaphragm (a fibromuscular septum - a separating membrane) formed of connective tissue and segmental pairs of alary muscles. The alary muscles support the dorsal vessel but their contractions do not affect heartbeat. Haemolymph enters the periocardial sinus via segmental openings in the diaphragm and then moves into the dorsal vessel via the ostia during a muscular relaxation phase. Waves of contraction start at the posterior end of the body, pump the haemolymph forward in the dorsal vessel and out via the aorta into the head. Next the appendages of the head and thorax are supplied with haemolymph as it circulates posteroventrally and finally returns to the pericardial sinus and dorsal vessel. Another important component of the insect circulatory system is the ventral diaphragm, a fibromuscular septum that lies in the floor of the body cavity associated with the ventral nerve cord. Circulation of the haemolymph is aided by active peristaltic contractions of the ventral diaphragm which direct the haemolymph backwards and laterally in the perineural sinus below the diaphragm. These movements are important in insects that use the circulation in thermoregulation. Ventral diaphragm also facilitates rapid exchange of chemicals between the ventral nerve cord and the haemolymph. Haemolymph is generally circulated to appendages unidirectionaly by various tubes, septa, valves and pumps. The muscular pumps are termed accessory pulsatile organs and occur at the base of the antennae and legs. Antennal pulsatile organs releases neurohormones that are carried to the antennal lumen to influence the sensory neurones. Circulation occurs in the wings of young adult. In wing circulation is sustained by influxes of air into the wing veins, rather than any pulsatile organs. Pulses of air in the fine tracheal tubes of the veins push the haemolymph through the enclosed space of the veins. The insect circulatory system shows high degree of co-ordination between dorsal vessel, fibro-muscular diaphragms and accessory pumps. Haemolymph and its functions Haemolymph is a watery fluid containing ions, molecules and cells. It is often clear and colourless but may be variously pigmented or rarely red due to haemoglobin in the immature stages of few aquatic and endoparasitic flies (e.g., Chironomid larva). Haemolymph performs the function of both blood and lymph. It is not involved in gas transporting function (respiration). Haemolymph contains a fluid portion called plasma and cellular fractions called haemocytes. 1.Plasma: Plasma is an aqueous solution of inorganic ions, lipids, sugars (mainly trehalose), amino acids, proteins, organic acids and other compounds. pH is usually acidic (6.7). Density is 1.01 to 1.06. Water content is 84-92 per cent. Inorganic ions present are `Na' in predators and parasites, `Mg' and `K'in phytophagous insects. Carbohydrate is in the form of trehalose sugar. Major proteins are lipoproteins, glycoproteins and enzymes. Lipids in form of fat particles or lipoproteins. Higher concentration of amino acids leads to a condition called aminoacidemia which effects the osmosis process. In high altitude insects glycerol is present which acts as a anti freezing compound. Nitrogenous waste is present in the form of uric acid. 2. Haemocytes: The blood cells or haemocytes are of several types and all are nucleate. Different types of haemocytes are as follows: a. Prohaemocyte : Smallest of all cells with largest nucleus. b. Plasmatocyte (Phagocyte) aids in phagocytocis c. Granular heamocyte: Contains large number of cytoplasmic inclusions d. Spherule cell: Cytoplasmic inclusions obscure the nucleus e. Cystocyte(Coagulocyte): Role in blood coagulation and plasma precipitation. f. Oenocytoids: Large cells with ecentric nucleus g. Adipo haemocytes: Round or avoid with distinct fat droplets h. Podocyte: Large flattened cells with number of protoplasmic projections. i. Vermiform cells: Rare type, long thread like. Functions of haemolymph 1. Lubricant : Haemolymph keeps the internal cells moist and the movement of internal organs is also made easy. 2. Hydraulic medium : Hydrostatic pressure developed due to blood pumping is useful in the following processes. a) Ecdysis (moulting) b) Wing expansion in adults c) Ecolosion in diptera (adult emergence from the puparium using ptilinum) d) Eversion of penis in male insects e) Eversion of osmeteria in papilionid larvae f) Eversion of mask in naiad of dragonfly g) Maintenance of body shape in soft bodied caterpillars. 3.Transport and storage : Digested nutrients, hormones and gases (chironomid larva) were transported with the help of haemolymph. It also removes the waste materials to the excretory organs. Water and raw materials required for histogenesis is stored in haemolymph. 4.Protection: It helps in phagocytocis, encapsulation, detoxification, coagulation, and wound healing. Non celluar component like lysozymes also kill the invading bacteria. 5. Heat transfer: Haemolymph through its movement in the circulatory system regulate the body heat (Thermoregulation). 6. Maintenance of osmotic pressure: Ions, amino acids and organic acids present in the haemolymph helps in maintaining osmotic pressure required for normal physiological functions. 7. Reflex bleeding: Exudation of heamolymph through slit, pore etc. repels natural enemies. e.g. Aphids. 8. Metabolic medium: Haemolymph serves as a medium for on going metabolic reactions (trahalose is converted into glucose).  16. Nervous system The basic component in the nervous system is the nerve cell or neuron, composed of a cell body with two projections (fibers) the dendrites that receive stimuli and the axon that transmits information, either to another neuron or to an effector organ such as a muscle. Axon may have lateral branches called Collateral and terminal arborization and synapse. Insect neurons release a variety of chemicals at synapses either to stimulate or to inhibit effector neurons or muscles. Acetylcholine and catecholamines such as dopamine are the important neurotransmitters involved in the impulse conduction. Neurons are of following types based on structure and function. A. On structural basis i. Monopolar: neuron with a single axon ii. Bipolar: neuron with a proximal axon and a long distal dendrite. iii. Multipolar: neuron with a proximal axon and many distal dendrites. B. Functional basis i. Sensory neuron: It conducts impulse from sense organs to central nervous system (CNS). ii. Motor neuron: It conducts impulse from CNS to effector organs iii. Inter neuron (association neuron): It inter-links sensory and motor neurons. The cell bodies of inter neurons and motor neurons are aggregated with the fibers inter connecting all types of nerve cells to form nerve centers called ganglia. Mechanism of impulse conduction: Impulses are conducted by the neurons by two means. Axonic conduction: Ionic composition varies between inside and outside of axon resulting in excitable conditions, which leads to impulse conduction as electrical response. Synaptic conduction: Neurochemical transmitters are involved in the impulse conduction through the synaptic gap. Neurotransmitters and the type of reactions helping in the impulse conduction are as follows.  Acetylase Acetyl CO-A + Choline chloride Acetyl choline Acetyl Choline Esterase Acetyl choline Choline + Acetic acid Nervous system can be divided in to three major sub-systems as i. Central nervous system (CNS) ii. Visceral nervous system (VNS) iii. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) i. Central nervous system: It contains double series of nerve centers (ganglia). These ganglia are connected by longitudinal tracts of nerve fibers called connectives and transverse tracts of nerve fibers called commissures. Central nervous system includes the following. a. Brain: Formed by the fusion of first three cephalic neuromeres. Protocerebrum: Large, innervate compound eyes and ocelli. Deutocerebrum: Found beneath protocerebrum, innervate antennae. Tritocerebrum: Bilobed, innervate labrum. Brain is the main sensory centre controlling insect behaviour. b. Ventral nerve cord: Median chain of segmental ganglia beneath oesophagus. c. Sub esophageal ganglia: Formed by the last three cephalic neuromeres which innervate mandible, maxillae and labium. d. Thoracic ganglia: Three pairs found in the respective thoracic segments, largest ganglia, innervate legs and muscles. e. Abdominal ganglia: Maximum eight pairs will present and number varies due to fusion of ganglia. Innervate spiracles. f. Thoraco abdominal ganglia : Thoracic and abdominal ganglia are fused to form a single compound ganglia. Innervate genital organs and cerci. ii. Visceral nervous system: The visceral (sympathetic) nervous system consists of three separate systems as follows: (1) the stomodeal/stomatogastric which includes the frontal ganglion and associated with the brain, aorta and foregut; (2) Ventral visceral, associated with the ventral nerve cord; and (3) Caudal visceral, associated with the posterior segments of abdomen. Together the nerves and ganglia of these subsystems innervate the anterior and posterior gut, several endocrine organs (Corpora cardiaca and Corpora allata), the reproductive organs, and the tracheal system including the spiracles. iii. Peripheral nervous system: The peripheral nervous system consists of all the motor neuron axons that radiate to the muscles from the ganglia of the CNS and visceral nervous system plus the sensory neurons of the cuticular sensory structures (the sense organs) that receive mechanical, chemical, thermal or visual stimuli from an environment.  17. Sense organs Sensilla are the organs associated with sensory perception and develop from epidermal cells. The different types of sense organs are: 1. Mechanoreceptors 2. Auditory receptors 3. Chemoreceptors 4. Thermo receptors and 5. Photo receptors. 1. Mechano receptors (detect mechanical forces) i. Trichoid sensilla: Hair like little sense organ. Sense cell associated with spur and seta. These cells are sensitive to touch and are located in antenna and trophi (mouth parts). ii. Campaniform sensilla (Dome sensilla): Terminal end of these sensilla is rod like and inserted into dome shaped cuticula. These cells are sensitive to pressure and located in leg joints and wing bases. iii. Chordotonal organ: The specialized sensory organs that receive vibrations are subcuticular mechano receptors called chordotonal organ. An organ consists of one to many scolopidia, each of which consists of cap cell, scolopale cell and dendrite. These organs are interoceptors attached to both ends of body wall. Functions : i. Proprioception (positioning of their body parts in relation to the gravity). ii. Sensitive to sound waves, vibration of substratum and pressure changes. iii. Johnston's organ: All adults insects and many larvae have a complex chordotonal organ called Johnston's organ lying within the second antennal segment (Pedicel). These organs sense movements of antennal flagellum. It also functions in hearing in some insects like male mosquitoes and midges. iv. Subgenual organ: Chordotonal organ located in the proximal tibia of each leg, used to detect substrate vibration. Subgenual organs are found in most insects, except the Coleoptera and Diptera. 2. Auditory receptors (detect sound waves) i. Delicate tactile hairs: Present in plumose antenna of male mosquito. ii. Tympanum: This is a membrane stretched across tympanic cavity responds to sounds produced at some distance, transmitted by airborne vibration. Tympanal membranes are linked to chordotonal organs that enhance sound reception. Tympanal organs are located * Between the metathoracic legs of mantids. * The metathorax of many nectuid moths. * The prothoracic legs of many orthopterans. * The abdomen of short horned grasshopper, cicada. * The wings of certain moths and lacewings. 3. Chemoreceptors (detect smell and taste) Detect chemical energy. Insect chemoreceptors are sensilla with one pore (uniporous) or more pores (multiporous). Uniporous chemorceptors mostly detect chemicals of solid and liquid form by contact and are called as gustatory receptor. Many sensor neurons located in antenna are of this type. Multiporous chemoreceptors detect chemicals in vapour form, at distant by smell and are acalled as olfactory receptor. Few sensory neurons located in trophi and tarsi are of this type. Each pore forms a chamber known as pore kettle with more number of pore tubules that run inwards to meet multibranched dendrites. 4. Thermoreceptors (detect heat) Present in poikilothermic insects and sensitive to temperature changes. In bed bug it is useful to locate the host utilizing the temperature gradient of the host. 5. Photoreceptors (detect light energy) a. Compound eyes: The compound eye is based on many individual units called ommatidia. Each ommatidium is marked externally by a hexagonal area called facet. Compound eye is made up of two parts called optic part and sensory part. Optic part contains a cuticular lens called corneal lens secreted by corneagenous cells and crystalline cone covered by primary pigment cells. Function of the optic part is to gather light. Sensory part contains six to ten visual cells called retinular cells covered by secondary pigment cells which collectively secrete a light sensitive rod at the centre called rhabdom. Rhabdom contains light sensitive pigments called rhodopsin. Each ommatidium is covered by a ring of light absorbing pigmented cells, which isolates an ommatidium from other. Nerve cells are clustered around the longitudinal axis of each ommatidium. Types of ommatidia i. Apposition type (light tight): Due to the presence of primary pigment cells light cannot enter the adjacent cells. The mosaic image formed is very distinct. The image formed by the compound eye is of a series of opposed points of light of different intensities. This functions well in diurnal insects. ii. Super position type: Primary pigment cells are absent allowing light to pass between adjacent ommatidia. Image formed in this way are indistinct, bright and blurred. This type is seen in nocturnal and crepuscular insects. b. Lateral ocelli (Stemmata): Visual organs of holometabolous larva. Structure is similar to ommatidium. It helps to detect form, colour and movement, and also to scan the environment. c. Dorsal ocelli: Visual organs of nymph and it vary from 0-3 in numbers. It contains a single corneal lens with many visual cells individually secreting the rhabdomere. Dorsal ocelli perceive light to maintain diurnal rhythm and is not involved in image perception.  18. Reproductive system In insects male and female sexes are mostly separate. Sexual dimorphism is common where the male differ from the female morphologically as in bees, mosquito and cockroach. The other types are: Gynandromorph: (Sexual mosaic) Abnormal individual with secondary sexual characters of both male and female. e.g. mutant Drosophila. Hermaphrodite: Male and female gonads are present in one organism. e.g. Cottony cushion scale. Female reproductive system The main functions of the female reproductive system are egg production and storage of male's spermatozoa until the eggs are ready to be fertilized. The basic components of the female system are paired ovaries, which empty their mature oocytes (eggs) via the calyces (Calyx) into the lateral oviduct which unite to form the common (median) oviduct. The gonopore (opening) of the common oviduct is usually concealed in an inflection of the body wall that typically forms a cavity, the genital chamber. This chamber serves as a copulatory pouch during mating and thus is often known as the bursa copulatrix. Its external opening is the vulva. I