Introduction to Life Science: Methodology & Protein Synthesis PDF

Introduction to Life Science: METHODOLOGY SCIENTIFIC METHOD OBJECTIVES Describe the STEPS of the scientific method. Differentiate between the INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES, and define the CONTROL VARIABLES that need to be considered in a given experiment. Use the scienti...

Introduction to Life Science: METHODOLOGY SCIENTIFIC METHOD OBJECTIVES Describe the STEPS of the scientific method. Differentiate between the INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES, and define the CONTROL VARIABLES that need to be considered in a given experiment. Use the scientific method to investigate a problem related to your city / life. SCIENTIFIC METHOD (Scientific) Information is acquired by a PROCESS known as the scientific method. The scientific method involves a series of STEPS: 1. Observation (Of reality / current events) 2. Problem (Statement, usually as a question or wonder) 3. Hypothesis (Either positive or negative) 4. Experiment (to Prove you’re right or wrong) 5. Data (collection from your experiment) 6. Conclusions (based on the data that resulted from your experiment)  OBSERVATION Observation involves gathering information as well as studying previous data. Scientists use all of their senses to make observations. (sight, smell, taste, touch, sound). They also use instruments like the microscope and take advantage of the past work of other scientists. Observation leads to A Questions. Scientists only consider questions that can be answered by experimentation. PROBLEM Moral and religious beliefs B (MAKING THE QUESTION) are not testable scientifically due to their nature of origin. The problem should be a question asking how one variable affects another. C D E  The hypothesis is a TESTABLE STATEMENT that tells how you believe one variable will affect another, based on input from HYPOTHESIS various sources. The hypothesis is usually expressed as a prediction with an IF (…) THEN (…) format. State your hypothesis in a way that can be easily measured and that will HELP ANSWER YOUR ORIGINAL QUESTION.  EXPERIMENT TESTING your hypothesis involves either conducting an experiment or making further observations. The experiment should have a CONTROL GROUP, which goes through all the steps of an experiment but LACKS THE VARIABLE BEING TESTED.  DATA The results of an experiment are referred to as the DATA. Data SHOULD BE OBSERVABLE AND OBJECTIVE rather that subjective or based on opinion. Mathematical data are OFTEN DISPLAYED IN THE FORM OF A GRAPH OR TABLE. The LARGER THE SAMPLE SIZE, the LARGER THE EFFECT AND the LESS LIKELY THAT THE RESULT IS DUE TO CHANCE.  Scientists analyze the data in order to reach a conclusion. CONCLUSIONS The conclusion STATES WHETHER THE RESULTS of the experiment SUPPORT OR REJECT THE HYPOTHESIS. Experiments and observations must be able to be repeatable (get the same results).  VARIABLES A VARIABLE IS ANY FACTOR, TRAIT OR CONDITION THAT CAN EXIST in different amounts or types. An experiment usually has THREE TYPES OF VARIABLES: the EXPERIMENTAL OR INDEPENDENT variable the RESPONSE OR DEPENDENT variable Experiments also have CONTROLLED VARIABLES / GROUP. CONTROLLED VARIABLES can affect the dependent variable and therefore must REMAIN CONSTANT. Most experiments have more that one controlled variable. Some experiments include a CONTROLLED Group to contrast with the EXPERIMENTAL Group  INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE 1.Is the variable being 1.Is the variable that tested. CHANGES IN RESPONSE 2.It is the variable that TO THE INDEPENDENT can be MANIPULATED VARIABLE. BY THE SCIENTIST. 2.It is also called the 3.It is also called the response variable. experimental variable.  Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 WHICH IS WHICH? SCIENTIFIC THEORIES The ultimate GOAL of science IS TO UNDERSTAND THE NATURAL WORLD in terms of scientific theories. Scientific theories JOIN HYPOTHESIS and are SUPPORTED BY a range of OBSERVATIONS, EXPERIMENTS AND DATA. BASIC THEORIES OF BIOLOGY THEORY CONCEPT ALL ORGANISMS ARE COMPOSED OF CELLS, AND NEW CELLS ONLY COME FROM CELL PREEXISTING CELLS. THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT OF AN ORGANISM STAYS RELATIVELY CONSTANT, WITHIN A HOMEOSTASIS RANGE THAT IS PROTECTIVE OF LIFE. ORGANISMS CONTAIN CODED INFORMATION THAT DICTATES THEIR FORM, FUNCTION, GENE AND BEHAVIOR. ORGANISMS ARE MEMBERS OF POPULATIONS, WHICH INTERACT WITH EACH OTHER AND ECOSYSTEM WITH THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT WITHIN A PARTICULAR LOCALE. A CHANGE IN THE FREQUENCY OF TRAITS THAT AFFECT REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS IN A EVOLUTION POPULATION OR SPECIES ACROSS GENERATIONS. END OF PRESENTATION  Fundamentals of Life: CONTINUITY OF LIFE PROTEIN SYNTHESIS OBJECTIVES DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS (TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION) and where they occur within the cell. Know the IMPORTANCE OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS for the cell and organisms.  PROTEIN SYNTHESIS OVERVIEW PROTEIN SYNTHESIS IS THE PROCESS OF USING THE INFORMATION WITHIN A GENE TO SYNTHESIZE A PROTEIN. Relies on the participation of THE THREE TYPES OF RNA: mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA. Requires two processes called TRANSCRIPTION and TRANSLATION. - During TRANSCRIPTION, a portion of DNA serves as a template for mRNA formation. - During TRANSLATION, mRNA determines the sequence of AMINOACIDS in a polypeptide. PROTEINS DIFFER FROM ONE ANOTHER BY THE SEQUENCE OF THEIR AMINO ACIDS. Proteins determine the structure and function of cells and the physical shape of the organism. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS OVERVIEW  TRANSCRIPTION PROTEIN SYNTHESIS OVERVIEW TRANSLATION FINAL RESULT: PROTEIN  Read this correctly!! PROTEIN SYNTHESIS OVERVIEW DNA K boss! Gotta get this right! mRNA mRNA Ribosome Ribosomes 1 2 3 4 OMG  PROTEIN SYNTHESIS TRANSCRIPTION DNA serves as a template for the production of a mRNA. This takes place inside the nucleus. DNA helix is opened so complementary base pairing can occur between DNA and mRNA RNA polymerase joins new RNA nucleotides in a sequence complementary to that on the DNA. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS TRANSCRIPTION  PROTEIN SYNTHESIS ⚠ REMEMBER: TRANSLATION RNA base pairs: UAGC Protein Occurs in the RIBOSOMES. tRNA transports AMINOACIDS to the RIBOSOMES tRNA: Single stranded nucleic acid that LINKS A SPECIFIC NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE WITH A SPECIFIC AMINO ACID. https://goo.gl/wFUcG  PROTEIN SYNTHESIS ⚠ REMEMBER: TRANSLATION RNA base pairs: UAGC mRNA: Each group of 3 Bases we Protein call a CODON, this will be a specific code for only one type of tRNA. tRNA: The ANTICODON will be matching with mRNA, and on the opposite side, an attached AMINOACID will bind with other aminoacids. https://goo.gl/wFUcG PROTEIN SYNTHESIS OVERALL mRNA -Protein- END OF PRESENTATION  Fundamentals of Life Science: CONTINUITY OF LIFE DNA REPLICATION OBJECTIVES Describe the PROCESS OF DNA REPLICATION and its importance in cells.  THE CELL CYCLE DEVELOPMENT AND REPRODUCTION OF THE CELL THE CELL CYCLE is the life cycle of the cell. Stages that a cell must complete in its life cycle: GROW, COPY ITS DNA, and SPLIT INTO TWO daughter cells for reproduction purposes. Some cells are specialized and no longer enter the cell cycle, (like Neurons). In Eukaryotic cells, the stages are divided into two major phases: INTERPHASE and the MITOTIC phase.  E Interphase S A H IC P (replication) T T O I M T E R P H A S E IN Mitotic Phase  THE CELL CYCLE DEVELOPMENT AND REPRODUCTION OF THE CELL STAGES of the cell cycle Interphase - The cell Grows and Copies its DNA (G1 Phase)- Cell grows, copies organelles and makes molecular building blocks. Synthesis (S) Phase - DNA Replication happens. (G2 Phase) - Cell continues to grow, makes proteins and organelles needed for Mitosis. Mitotic (M) Phase - The cell separates its DNA into two sets and divides its cytoplasm forming two daughter new cells. Mitosis – Nuclear Division. Cytokinesis - Cytoplasm Division.  G0 (Exit from the Cell-Cycle; Non-dividing cell)  DNA REPLICATION THE REPRODUCTION OF THE DNA (Parent DNA DNA REPLICATION takes place before cell division. It is the process of copying ONE DNA MOLECULE INTO TWO IDENTICAL MOLECULES. EACH ORIGINAL STRAND SERVES AS A TEMPLATE for the formation of a new strand. DNA REPLICATION IS CONSIDERED SEMICONSERVATIVE because each parent DNA makes a daughter. The two daughter DNA molecules will be identical to the parent molecule. (Daughter ⚠ REMEMBER: DNA DNA base pairs: TAGC Parent DNA Daughter DNA 1 Daughter DNA 2 DNA REPLICATION THE STEPS Normally, the two strands of DNA are HYDROGEN-BONDED together. A dividing cell must first duplicate its genome, which may consist of one or more chromosomes. 1. First, the enzyme DNA HELICASE unwinds and “unzips” the double-stranded DNA. 2. NEW complementary DNA NUCLEOTIDES FIT INTO PLACE along divided strands by complementary base pairing. These are positioned and JOINED BY DNA POLYMERASE. 3. DNA LIGASE REPAIRS ANY BREAKS IN THE SUGAR-PHOSPHATE BACKBONE. 4. The two IDENTICAL DAUGHTER STRANDS form the new double helix. 5. ENZYMES REPAIR DAMAGED DNA AND FIX MISTAKES DURING DNA REPLICATION. ⚠ MUTATIONS ARE CHANGES IN THIS DNA SEQUENCE OF THE CELL. DNA REPLICATION LADDER CONFIGURATION DNA REPLICATION THE RESULT END OF PART II  Fundamentals of Life Science: CONTINUITY OF LIFE PROTEIN SYNTHESIS OBJECTIVES DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS (TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION) and where they occur within the cell. Know the IMPORTANCE OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS for the cell and organisms. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS OVERVIEW PROTEIN SYNTHESIS IS THE PROCESS OF USING THE INFORMATION WITHIN A GENE TO SYNTHESIZE A PROTEIN. Relies on the participation of THE THREE TYPES OF RNA: mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA. Requires two processes called TRANSCRIPTION and TRANSLATION. - During TRANSCRIPTION, a portion of DNA serves as a template for mRNA formation. - During TRANSLATION, mRNA determines the sequence of AMINOACIDS in a polypeptide. PROTEINS DIFFER FROM ONE ANOTHER BY THE SEQUENCE OF THEIR AMINO ACIDS. Proteins determine the structure and function of cells and the physical shape of the organism. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS OVERVIEW  TRANSCRIPTION PROTEIN SYNTHESIS OVERVIEW TRANSLATION FINAL RESULT: PROTEIN  Read this correctly!! PROTEIN SYNTHESIS OVERVIEW DNA K boss! Gotta get this right! mRNA mRNA Ribosome Ribosomes 1 2 3 4 OMG  PROTEIN SYNTHESIS TRANSCRIPTION DNA serves as a template for the production of a mRNA. This takes place inside the nucleus. DNA helix is opened so complementary base pairing can occur between DNA and mRNA RNA polymerase joins new RNA nucleotides in a sequence complementary to that on the DNA. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS TRANSCRIPTION  ⚠ REMEMBER: PROTEIN SYNTHESIS TRANSLATION RNA base pairs: UAGC Protein Occurs in the RIBOSOMES. tRNA transports AMINOACIDS to the RIBOSOMES tRNA: Single stranded nucleic acid that LINKS A SPECIFIC NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE WITH A SPECIFIC AMINO ACID. https://goo.gl/wFUcGp  ⚠ REMEMBER: PROTEIN SYNTHESIS TRANSLATION RNA base pairs: UAGC mRNA: Each group of 3 Bases we Protein call a CODON, this will be a specific code for only one type of tRNA. tRNA: The ANTICODON will be matching with mRNA, and on the opposite side, an attached AMINOACID will bind with other aminoacids. https://goo.gl/wFUcGp PROTEIN SYNTHESIS OVERALL mRNA Protein END OF PRESENTATION  Fundamentals of Life Science: CELL AND ITS PROCESSES CELL METABOLISM  ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EUKARYOTIC CELL HI S ? E R T EM B R E M  Fundamentals of Life Science: CELL AND ITS PROCESSES PHOTOSYNTHESIS  PHOTOSYNTHESIS AUTOTROPHS VS HETEROTROPHS PHOTOSYNTHESIS CONVERTS SOLAR ENERGY INTO CHEMICAL ENERGY. Organisms that carry on PHOTOSYNTHESIS are called AUTOTROPHS, OR PRODUCERS, because they produce their own food. The majority of food chains can be traced back to plants and algae which have the ability to synthesize carbohydrates, to feed both themselves and also consumers. CONSUMERS (which cannot make Photosynthesis) are called HETEROTROPHS. AUTOTROPHS and HETEROTROPHS use organic molecules (Carbohydrates) produced by photosynthesis. PHOTOSYNTHESIS OVERALL REACTION REACTANTS ⇀ PRODUCTS 6(CO2) + 6(H2O) ⇀ C6H12O6 + 6(O2)  PHOTOSYNTHESIS OVERALL REACTION 1. SOLAR ENERGY, CARBON DIOXIDE and WATER are the overall REACTANTS of photosynthesis. 2. GLUCOSE and OXYGEN are the final PRODUCTS of photosynthesis 3. The oxygen given off comes from water. 4. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) gains Hydrogen (H2) atoms and becomes a Carbohydrate. 5. PHOTOSYNTHESIS TAKES PLACE IN THE CHLOROPLASTS. PHOTOSYNTHESIS OVERALL REACTION  PLANT CELL HAS CHLOROPLASTS  PHOTOSYNTHESIS CHLOROPLASTS Photosynthesis occurs within chloroplasts found inside of the cells of plants. The raw materials for photosynthesis are CARBON DIOXIDE and WATER. Water and carbon dioxide DIFFUSE into the cells and enter the chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have two major parts: Thylakoids, membranous disks that contain chlorophyll, pigments that absorb solar energy. Stroma, a fluid filled space where carbon dioxide is changed to carbohydrate.  CHLOROPLAST HAS THYLAKOID AND STROMA  CHLOROPLASTS FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS Structure DOUBLE-MEMBR ANE OWN DNA. Stroma Thylakoid  CHLOROPLASTS FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS Function Site of PHOTOSYNTHESIS. PROVIDE CARBOHYDRATES TO MITOCHONDRIAS  PHOTOSYNTHESIS CHLOROPLASTS CHLOROPLASTS ARE WHERE PHOTOSYNTHESIS TAKES PLACE. Photosynthesis is divided into LIGHT REACTIONS and DARK REACTIONS. The LIGHT REACTIONS TAKE PLACE IN THE THYLAKOID membrane of the chloroplasts where CHLOROPHYLL CAPTURES THE SUNLIGHT. The DARK REACTIONS TAKE PLACE IN THE STROMA of the chloroplast.  NS T IO AC RE E IM TT RK GH DA NI STROMA THYLAKOID S IM E ION YT ACT DA RE HT LIG  PHOTOSYNTHESIS TWO SETS OF REACTIONS LIGHT REACTIONS DARK REACTIONS (LIGHT PHASE, LIGHT-DEPENDENT) (DARK PHASE, CALVIN CYCLE) REACTANTS: Sunlight + Water REACTANTS: CO2 PRODUCTS: OXYGEN PRODUCTS: Carbohydrate (G3P) Site of Action: Thylakoid. Site of Action: Stroma. ⚠ Importance: Provide OXYGEN to ⚠Importance: They provide the atmosphere, and they provide Carbohydrates needed by the organism reactants for the DARK REACTIONS to get energy.  REACTANTS CHLOROPLAST Thylakoid Stroma PRODUCTS  Fundamentals of Life Science: CELL AND ITS PROCESSES CELLULAR RESPIRATION & FERMENTATION  MITOCHONDRIA CELL’S BATTERY Structure: DOUBLE-MEMBRANE. OWN DNA. Function: Site or CELLULAR RESPIRATION. Found in all EUKARYOTIC Cells PHOTOSYNTHESIS CELLULAR RESPIRATION OVERALL REACTION OVERALL REACTION RPEACTANTS RODUCTS ↼⇀R PEACTANTS RODUCTS ↼ C6H12O6 + 6(O2) 6(CO2) + 6(H2O) ⇀ CELLULAR RESPIRATION OVERVIEW AEROBIC RESPIRATION O2 PRESENT ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION O2 NOT PRESENT  ANAEROBIC AEROBIC RESPIRATION RESPIRATION I O N E N TAT FE RM O2 O2  OUTSIDE MITOCHONDRIA INSIDE MITOCHONDRIA O2 O2  CELLULAR RESPIRATION OVERVIEW IN NORMAL SCENARIOS (WHERE O2 IS PRESENT), METABOLISM ALLOWS ENERGY IN GLUCOSE TO BE RELEASED AS GLUCOSE IS BROKEN DOWN, ATP IS BUILT UP. BREAKDOWN OF GLUCOSE RESULTS IN A TOTAL OF 36 or 38 ATP MOLECULES.  LACTATE AND ALCOHOL FERMENTATION ANIMAL CELL VS. PLANT CELL NO-OXYGEN OPTION (Any type of) Fermentation occurs when oxygen (O2) is not available. In lactate fermentation: animal cells convert Glucose to Lactic Acid (Lactate). In alcohol fermentation: Bacteria or Plants convert Glucose to ethanol (alcohol) and CO2 Two (2) ATP molecules is the net gain of energy. Provides a low but continuous supply of ATP.. Lactate is potentially toxic to muscles. END OF PRESENTATION  Fundamentals of Life Science: CELL AND ITS PROCESSES CELL TRANSPORT OBJECTIVES COMPARE the different types of ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSPORT across the cell membrane TYPES OF TRANSPORT PASSIVE TRANSPORT ACTIVE TRANSPORT NO ENERGY IS REQUIRED ENERGY REQUIRED Substances move from a HIGH Substances move from LOW concentration TO A LOW concentration TO A HIGH concentration concentration (ACROSS A (AGAINST A CONCENTRATION GRADIENT) CONCENTRATION GRADIENT) TYPES OF PASSIVE TRANSPORT: TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT: 1.DIFFUSION 4. ACTIVE TRANSPORT 2.OSMOSIS 5. EXOCYTOSIS 3.FACILITATED DIFFUSION 6. ENDOCYTOSIS  PASSIVE TRANSPORT NAME DIRECTION REQUIREMENT EXAMPLES LIPID SOLUBLE DIFFUSION MOLECULES, GASES CONCENTRATION GRADIENT OSMOSIS FROM HIGH TO LOW WATER CONCENTRATION GRADIENT CONCENTRATION FACILITATED GRADIENT SOME SUGARS AND DIFFUSION WITH SOME AMINO ACIDS PROTEIN CARRIER  ACTIVE TRANSPORT NAME DIRECTION REQUIREMENT EXAMPLES SUBSTANCE MOVES FROM A LOW PROTEIN CARRIER SUGARS, ACTIVE TRANSPORT + AMINO ACIDS, CONCENTRATION TO A ENERGY AND IONS HIGH CONCENTRATION SUBSTANCE MOVES VESICLES FUSE WITH EXOCYTOSIS MACRO-MOLECULES OUTSIDE THE CELL PLASMA MEMBRANE SUBSTANCE MOVES ENDOCYTOSIS VESICLE FORMATION MACRO-MOLECULES INTO THE CELL  DIFFUSION FROM HIGH TO LOW SOLUTION contains a SOLUTE and a SOLVENT. Solute-usually solid (dye) Solvent-usually liquid (water) When the dye is placed in water, both the dye molecules and the water molecules move towards an area of lower concentration Once the solute and the solvent are evenly distributed, their molecules continue to move, but there is no net movement of either one in any direction. DIFFUSION DOES NOT REQUIRE ENERGY. DIFFUSION DOES NOT REQUIRE A PROTEIN.  OSMOSIS MOVEMENT OF WATER OSMOSIS DOES NOT REQUIRE ENERGY. OSMOSIS DOES NOT REQUIRE A PROTEIN. OSMOSIS IS THE DIFFUSION OF WATER ACROSS A DIFFERENTIALLY PERMEABLE MEMBRANE. Osmotic pressure is the pressure that develops in a system due to osmosis. TONICITY OF A SOLUTION A. ISOTONIC when the solution and solute CONCENTRATION IS EQUAL inside and outside the cell. B. HYPOTONIC when the SOLUTION HAS a LOWER solute CONCENTRATION than the inside of a cell. C. HYPERTONIC when the SOLUTION HAS a HIGHER solute CONCENTRATION than the inside of a cell.  OSMOSIS MOVEMENT OF WATER  OSMOSIS MOVEMENT OF WATER FACILITATED DIFFUSION SAME PROCESS + PROTEINS Molecules move from a high solute concentration to a lower concentration. Small molecules that are not lipid-soluble must combine with protein carriers to cross the plasma membrane. FACILITATED DIFFUSION DOES NOT REQUIRE ENERGY. FACILITATED DIFFUSION REQUIRES PROTEIN.  FACILITATED DIFFUSION SAME PROCESS + PROTEINS FACILITATED DIFFUSION DOES NOT REQUIRE ENERGY. FACILITATED DIFFUSION REQUIRES PROTEIN. WHICH IS WHICH?  ACTIVE TRANSPORT NEEDS PROTEINS AND ENERGY ACTIVE TRANSPORT Small MOLECULES or ions COMBINE WITH CARRIER PROTEINS. These molecules MOVE FROM AN AREA OF LOW CONCENTRATION TO AN AREA OF HIGH CONCENTRATION. ACTIVE TRANSPORT REQUIRES ENERGY (ATP). FACILITATED DIFFUSION REQUIRES PROTEIN.  ACTIVE TRANSPORT NEEDS PROTEINS AND ENERGY BEST EXAMPLE: SODIUM (NA) - POTASSIUM (K) PUMP  VESICLE FORMATION ENDOCYTOSIS & EXOCYTOSIS INSIDE OF THE CELL CHARACTERISTICS Is used to TRANSPORT LARGE MOLECULES INTO AND OUT OF THE CELL. It REQUIRES ENERGY. It KEEPS THE MACROMOLECULE CONTAINED. It occurs in ENDOCYTOSIS and EXOCYTOSIS. INSIDE OF THE CELL  ENDOCYTOSIS WHEN THE CELL EATS AND DRINKS VESICLES FORM AS A WAY TO TRANSPORT MOLECULES INTO A CELL. A. PHAGOCYTOSIS: Large,particulate matter. B. PINOCYTOSIS: Liquids and small particles dissolved in liquid C. RECEPTOR MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS: Type of pinocytosis that involves a coated pit. OUTSIDE OF THE CELL PHAGOCYTOSIS EATING PINOCYTOSIS DRINKING OUTSIDE OF THE CELL RECEPTOR MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS SPECIFIC DRINKING THREE METHODS OF ENDOCYTOSIS  EXOCYTOSIS THROWING EVERYTHING OUT VESICLES FORM AS A WAY TO TRANSPORT MOLECULES OUT OF A CELL. OUTSIDE OF THE CELL  EXOCYTOSIS THROWING EVERYTHING OUT  EXOCYTOSIS LYSOSOMES ENDOCYTOSIS END OF PRESENTATION Fundamentals of Life Science: CONTINUITY OF LIFE MEIOSIS  OBJECTIVES Know the PURPOSE OF MEIOSIS and where it occurs in the cell. SUMMARIZE the major events that occur during EACH PHASE OF MEIOSIS I AND MEIOSIS II. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN MEIOSIS I AND MEIOSIS II. EXPLAIN NON-DISJUNCTION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. MITOSIS REVIEW  MEIOSIS OVERVIEW CELL DIVISION INCREASES THE NUMBER OF GERM (SEX) CELLS, (AKA GAMETE). Includes TWO (2) DIVISIONS, as steps: 1) MEIOSIS I 2) MEIOSIS II ⚠ RESULTS IN FOUR DAUGHTER (HAPLOID) CELLS THAT ARE GENETICALLY DIFFERENT TO ONE MOTHER CELL. Its PURPOSE is the create the haploid cells to be used for SEXUAL REPRODUCTION.  MEIOSIS OVERVIEW MEIOSIS I Occurs in sexually reproducing organisms, to produce offspring with a different combination of traits from that of either parent. MEIOSIS II Reduces the chromosome number so that each daughter cell receives only one piece of chromosome. MEIOSIS OVERVIEW One (1) parent cell is DIPLOID at the beginning of meiosis and becomes into four (4) daughter HAPLOID cells at the end. Fertilization (mixing) of two HAPLOID cells restores the DIPLOID number of chromosomes in a cell that will develop then turn into a new organism. MEIOSIS OVERVIEW MEIOSIS OVERVIEW Pairs of two (2) chromosomes are called HOMOLOGOUS: One from the father. One from the mother. Father Mother Chromosome 1 (As seen in a Karyotype)  MEIOSIS I OVERVIEW Anaphase I HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES SPLIT Prophase I SYNAPSIS + CROSSING OVER Interphase Metaphase I (S Phase: DNA Replication) PAIRS LINE UP INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT Telophase I HAPLOID CELLS  MEIOSIS I OVERVIEW Prophase I ❖SYNAPSIS occurs, nuclear membrane breaks down ❖HOMOLOGUES LINE UP side by side and CROSSING OVER OCCURS. Metaphase I ❖Homologous PAIRS LINE UP AT METAPHASE PLATE such that maternal or paternal member may be oriented toward either pole. INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT happens. Anaphase I ❖HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES (each still consisting of 2 chromatids) travel into opposite poles, and undergo into daughter cells Telophase I ❖CYTOKINESIS PRODUCES 2 DAUGHTER CELLS WHICH ARE HAPLOID.  CROSSING OVER GENETIC RECOMBINATION OCCURS BETWEEN NON-SISTER CHROMATIDS OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES DURING Prophase I. CROSSING OVER means that the chromatids held together by a centromere are no longer identical. ⚠ This increases genetic variation. When fertilization occurs, the resulting offspring will be genetically unique https://goo.gl/vtdJLs  CROSSING OVER GENETIC RECOMBINATION INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT https://goo.gl/d22aSg GENETIC RECOMBINATION Independent assortment of paired chromosomes occurs during Metaphase I. Occurs because there are various ways for chromosomes to line up. The order they lie in determines what genetic information is present in each of the 4 gametes produced. ⚠ THIS (ALSO) INCREASES GENETIC VARIATION. WITH 23 CHROMOSOMES IN A HUMAN GAMETE, THEIR ARE 223 COMBINATIONS (8,388,608 COMBINATIONS) INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT CROSSING OVER GENETIC RECOMBINATION GENETIC RECOMBINATION Both CROSSING OVER and INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT assure that GAMETES will contain different combinations of chromosomes, and that the resulting OFFSPRING WILL BE GENETICALLY UNIQUE. + = Meiosis I Metaphase I Prophase I https://goo.gl/84NJ9E  MEIOSIS II OVERVIEW Prophase II Cells have one member of each homologous pair. Metaphase II Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. Anaphase II Centromeres divide and daughter chromosomes migrate. Telophase II Nuclei form, Cytokinesis happens. MEIOSIS II OVERVIEW AFTER MEIOSIS I 4 HAPLOID DAUGHTER CELLS PROBLEMS DURING MEIOSIS NON-DISJUNCTION NONDISJUNCTION IS THE FAILURE OF PAIRED CHROMOSOMES OR CHROMATIDS TO SEPARATE DURING CELL DIVISION It results in cells with an abnormal number of chromosomes TRISOMY 21 (DOWN SYNDROME) IS THE BEST EXAMPLE  PROBLEMS DURING MEIOSIS NON-DISJUNCTION  C O M PA R I S O N O F M E I O S I S I T O M E I O S I S I I MEIOSIS I MEIOSIS II DNA replication occurs before this division No replication of DNA occurs in this division Homologues line up side by side at equator (SYNAPSIS) Centromeres divide and sister chromatids migrate to opposite poles to become individual chromosomes When pairs separate, each daughter cell receives one member of the pair. Each of the four daughter cells produced has the HAPLOID chromosome number and each Cells are now HAPLOID and each chromosome chromosome is composed of ONE CHROMATID is composed of TWO SISTER CHROMATIDS M M I E T I O VS O S (DIFFERENCES) S I I S S  SIMILARITIES MITOSIS MEIOSIS ∪ THE HUMAN LIFE CYCLE REQUIRES BOTH MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS. Meiosis in the Female is called OOGENESIS Meiosis in the Male is called SPERMATOGENESIS At fertilization, the resulting Zygote DIVIDES BY MITOSIS FOR THE PROCESSES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. MITOSIS IS USED FOR REPAIR THROUGHOUT LIFE. Special Sex Organs: Gonads: Testes ♂ and Ovaries ♀. VARIATION Female Gamete (n) + Male Gamete (n) = Zygote (2n) DRIVING FORCE OF EVOLUTION ♀ ♂ ㊛ ㊚ THE HUMAN LIFE CYCLE BEGINNING OF LIFE TIME LAPSE END OF PRESENTATION  Fundamentals of Life: CONTINUITY OF LIFE CELL CYCLE & MITOSIS OBJECTIVES Name the STAGES OF THE CELL CYCLE and explain WHAT HAPPENS DURING EACH. Know the PROCESSES that lead to INCREASE AND DECREASE IN CELL NUMBER. Know the PURPOSE OF MITOSIS AND WHERE IT OCCURS IN THE CELL. SUMMARIZE THE MAJOR EVENTS THAT OCCUR DURING EACH PHASE OF MITOSIS.  THE CELL CYCLE DEVELOPMENT AND REPRODUCTION OF THE CELL THE CELL CYCLE is the life cycle of the cell. Stages that a cell must complete in its life cycle: GROW, COPY ITS DNA, and SPLIT INTO TWO daughter cells for reproduction purposes. Some cells are specialized and no longer enter the cell cycle, (like Neurons). In Eukaryotic cells, the stages are divided into two major phases: INTERPHASE and the MITOTIC phase.  Interphase S E PHA (replication) IC OT I T M INTERPHASE Mitotic Phase  THE CELL CYCLE DEVELOPMENT AND REPRODUCTION OF THE CELL STAGES of the cell cycle Interphase - The cell Grows and Copies its DNA (G1 Phase)- Cell grows, copies organelles and makes molecular building blocks. Synthesis (S) Phase - DNA Replication happens. (G2 Phase) - Cell continues to grow, makes proteins and organelles needed for Mitosis. Mitotic (M) Phase - The cell separates its DNA into two sets and divides its cytoplasm forming two daughter new cells. Mitosis – Nuclear Division. Cytokinesis - Cytoplasm Division.  G0 (Exit from the Cell-Cycle; Non-dividing cell)  THE CELL DEATH & END APOPTOSIS is a NATURALLY occurring PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH, that occurs when a cell cannot complete mitosis, or in response to external signals. APOPTOSIS happens: As a NORMAL PART OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. During development TO REMOVE UNWANTED TISSUE. TO PREVENT CANCER.  THE CELL LIFE & BIRTH CELL DIVISION INCREASES THE NUMBER OF SOMATIC (BODY) CELLS. CELL DIVISION consists of: 1.MITOSIS, which is DIVISION OF THE NUCLEUS. 2.CYTOKINESIS, which is DIVISION OF THE CYTOPLASM. ⚠ RESULTS IN TWO DAUGHTER CELLS THAT ARE GENETICALLY IDENTICAL TO ONE MOTHER CELL. Its PURPOSE is the increase the number of cells during GROWTH AND TISSUE REPAIR.  THE CELL DEATH & END APOPTOSIS is a NATURALLY occurring PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH, that occurs when a cell cannot complete mitosis, or in response to external signals. APOPTOSIS happens: As a NORMAL PART OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. During development TO REMOVE UNWANTED TISSUE. TO PREVENT CANCER.  MITOSIS OVERVIEW It is the Cell division in which chromosome number stays constant. (46 Ch ⇀ 46 Ch) DNA replication produces duplicated chromosomes with two (2) sister chromatids held together by a centromere. They are genetically identical. During Mitosis, the centromere divides and each chromatid becomes a daughter chromosome.  MITOSIS OVERVIEW During Mitosis, the centromere divides and each chromatid becomes a daughter chromosome.  MITOSIS https://goo.gl/uuHSSV PHASES MITOSIS is divided into 4 phases: Prophase: NUCLEAR MEMBRANE DISAPPEARS, CENTROSOMES MOVE AND SPINDLE FIBERS APPEAR. Metaphase: CHROMOSOMES LINE UP AT MIDDLE (METAPHASE) PLATE. Anaphase: CENTROMERES DIVIDE, SISTER CHROMATIDS SPLIT TO OPPOSITE POLES. Telophase: NUCLEAR MEMBRANES FORM AGAIN, SPINDLE DISAPPEARS. CYTOKINESIS OCCURS.  Maternal Paternal Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Interphase Mitosis (G1, S, G2) (M Phase) Cytokinesis  CHROMOSOME NUMBERS HAPLOID (n) HAPLOID VS DIPLOID SOMATIC (Body) CELLS all have a DIPLOID Number of Chromosomes divided in 23 pairs: Paternal (n) + Maternal (n) = Organism (2n) (n = 23 Ch ; 2n = 46 Ch) DIPLOID (2n) When SOMATIC CELLS go into MITOSIS, the parent cell is DIPLOID and the two daughter cells will also be DIPLOID. WHICH IS WHICH?  CYTOKINESIS IN ANIMAL CELLS Cytokinesis consists of DIVISION Cytoplasm Division after after OF THE CYTOPLASM Nucleus division is complete! Telophase is complete. ARE YOU ABLE TO IDENTIFY THE PHASE? END OF PRESENTATION Fundamentals of Life Science: CONTINUITY OF LIFE INHERITANCE OBJECTIVES KNOW Mendel´s principles of SEGREGATION AND INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT. CONTRAST GENOTYPE AND PHENOTYPE Describe how ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS CAN AFFECT PHENOTYPE expression Understand the MECHANISMS OF TRANSMISSION of characteristics from parents to children using the PUNNETT SQUARE Differentiate between the DIFFERENT TYPES OF INHERITANCE.  DNA, GENES AND CHROMOSOMES OVERVIEW We know genes determine characteristics of an organism, and that genes are found on chromosomes. Both genes and chromosomes are made up of DNA. HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES are members of one pair. (One from the father and one from the mother). Both Chromosomes carry genes for the same traits in the same order. ALLELES are alternative forms of a gene for the same trait. ALLELES are always at the same LOCUS (location) on each chromosome of a homologous pair. DNA, GENES AND CHROMOSOMES OVERVIEW PHENOTYPE: Physical appearance of the individual with regard to a trait (characteristic). GENOTYPE: Alleles responsible for a given trait (characteristic) ✓ Two alleles for a trait. DNA, GENES AND CHROMOSOMES OVERVIEW HOMOZYGOUS DOMINANT: The Two Alleles are Dominant. HETEROZYGOUS: One Allele is Dominant and other is Recessive. HOMOZYGOUS RECESSIVE: The Two Alleles are Recessive.  GREGOR MENDEL THE FOUNDER OF GENETICS Scientist and man of faith. Investigated inheritance at the organism level. (1856-1865). He recognized the mathematical patterns of inheritance from one generation to the next. Concluded that plants transmit different factors to their offspring. Published his findings in 1866, wasn’t until 1900’s that he received recognition. Based on his studies, THREE LAWS WERE STATED.  LAW OF DOMINANCE STRONG HIDES THE WEAK CAPITAL LETTER: DOMINANT (STRONG, “MAY STAND ALONE AND SHINE”) LOWER-CASE LETTER: RECESSIVE (WEAK, “NEEDS TWO OF THEM TO SHINE”) THE PUNNET SQUARE INHERITANCE IN A GRAPH In a cross between two individuals who are both heterozygous (Dd), what are the possible ratio of offspring? A PUNNETT SQUARE is useful to solve this problem PHENOTYPE: 3:1 DOMINANT : RECESSIVE GENOTYPE: 1:2:1 HOMOZYGOUS DOMINANT : HETEROZYGOUS : HOMOZYGOUS RECESSIVE THE PUNNET SQUARE PRACTICE 1 Both a man and a woman are heterozygous for freckles. Freckles are dominant (F) over no freckles (f). What is the chance that their child will have freckles? THE PUNNET SQUARE PRACTICE 2 Both you and your sibling have attached ear lobes, but your parents have unattached lobes. Unattached earlobes (E) are dominant over attached (e). What are the genotypes of your parents? THE PUNNET SQUARE PRACTICE 3 A father has dimples, the mother does not, and all 5 of their children have dimples. Dimples (D) are dominant over no dimples (d). Give the probable genotypes of all persons concerned. ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES A REFLECTION OF YOUR SURROUNDINGS ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS SUCH AS NUTRITION AND TEMPERATURE CAN INFLUENCE THE EXPRESSION OF Hydrangea macrophylla GENETIC TRAITS. Color will be different according to soil pH level Hariri, M., Yusuf, M., Nurmamulyosari, L., & Kharisma, A. (2015). EFFECT OF SOIL pH ON THE ANTHOCYANIN LEVEL OF HORTENSIA (Hydrangea macrophylla). KnE Life Sciences, 2(1), 613-616. doi:HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.18502/KLS.V2I1.228  Lepus americanus Snowshowhare changes fur pigment according to environment temperature Sousa A. (2014) , Understanding the genetic basis of seasonal coat color change in the snowshoe hare, Lepus americanus: an RNA sequencing approach. (Master Thesis/University of Porto). Retrieved from: https:// sigarra.up.pt/fcup/pt/pub_geral.show_file? pi_gdoc_id=70927 Vulpes lagopus Produces less pigments during winter. University of York Science Education Group. (2008). Salters Nuffield Advanced Biology AS Student Book for Edexcel. Pearson https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c126/d08f65e247183db9246be4666ea5a59ba53b.pdf WHAT ARE YOUR ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS? END OF PRESENTATION Fundamentals of Life Science: CONTINUITY OF LIFE KARYOGRAMS OBJECTIVES DEFINE KARYOGRAM AND ITS USES. Describe HOW DISORDERS IN CHROMOSOME NUMBER HAPPEN. GIVE SEVERAL EXAMPLES of chromosome number disorders. CHROMOSOME REVIEW  KARYOGRAM YOUR LIFE BOOK Karyotyping (or making a Karyogram) is the process of pairing and ordering ALL THE CHROMOSOMES OF AN ORGANISM. Provides a visual display, a “snapshot”, of an individual’s chromosomes. Doctors analyze karyograms to detect genetic changes in chromosome number. They are a source of diagnostic information for specific birth defects, genetic disorders and even cancers.  KARYOGRAM YOUR LIFE BOOK ❖ Images of the individual chromosomes are arranged into a standardized format known as a karyotype. ❖ The autosomal chromosomes are numbered from 1–22, in descending order by size, the sex chromosomes are placed at the end of the karyotype. ⚠ ARRANGING CHROMOSOMES INTO A KARYOGRAM CAN SIMPLIFY THE IDENTIFICATION OF ANY GENETIC ABNORMALITY.  NONDISJUNCTION PROBLEMS WITH DIVISION DURING MEIOSIS Normally, humans receive 22 pairs of autosomes and two sex chromosomes. In individuals born with too many or too few autosomes or sex chromosomes, nondisjunction occurred during meiosis. Nondisjunction is the failure of chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate during meiosis. It may occur either during meiosis I or meiosis II  NONDISJUNCTION PROBLEMS WITH DIVISION DURING MEIOSIS If the zygote has an extra chromosome, the result is called a TRISOMY because one type of chromosome is present in three copies. If the zygote is missing a chromosome, the result is called a MONOSOMY because one type of chromosome is present in a single copy.  DOWN SYNDROME TRISOMY 21 (47, XX/XY,+21) ⚠ DOWN SYNDROME IS THE MOST COMMON AUTOSOMAL TRISOMY SEEN AMONG HUMANS. People with this syndrome have the following characteristics: Short stature An eyelid fold Stubby fingers Wide gap between first and second toes Round head Mental impairment People with Down syndrome usually have 3 COPIES OF CHROMOSOME 21 because the egg had two copies instead of one. However, in 23% of the cases the extra chromosome was in the sperm.  DOWN SYNDROME TRISOMY 21 (47, XX/XY,+21)  TURNER SYNDROME X-MONOSOMY, (45, XO) ⚠ TURNER SYNDROME WILL ALWAYS BE FEMALE, SINCE THERE’S ONLY AN X-CHROMOSOME. They usually have the following characteristics: Short stature Webbed neck High palate Small jaw Congenital heart and kidney defects Ovarian failure Normal range of intelligence but nonverbal learning disability. TURNER SYNDROME X-MONOSOMY, (45 , XO)  KLINEFELTER SYNDROME XXY-TRISOMY, (47, XXY) ⚠ KLINEFELTER SYNDROME WILL ALWAYS BE MALE SINCE THERE A Y-CHROMOSOME. Syndrome is subtle, only 25% get diagnosed. Often after 15 years of age. People with this syndrome have the following characteristics: Tall stature. Poor muscle tone. Difficulty communicating, but not understanding. Gynecomastia (Breast enlargement). Delayed puberty, if any. Often infertile. KLINEFELTER SYNDROME XXY TRISOMY, (47, XXY)  SYNDROMES DUE TO TRISOMY OR MONOSOMY  PREPARING A KARYOGRAM FROM A CELL Karyograms are prepared from MITOTIC CELLS that have been arrested in the Metaphase phase. A variety of tissue types can be used as a source of cells. May be used for cancer diagnoses, (including tumor biopsies or bone marrow samples), and for prenatal diagnosis.  KARYOGRAM: FOR PRENATAL FROM THE BABY Amniocentesis A prenatal test A sample of amniotic fluid is collected Fetal cells can be isolated and analyzed Risk of spontaneous abortion is 0.25 - 0.5%  KARYOGRAM: FOR PRENATAL FROM THE BABY Chorionic Villi Sampling A prenatal test Chorionic cells can be collected and analyzed Can be performed earlier than amniocentesis. Risk of spontaneous abortion is 0.5 - 1.0% KARYOGRAMS REVIEW END OF PRESENTATION  Fundamentals of Life: CONTINUITY OF LIFE INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEIC ACIDS OBJECTIVES Know the DIFFERENCE IN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION between the nucleic acids DNA AND RNA Know the DIFFERENT TYPES OF RNA AND THE FUNCTION of each. Know the STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF ATP.  LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION Genome GENETIC INFORMATION Chromosomes (ADENINE) Nitrogen Bases Genes Nucleotide Nucleic Acids (DNA)  NUCLEIC ACIDS STRUCTURE NUCLEIC ACIDS ARE (POLYMERS) made up of NUCLEOTIDES (MONOMERS). Each nucleotide has: NB PHOSPHATE GROUP (P) P PENTOSE SUGAR NITROGEN-CONTAINING BASE (NB) SUGAR NUCLEIC ACIDS STRUCTURE  NUCLEIC ACIDS TYPES OF PENTOSE SUGAR DNA RNA  DNA THE BASIS DNA is the chemical compound that MAKES UP GENES AND CHROMOSOMES. DNA is a NUCLEIC ACID MADE UP OF NUCLEOTIDES. ONE MOLECULE OF DNA IS MADE UP OF TWO STRANDS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS JOINED TOGETHER IN THE FORM OF A TWISTED DOUBLE HELIX.  DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) STRUCTURE Backbone Strand 1 BASES Strand 1 BASES Strand 2 Backbone Strand 2 A DNA nucleotide strand has a backbone made up of alternating phosphate and sugar molecules. The bases are attached to the sugar, but projected to one side. DNA consists of two strands that are twisted to form a double helix. DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) STRUCTURE The two strands are HELD TOGETHER BY HYDROGEN BONDING between the bases in complementary base paring: (A) always bonds with (T) (C) always bonds with (G) The TWO STRAND ARE ANTIPARALLEL, RUNNING IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS.  RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) STRUCTURE One strand, copy of DNA including the complementary bases complementary to DNA, but replacing (T) with (U) : (A) always bonds with (U) (C) always bonds with (G) ⚠ REMEMBER: DNA base pairs: TAGC RNA base pairs: UAGC  RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) STRUCTURE There are three Classes of RNA: Messenger RNA (mRNA) Takes a message from Copia información del DNA to the Ribosomes ADN y la transprta hasta los ribosomas Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Makes up Ribosomes. Se une a los aminoácidos para formar proteínas en Transfer RNA (tRNA) los ribosomas Transfers Aminoacids to Ribosomes Forma los ribosomas  COMPARE NUCLEIC ACIDS ! DNA RNA SUGAR DEOXYRIBOSE RIBOSE ADENINE (A), GUANINE (G), THYMINE (T), ADENINE (A), GUANINE (G), URACIL (U), BASES CYTOSINE (C) CYTOSINE (C) DOUBLE STRANDED SINGLE STRANDED STRANDS BASE PAIRING: A-T AND C-G BASE PAIRING: A-U AND C-G HELIX-SHAPE YES NO  ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP) A MODIFIED RNA MOLECULE Structure ATP is a modified nucleotide that consists of: THREE PHOSPHATE GROUPS ONE RIBOSE SUGAR ONE ADENINE BASE Functions IT TRANSPORTS CHEMICAL ENERGY WITHIN CELLS FOR metabolism IT IS GENERATED DURING cellular respiration AND fermentation THE CELL USES THE ENERGY RELEASED TO synthesize macromolecules SUCH AS CARBOHYDRATES AND PROTEINS. MUSCLES USE THE ENERGY FOR muscle contraction. NERVE CELLS USE THE ENERGY FOR THE CONDUCTION OF nerve impulses. ⚠ ATP cycle: AFTER ATP BREAKS DOWN, IT IS REBUILT BY ADDING phosphate TO ADP, REQUIRING THE INPUT OF ENERGY.  ADP ATP ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP) A MODIFIED RNA MOLECULE  GENES THE NEXT STEP A GENE IS THE PHYSICAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF HEREDITY. THEY CONTAIN THE INSTRUCTIONS TO MAKE PROTEINS. GENES VARY IN SIZE. EVERY PERSON HAS TWO COPIES OF EACH GENE, ONE INHERITED FROM EACH PARENT. LESS THAN1 % OF THE GENES ARE SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT BETWEEN PEOPLE. THESE SMALL DIFFERENCES CONTRIBUTE TO EACH PERSON’S UNIQUE PHYSICAL FEATURES. Genes are made up of DNA.  CHROMOSOMES ALL PACKED UP CHROMOSOMES ARE FOUND WITHIN THE NUCLEUS OF CELLS. In humans, EACH CELL NORMALLY CONTAINS 23 PAIRS OF CHROMOSOMES: 22 PAIRS OF AUTOSOMES 1 PAIR OF SEX CHROMOSOMES FEMALES: XX CHROMOSOMES. MALES: XY CHROMOSOMES. EACH CHROMOSOME CONTAINS MANY GENES.  GENOME COMPLETE INFORMATION END OF PRESENTATION F U N D A M E N TA L S O F L I F E : P R E S E N TAT I O N 4 CELL ORGANELLES Fundamentals of Life Science: CELL AND ITS PROCESSES ORGANELLES OBJECTIVES KNOW THE BASIC STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION of the cellular organelles.  PLASMA MEMBRANE THE CELL’S FRONTIER All cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane. The material inside of a cell is the CYTOPLASM. Structure of the cell membrane PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER with PROTEINS ATTACHED Function REGULATES THE ENTRANCE AND EXIT OF MOLECULES into and out of the cell (TRANSPORT across the cell membrane). Regulation is due the MEMBRANE being SEMIPERMEABLE  NUCLEUS THE BRAIN OF THE CELL Structure: DNA and Proteins NUCLEOLUS Nuclear ENVELOPE: Double membrane with pores Function: STORES GENETIC MATERIAL DNA Activated DNA SPECIFIES the sequence of amino acids during PROTEIN SYNTHESIS. Every cell in an individual contains the same DNA.  RIBOSOMES THE WORKING GUYS Structure: TWO SUBUNITS: (Large + Small) Both are made of RNA PROTEIN Function: PROTEIN SYNTHESIS  RIBOSOMES THE WORKING GUYS  ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM INSIDE NETWORK Structure and Function A system of FLATTENED vesicles that is CONTINUOUS with the outer MEMBRANE of the nuclear envelope. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (RER) - HAS RIBOSOMES attached and creates PROTEINS. SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SER) - NO RIBOSOMES attached and makes PHOSPHOLIPIDS. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM INSIDE NETWORK GOLGI APPARATUS THE CELL’S UPS SYSTEM Structure CONSISTS OF a stack of 3 – 20 SLIGHTLY CURVED SACS (looks like a stack of pancakes) Function COLLECTS, SORTS, PACKAGES, AND DISTRIBUTES MATERIALS such as proteins and lipids GOLGI APPARATUS THE CELL’S UPS SYSTEM  VESICLES THE CELLS MESSENGERS Structure: MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES THAT CARRY SOMETHING IN THE INSIDE. Function: RANSPORT MATERIAL THROUGHOUT T THE CELL, INSIDE OR TOWARDS THE OUTSIDE OF THE CELL.  LYSOSOMES THE CELL’S JANITORS Structure: MEMBRANE BOUND VESICLES THAT CONTAIN DIGESTIVE ENZYMES. Function: Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that BREAK DOWN UNWANTED, FOREIGN SUBSTANCES OR WORN- OUT PARTS OF CELLS  VACUOLES THE CELL’S STORAGE Structure: Vacuoles are MEMBRANOUS SACS. Function: They STORE SUBSTANCES SUCH AS WATER, PIGMENTS, AND TOXINS.  VACUOLES THE CELL’S STORAGE  CHLOROPLASTS FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS Function Site of PHOTOSYNTHESIS. PROVIDE CARBOHYDRATES TO MITOCHONDRIAS  CHLOROPLASTS FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS Structure DOUBLE- MEMBRANE OWN DNA. Stroma Thylakoid MITOCHONDRIA CELL’S BATTERY Structure: DOUBLE-MEMBRANE. OWN DNA. Matrix Cristae Function: Site or CELLULAR RESPIRATION. Found in all EUKARYOTIC Cells MITOCHONDRIA CELL’S BATTERY  CYTOSKELETON CELL’S STRUCTURE Function: KEEPS CELL SHAPE. ASSISTS IN MOVEMENT of cell and organelles ASSEMBLES AND DISASSEMBLES as needed Structure Three types of protein components: ACTIN FILAMENTS INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS MICROTUBULES CYTOSKELETON CELL’S STRUCTURE  CENTRIOLES CELL’S CYTOSKELETON CENTER Structure Short cylinders with pattern of microtubule triplets Function HELP ORGANIZE MICROTUBULES during animal cell division May be INVOLVED WITH microtubule formation and in the organization of CILIA AND FLAGELLA  CILIA & FLAGELLA CELL’S MOVEMENT Function CILIA - Hair like projections that aid in cell movement FLAGELLA - Elongated projection that propels the cell. Structure CILIA ARE MUCH SHORTER THAN FLAGELLA. MADE UP FROM MICROTUBULES. The Leibniz Institute for Solid State and Materials Research Dresden https://youtu.be/Ww-x-VIFh-Q  Golgi Golgi  ANIMAL CELL Have Centrioles for Cell Division. Have small and many Vacuoles. Lysosomes for digesting cellular waste. BOTH The Rest of Organelles are shared. Have Chloroplasts with Chlorophyll. Have one large Vacuole for water. Have Cell Wall and Rectangle Shape PLANT CELL END OF PRESENTATION Fundamentals of Life Science: STUDY OF LIFE BIODIVERSITY OBJECTIVES Define the biotic and abiotic factors of an ecosystem and give examples of each. Describe the types of interactions between species within a community. Describe food chains and food webs. Compare how heterotrophs and autotrophs obtain food. Explain how human activities have made an impact on chemical cycles and biodiversity. Explain the importance of biodiversity and list four main threats to it.  ECOSYSTEM ITS COMPONENTS The biosphere includes that part of Earth where living things live in ecosystems. POPULATIONS INTERACT AMONG THEMSELVES WITH THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT in ecosystems. IT HAS BOTH BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC COMPONENTS. BIOTIC components: Populations of organisms that form a Community. ABIOTIC components: Nonliving components of the ecosystem. (e.g. sunlight, soil, water, temperature, and wind.)  ECOSYSTEM TYPES Two major types: TERRESTRIAL (≤25%) & AQUATIC (~75%) Terrestrial ecosystems: ‣ Biomes: desert, forests, grasslands and tundra. ⚠ Temperature and Rainfall define the Biomes.  ECOSYSTEM TYPES Two major types: TERRESTRIAL (≤25%) & AQUATIC (~75%) Aquatic ecosystems: ‣ Freshwater: Drinkable water (≤4%) ‣ Estuaries: In between. ‣ Marine: Ocean and Sea water (70%).  BIOTIC COMPONENTS THOSE ALIVE A. AUTOTROPHS or Producers require inorganic nutrients and energy to produce their own food. B. HETEROTROPHS or Consumers need a source of organic nutrients 1. HERBIVORES: Eat plants or algae. 2. CARNIVORES: Feed on other animals. 3. OMNIVORES: Feed on plants and animals. C. DETRITIVORE feed on decomposing particles of organic matter (earthworms, beetles, termites, ants). D. DECOMPOSERS break down dead organic matter, including animal wastes (bacteria and fungi). LEVELS OF CONSUMER THOSE WHO EAT OTHERS 1. Producer: Usually plants and algae. 2. Primary Consumer: Usually herbivore. 3. Secondary Consumer: Usually carnivore. 4. Tertiary Consumer + : Carnivore or Omnivore. WHO IS WHO? FOOD CHAINS WHO IS WHO? FOOD WEB INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SPECIES THOSE WHO COEXIST WITH OTHERS COMPETITION: Two organisms, same or different species fight for the same resources. PREDATION: An organism of one species (Predator) captures and feeds on different organism (Prey). SYMBIOSIS: Close interaction between two species. Three types: Mutualism: both members benefit. Commensalism: one species benefits and the other is not effected. Parasitism: Parasites are benefited and the host is harmed (ticks on dogs) COMPETITION PREDATION SYMBIOSIS MUTUALISM SYMBIOSIS COMMENSALISM SYMBIOSIS PARASITISM  FLOW OF ENERGY THE REAL CIRCLE OF LIFE TROPHIC LEVELS 10% RULE  FLOW OF ENERGY THROUGH TROPHIC LEVELS  PRODUCERS THE ORIGIN Autotrophs Photosynthetic or Chemosynthetic (deep at sea). TURN RADIATION ENERGY TO CHEMICAL ENERGY. GREATEST BIOMASS OF ANY TROPHIC LEVEL.  PRIMARY CONSUMERS THE HERBIVORES Heterotrophs Herbivores. THEY EAT THE PRODUCERS. SECONDARY CONSUMERS THE CARNIVORES Heterotrophs Carnivores. EAT THE FIRST CONSUMERS. TERTIARY CONSUMERS THE MIGHT OMNIVORES Heterotrophs Carnivores / Omnivores. EAT THE SECONDARY CONSUMERS.. TOP OF THE FOOD CHAIN. Least biomass of any other trophic level. Least stable trophic level. Population fluctuations are easier. END OF PRESENTATION Fundamentals of Life Science: STUDY OF LIFE EVOLUTION OBJECTIVES Describe Darwin's theory of evolution Define the terms fitness, adaptation and natural selection in terms of evolution List and describe the four types of evidence for evolution Understand the importance of mutations in the process of evolution.  BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION STORY OF ORIGIN The first true cells were the simplest forms of life, being PROKARYOTIC CELLS, which lack a nucleus. Later, EUKARYOTIC CELLS, which have nuclei, evolved (remember Endosymbiosis Theory?), followed by multicellular organisms. All of these types of organisms are alive today, each having its own EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY THAT IS TRACEABLE BACK TO THE FIRST CELLS. BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH A SPECIES CHANGES THROUGH TIME. It has 2 aspects: Descent from a common ancestor - explains why all living things have a common chemistry and cell structure. Adaptation to the environment - adaptation is a characteristic that makes an organism able to survive and reproduce in its environment. Adaptations to different environments help explain the diversity of life.  CHARLES DARWIN THEORY OF EVOLUTION Charles Darwin was an English naturalist who first formulated the THEORY OF EVOLUTION that has since been supported by so much data. He began to gather evidence that LIFE FORMS (ORGANISMS) CHANGE OVER TIME AND FROM PLACE TO PLACE. The TYPES OF EVIDENCE that convinced Darwin that common descent occurs were FOSSIL, ANATOMICAL, BIOCHEMICAL, and BIOGEOGRAPHICAL.  FOSSIL EVIDENCE PHYSICAL EVIDENCE Fossils are actual remains of species that lived on Earth up to billions of years ago. Fossils can be the traces of past life. Most are found in sedimentary rock. It is estimated that less than 1% of past species have been preserved as fossils, and only a fraction of these have been found. The fossil record tells us that life has progressed from the simple to the complex. BIOGEOGRAPHICAL EVIDENCE LOCATION EVIDENCE Biogeography is the study of the distribution of plants and animals in different places throughout the world. Such distributions are consistent with the hypothesis that life forms evolved in a particular locale before they spread out. So, you would expect a different mix of plants and animals whenever geography separated continents, islands, or seas. Evidence supports the hypothesis that evolution is influenced by the mix of plants and animals in a particular continent-by biogeography.  ANATOMICAL EVIDENCE SHAPE AND FORM EVIDENCE Darwin was able to show that a common descent hypothesis offers a plausible explanation for anatomical similarities among organisms. Forelimbs, for example, have different function according to the species, yet all vertebrate forelimbs have the same bones organized in similar ways. The explanation for this unity is that the basic forelimb plan belonged to a common ancestor, and was modified in the succeeding groups as each continued along its own evolutionary pathway.  BIOCHEMICAL EVIDENCE WE ALL SHARE SIMILAR Almost all living things use the same basic biochemical molecules, including DNA, ATP, and nearly identical Proteins. Organisms use the same DNA triplet code and the same 20 amino acids in their Proteins. Humans share a large number of genes with much simpler organisms. It appears that life’s diversity has come about by only a slight difference in the regulation of genes. EMBRYOLOGICAL EVIDENCE LOOK-ALIKE EMBRYOS VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES NO LONGER USEFUL Fundamentals of Life Science: STUDY OF LIFE NATURAL SELECTION *SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST. NATURAL SELECTION CHARLES DARWIN He observed 4 things: 1. EACH SPECIES PRODUCES MORE OFFSPRING THAN CAN SURVIVE. 2. These OFFSPRING COMPETE WITH EACH OTHER FOR THE LIMITED RESOURCES available to them. 3. ORGANISMS IN EVERY POPULATION VARY. 4. THE FITTEST OFFSPRING, or those with the most favorable traits are the MOST LIKELY TO SURVIVE AND THEREFORE PRODUCE A SECOND GENERATION.  IMPORTANT CONCEPTS VARIATION: Individual members of a species vary in physical characteristics NATURAL SELECTION PROCESS (Phenotype). This can be passed from generation to generation. COMPETITION (FOR LIMITED RESOURCES): Individuals in a population tend to stabilize depending on the resources available. ADAPTATION: Those members of a population with advantageous traits capture more resources and are more likely to reproduce and pass on these traits. EVOLUTION: Is the change in gene frequency in one species over many generations. Seeks to explain common ancestry and current life diversity.  FITNESS LIVE LONG AND PROSPER The characteristics favored by natural selection are the ones with the highest overall fitness. A measurement of how well organisms SURVIVE AND REPRODUCE. Fitness is defined as THE NUMBER OF OFFSPRING THAT ORGANISMS with a particular genotype or phenotype LEAVE BEHIND, on average, as compared to others in the population. Natural selection is the gradual, nonrandom process by which biological characteristics NATURAL SELECTION remain (either more or less common) in SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST a population. It is a key mechanism of evolution. Different from Artificial Selection which we now call ”Selective Breeding”. Variation in genetics from organisms happens because random mutations, which may be passed to offspring. Individuals with certain variants of the trait may survive and reproduce more than individuals with other variants. Therefore the population evolves.  NATURAL SELECTION SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST Natural selection acts on the PHYSICAL ASPECT of an organism, but the GENETIC basis that gives a reproductive advantage will become more common in a population. Over time, this process can result in populations that specialize for particular ecological areas and may eventually result in the EMERGENCE OF A NEW SPECIES. END OF PRESENTATION Introduction to Life Science: STUDY OF LIFE ORIGIN OF LIFE OBJECTIVES KNOW THAT DIFFERENT THEORIES on the origin of life EXIST. RECOGNIZE THE EVIDENCE that supports the origin of life. DESCRIBE THE CONDITIONS OF (PRIMITIVE) EARTH’s early atmosphere. DESCRIBE MILLER’S EXPERIMENT and how it supports the theory of chemical evolution. DESCRIBE THE PHENOMENA that came about to produce THE FIRST LIVING CELLS. SUMMARIZE THE ENDOSYMBIOSIS THEORY of the origin of life THE ORIGIN OF LIFE The STUDY OF EVOLUTION BEGINS WITH THE ORIGIN OF LIFE. THE CELL THEORY STATES THAT ALL LIVING THINGS ARE MADE OF CELLS AND THAT EVERY CELL COMES FROM A PRE-EXISTING CELL. So…how did the first cell come about? The cell was THE FIRST LIVING THING, SO IT HAD TO COME FROM NONLIVING CHEMICALS. THE CHEMICAL THEORY STATES THAT CHEMICAL EVOLUTION PRODUCED THE FIRST CELLS on the primitive Earth. THE CELL THEORY Is the Basic principles of Biology: Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, and Rudolph Virchow are credited with the formulation of the Cell Theory. The Cell Theory states: 1. ALL LIVING ORGANISMS ARE COMPOSED OF CELLS. THEY MAY BE UNICELLULAR OR MULTICELLULAR. (Schleiden & Schwann 1839) 2. THE CELL IS THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE.. (Schleiden & Schwann 1839) 3. CELLS ARISE FROM PRE-EXISTING CELLS. (Virchow 1858) THE CHEMICAL THEORY Explains HOW THE FIRST CELLS AROSE ON THE PRIMITIVE EARTH. It states that the first living thing, came from NONLIVING CHEMICALS.  THE PRIMITIVE EARTH The primitive atmosphere contained gases, including water vapor (H20), carbon dioxide (C02), methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3) , that escaped from volcanoes. Oxygen was not present. As the water vapor cooled, some gases were washed into the oceans by rain. The availability of energy from volcanic eruption and lightning allowed gases to form small organic molecules, such as nucleotides and amino acids Small organic molecules could have joined to form proteins and nucleic acids, which became incorporated into membrane-bound spheres. The spheres became the first cells, called PROTOCELLS. Later PROTOCELLS became TRUE CELLS that could reproduce.  CH4 NH3 H2O CH4 NH3 CH4 CO2 NH3 CO2 CO2 H2O H2O H2O  THE OPARIN-HALDANE HYPOTHESIS 1920 “PRIMORDIAL SOUP” Hypothesis: Stated that the early earth was made up of water vapor (H2O), hydrogen gas (H2), methane (CH4), and ammonia (NH3). Oxygen alone was not present. Nitrogen (N2) Ammonia Methane (CH4) Suggested that IF the primitive atmosphere was (NH3) reducing (as opposed to oxygen-rich), and IF there was an appropriate supply of energy, such as lightning or ultraviolet light, THEN a wide range of organic compounds might be created. COMPOUNDS COULD HAVE EXPERIMENTED A SERIES OF REACTIONS LEADING TO MORE AND MORE COMPLEX Carbon Hydrogen (H2) BIOMOLECULES, TAKING PART IN EVOLUTIONARY Water (H2O) Dioxide (CO2) PROCESSES, EVENTUALLY LEADING TO THE FIRST LIFEFORMS.  CH4 NH3 H2O CH4 NH3 CH4 CO2 NH3 CO2 CO2 H2O H2O H2O  BIOMOLECULES Carbohydrate Lipid Nitrogen Base Aminoacid  THE MILLER-UREY EXPERIMENT 1953 In 1953, STANLEY MILLER PERFORMED AN EXPERIMENT TO TEST THE HYPOTHESIS OF CHEMICAL EVOLUTION. (“PRIMODIAL SOUP HYPOTHESIS”) To simulate the Earth’s early environment, Miller placed the INORGANIC MATERIALS believed to have been present on the early Earth in a closed system, heated it, and circulated it past an electrical spark. After a week, the solution contained a variety of amino acids and organic compounds. THIS EXPERIMENT SUPPORTS THE HYPOTHESIS THAT INORGANIC CHEMICALS MAY FORM SMALL ORGANIC MOLECULES IN THE PRESENCE OF A STRONG ENERGY SOURCE, EVEN IF OXYGEN IS NOT PRESENT > (REDUCING REACTIONS).  THE TRUE CELL THE CHEMICAL THEORY The hypothesis currently accepted by scientists states that the origin of life followed a transition from: 1. SMALL ORGANIC MOLECULES to MACROMOLECULES. 2. MACROMOLECULES to PROTOCELLS 3. From PROTOCELLS to TRUE CELLS Once the protocell was capable of reproduction, it became a TRUE CELL, and biological evolution began.  THE TRUE CELL THE CHEMICAL THEORY 1. ORGANIC MONOMERS. Simple organic molecules, called monomers, evolved from inorganic compounds before the existence of cells. 2. ORGANIC POLYMERS. Organic monomers were joined, to form organic polymers. 3. PROTOBIONTS. Organic polymers became enclosed in a membrane to form the first cell precursors, called protobionts (protocells). 4. LIVING CELLS. Protobionts acquired the ability to self-replicate (MITOSIS + MEIOSIS), as well as other cellular properties. And the first TRUE CELL was formed.  ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EUKARYOTIC CELL The fossil record suggests that the first cells were PROKARYOTIC (SINGLE-CELLED ORGANISMS), therefore, scientist believe that EUKARYOTIC (MULTI-CELLULAR ORGANISMS) cells evolved from them. The EUKARYOTIC cell probably evolved in stages that are known as ENDOSYMBIOSIS.  ENDOSYMBIOSIS ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EUKARYOTIC CELL  ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EUKARYOTIC CELL  ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY STAGES 1. Cell GAINS A NUCLEUS by the plasma membrane invaginating and surrounding the DNA with a double membrane. Nucleus allows specific functions to be assigned, freeing up cellular resources for other work. 2. Cell GAINS AN ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM by proliferation of membrane. Increased surface area allows higher rate of transport of materials within a cell. 3. Cell GAINS MITOCHONDRIA. Ability to metabolize sugars in the presence of oxygen enables greater function and success. 4. Cell GAINS CHLOROPLASTS. Ability to produce sugars from sunlight enables greater function and success  BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EUKARYOTIC CELL Biological evolution is the process by which a species changes through time. IT HAS 2 ASPECTS: DESCENT FROM A COMMON ANCESTOR - Explains why all living things have a COMMON CHEMISTRY AND CELL STRUCTURE. ADAPTATION TO THE ENVIRONMENT - Adaptation is a characteristic that MAKES AN ORGANISM able to SURVIVE and reproduce in its environment; HELPS EXPLAIN THE DIVERSITY OF LIFE.  BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EUKARYOTIC CELL END OF PRESENTATION Fundamentals of Life Science: CELL AND ITS PROCESSES BIOMOLECULES OBJECTIVES DEFINE ORGANIC MOLECULES. Describe the RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MONOMERS AND POLYMERS. Describe the CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES INTO SIMPLE AND COMPLEX AND GIVE EXAMPLES of food sources. Identify the GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LIPIDS. DESCRIBE FUNCTION OF TRIGLYCERIDES AND PHOSPHOLIPIDS. List the FUNCTION OF PROTEINS. IDENTIFY THE DIFFERENT BIOMOLECULES found in different foods. IDENTIFY AND DESCRIBE THE MONOMER FROM NUCLEIC ACIDS. DESCRIBE THE FUNCTION OF DNA, RNA AND ATP.  TYPES OF MOLECULES INORGANIC MOLECULES CONSTITUTE NONLIVING MATTER, BUT some of them PLAY IMPORTANT ROLES in living things, such as SALTS AND WATER. ORGANIC MOLECULES CONSTITUTE LIVING MATTER, and for this reason are also called BIOMOLECULES. They ALWAYS CONTAIN CARBON AND HYDROGEN atoms. The CARBON ATOM IS ABLE TO FORM FOUR COVALENT BONDS WITH OTHER ATOMS, forming long hydrocarbons chains or rings.  BIOMOLECULES FOUND IN FOOD FOR GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT CARBOHYDRATES, such as BREAD, potatoes, RICE and PASTA are digested to SUGARS. PROTEINS, such as MEAT, EGGS, CHICKEN, FISH and PORK are digested to AMINO ACIDS. LIPIDS, such as OILS, BUTTER and FATS are digested to GLYCEROL and FATTY ACIDS. BIOMOLECULES = MOLECULES OF LIFE There are FOUR MAIN BIOMOLECULES that Biomolecules are large molecules called POLYMERS make up cells: made up of smaller molecules called MONOMERS. MONOMER + MONOMER(S) = POLYMER.  BIOMOLECULES BUILD UP AND BREAK DOWN MONOMERS join together to form POLYMERS by a DEHYDRATION REACTION in which water is removed. POLYMERS are broken down to form MONOMERS during a HYDROLYSIS in which water breaks the REACTION bonds between monomers.  CARBOHYDRATES C(H20) Structure Presence of the atomic grouping H-C-OH, in which the RATIO OF HYDROGEN ATOMS TO OXYGEN ATOMS IS 2:1 Since this ratio is the same as the ratio in water, the name “hydrates of carbon”. Classification ❖ SIMPLE carbohydrates Functions Monosaccharides Quick fuel. Short term energy storage. Disaccharides Structure of organisms ❖ COMPLEX carbohydrates Cell to cell recognition Polysaccharides  CARBOHYDRATES CLASSIFICATION SIMPLE-CARBOHYDRATES COMPLEX-CARBOHYDRATES MONOSACCHARIDES: Sugars with 3-7 carbon atoms: POLYSACCHARIDES: MANY MONOSACCHARIDES: GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE AND GALACTOSE ✓ Starch: STORAGE FORM OF GLUCOSE IN PLANTS. DISACCHARIDES: 2 MONOSACCHARIDES: ✓ Glycogen: THE STORAGE FORM OF GLUCOSE IN ANIMALS. ✓ GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE= sucrose ✓ Cellulose: FOUND IN THE CELL WALLS OF PLANTS. (FIBER) ✓ GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE = lactose ✓ GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE = maltose CARBOHYDRATES CLASSIFICATION  CARBOHYDRATES FROM MONOS TO POLY A disaccharide consists of two monosaccharides joined by a GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE, a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction. Dehydration LIPIDS Characteristics HYDROPHOBIC: Lipids do not dissolve in water. HYPER-CALORIC: Lipids contain more energy (calories) per gram than other biomolecules. Lipids: 9 kcal/gram Proteins: 4 kcal/gram Carbohydrates: 4 cal/gram LIPIDS Classification Diverse in structure and function. TRIGLYCERIDES: Energy storage PHOSPHOLIPIDS: Cell membrane STEROIDS: Sex hormones / Cholesterol  LIPIDS TRIGLYCERIDES Structure Triglycerides = ONE GLYCEROL + 3 FATTY ACIDS. Ester Linkage = Link between them. Dehydration Functions Long term energy storage Insulates against heat loss Forms protective cushion around major organs. 6 5 4 3 2 1  OILS LIPIDS PLANT origin Contain UNSATURATED fatty acids CLASSIFICATION LIQUID at room temperature Includes corn oil. FATS ANIMAL origin Contain SATURATED fatty acids SOLID at room temperature Include butter and lard.  LIPIDS FATTY ACIDS A FATTY ACID is a hydrocarbon chain containing 16 to 18 carbon atoms and ending with an acidic functional group -COOH. SATURATED FATTY ACIDS contain only single bonds in the hydrocarbon chain. UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS contain at least one double bond in the hydrocarbon chain. TRANS FATTY ACIDS result from the hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids.  LIPIDS PHOSPHOLIPIDS Structure Phospholipids are constructed like fats, EXCEPT THAT IN PLACE OF THE THIRD FATTY ACID, THEY HAVE A POLAR PHOSPHATE GROUP. The POLAR (HYDROPHILIC) HEAD is soluble in water, whereas the two NON-POLAR (HYDROPHOBIC) TAILS are not. Function Phospholipids are the PRIMARY COMPONENTS OF CELLULAR MEMBRANES. They spontaneously form a BILAYER in which the hydrophilic heads faces the water and the hydrophobic tails face each other.  LIPIDS STEROIDS Structure and Classification Backbone of FOUR FUSED CARBON RINGS; their attached group differ. Examples of steroids include: Cholesterol Estrogen Testosterone Function Cholesterol has several important functions: It is a component of the cell’s membrane. It is the precursor of several other steroids like bile salts, and the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone. Estrogen is the female sex hormone that helps maintain sexual organs and secondary sex characteristics in the female. Testosterone is the male sex hormone that helps maintain sexual organs and secondary sex characteristics in the male. END OF PART I PROTEINS Function Proteins have important functions in cells. STRUCTURE: Keratin and Collagen. ENZYMES: Speed up the chemical reactions of metabolism. TRANSPORT: Hemoglobin MEMBRANE CROSS: Across cell membranes. ANTIBODIES: Immune system defends the body. REGULATION: Insulin. CONTRACTION: Actin and Myosin, muscles contract. PROTEINS Structure AMINO ACID + AMINO ACID = PROTEINS. AMINO Monomer: Amino Acid (NH2) Polymer: Protein. Amino Acids contain: Amino group (-NH2) Acidic group (-COOH) R group (What makes it different) H Atom. α-carbon Attached to a central carbon atom. CARBOX YL (COOH)  PROTEINS Structure Peptide Bond joins two amino acids. Dehydration Polypeptide IS A SINGLE CHAIN OF AMINO ACIDS. PROTEINS ORGANIZATION PROTEINS ORGANIZATION  PROTEINS ORGANIZATION The structure of a protein has three or four levels of organization. 1. PRIMARY STRUCTURE IS THE ORDER OF AMINO ACIDS in the peptide chain. 2. SECONDARY STRUCTURE is the hydrogen bonding between amino acids that form ALPHA HELIX OR BETA PLEATED SHEETS 3. TERTIARY STRUCTURE is due to covalent bonds between R groups that form the GLOBULAR SHAPE of a peptide, 3D SHAPE. 4. QUATERNARY STRUCTURE occurs when TWO OR MORE PEPTIDE CHAINS JOIN to form a protein. The final shape of a protein conditions its function.  NUCLEIC ACIDS Structure Nucleotide + Nucleotide = Nucleic acids. Monomer: Nucleotide Polymer: Nucleic Acid. Nucleotides form a strand. Backbone: Phosphate and Charbohydrates., with the bases projecting to one side. THE TWO TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS : DNA (dEOXYRIBOnUCLEIC aCID) RNA (rIBOnUCLEIC aCID).  31 Unit 1 - Chemistry of Life  NUCLEIC ACIDS ⇉ ENABLES LIVING ORGANISMS TO REPRODUCE THEIR COMPLEX COMPONENTS FROM ONE GENERATION TO THE NEXT. ⇇ FINAL RESULT: PROTEIN Functions ❖ Functions of DNA FINAL RESULT: Stores genetic information in the cell PROTEIN and in the organism Replicates and transmits this information when a cell reproduces and when an organism reproduces.  NUCLEIC ACIDS ⇉ ENABLES LIVING ORGANISMS TO REPRODUCE THEIR COMPLEX COMPONENTS FROM ONE GENERATION TO THE NEXT. ⇇ FINAL RESULT: PROTEIN Functions FINAL RESULT: ❖ Functions of RNA PROTEIN RNA is a helper to make proteins; so it’s involved in Protein Synthesis. (we’ll see this later).  NUCLEIC ACIDS ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is responsible for mediating most energy coupling in cells, and in most cases it acts as the immediate SOURCE OF ENERGY THAT POWERS CELLULAR WORK. Ribose + Nitrogenous Base (Adenine) + Three Phosphate groups = ATP ADP ⇋ ATP  Mitochondria Inner Membrane Mitochondria Organelle for Energy (ATP) ADP ⇀ ATP END OF PRESENTATION Introduction to Life Science: STUDY OF LIFE CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE OBJECTIVES Identify the 7 characteristics of living things.  BIOLOGY Βίολογία: Biology - Biología - Biologie - Biologia - 생물학 - 生物学 βίος (bíos, “bio-, life”) + -λογία (-logía, “-logy, branch of study, to speak”). Biology is a natural science that studies living things and how they interact with each other and their environment. It examines the origin, structure, function, growth, and evolution of living things. It also classifies them. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS All living things share 7 basic characteristics: 4. They respond to stimuli. 1. They are organized. 5. They reproduce 2. They acquire materials and energy. 6. They grow and develop 3. They are homeostatic. 7. They adapt and evolve  CHEMICAL BIOLOGICAL LEVELS ORGAN LEVELS TISSUE CELL ORGAN MOLECULE SYSTEM ATOM ORGANISM …in a HIERARCHY of levels POPULATION BIOSPHERE ECOLOGICAL LEVELS COMMUNITY LIVING THINGS HAVE LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION BIOME ECOSYSTEM  LIVING THINGS HAVE ATOM LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION CHEMICAL LEVEL SMALLEST UNIT OF AN ELEMENT. ATOM = ELEMENT COMPOSED OF ELECTRONS, PROTONS AND NEUTRONS  LIVING THINGS HAVE MOLECULE LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION CHEMICAL LEVEL ATOM + ATOM(S) = MOLECULE IT COULD BE THE SAME OR DIFFERENT ELEMENT. EXAMPLES: WATER, GLUCOSE, DNA, CARBOHYDRATES.  LIVING THINGS HAVE CELL LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION BIOLOGICAL LEVEL SMALLEST LIVING UNIT. STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIVING THINGS. MADE UP OF MANY MOLECULES. ANIMAL VS PLANT CELLS.  LIVING THINGS HAVE TISSUE LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION BIOLOGICAL LEVEL CELL + CELLS (S) = TISSUE GROUP OF CELLS WITH COMMON STRUCTURE, FUNCTION AND PURPOSE. DEPENDING THE TYPE OF CELLS WILL BE THE TYPE OF TISSUE.  LIVING THINGS HAVE ORGAN LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION BIOLOGICAL LEVEL TISSUE + TISSUE (S) = ORGAN GROUP OF TISSUES WITH FUNCTIONING TOGETHER FOR A SPECIFIC PURPOSE. AN ORGAN HAS A SPECIFIC TASK.  LIVING THINGS HAVE ORGAN SYSTEM LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION BIOLOGICAL LEVEL ORGAN + ORGAN(S) = ORGAN SYSTEM GROUP OF ORGANS WORKING TOGETHER FOR A SPECIFIC PURPOSE AN ORGAN SYSTEM HAS A SPECIFIC TASK.  LIVING THINGS HAVE ORGANISM LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION BIOLOGICAL LEVEL ORGAN SYSTEM + ORGAN SYSTEM(S) = ORGANISM AN INDIVIDUAL. MANY SPECIES OF ORGANISMS.  LIVING THINGS HAVE POPULATION LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION ECOLOGICAL LEVEL ORGANISM + ORGANISM(S) = POPULATION MUST BE ORGANISMS OF THE SAME SPECIES.  LIVING THINGS HAVE COMMUNITY LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION ECOLOGICAL LEVEL POPULATION + POPULATION(S) = COMMUNITY INTERACTING POPULATIONS IN A PARTICULAR AREA.  LIVING THINGS HAVE ECOSYSTEM LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION ECOLOGICAL LEVEL COMMUNITY + NONLIVING SURROUNDINGS = ECOSYSTEM COMMUNITY + PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT  LIVING THINGS HAVE BIOSPHERE LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION ECOLOGICAL LEVEL ALL ECOSYSTEMS COMBINED = BIOSPHERE REGIONS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST, WATERS, AND ATMOSPHERE INHABITED BY LIVING ORGANISMS. SO FAR ONLY 1 EXISTS.  LIVING THINGS HAVE LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION BIOLOGICAL LEVELS  LIVING THINGS ACQUIRE MATERIALS AND ENERGY Necessary to keep their organization and carry on life’s other activities. PLANTS USE CO2 , H2O AND SOLAR ENERGY to make their own food in a process called PHOTOSYNTHESIS. HUMANS AND OTHER ORGANISMS need to EAT FOOD to acquire materials and energy in a process called CELLULAR RESPIRATION.  LIVING THINGS HAVE HOMEOSTASIS HOMEOSTASIS means STAYING IN THE SAME CONDITIONS. ALL ORGAN SYSTEMS CONTRIBUTE TO HOMEOSTASIS. Important and necessary for the INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT (e.g. blood, organs, temperature).  LIVING THINGS RESPOND TO STIMULI MOVE TOWARDS OR AWAY from a stimulus such as the sight of food. Movement is dependent on the NERVOUS AND MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM. The movement of an organism constitutes much of its BEHAVIOR AND LEARNING.  LIVING THINGS SEXUAL REPRODUCE When living things REPRODUCE, they EGG create a COPY OF THEMSELVES and ensure the CONTINUATION OF THEIR OWN SPECIES. ZYGOTE BABY The purpose of reproduction is to SPERM PASS ON A COPY OF THE GENETIC INFORMATION TO THE OFFSPRING. ASEXUAL Genes in the form of DNA ALLOW CELLS AND ORGANISMS TO REPRODUCE. DNA directs the cell’s structure and function by PROTEIN SYNTHESIS, controlling its structure and metabolism.  LIVING THINGS HAVE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT GROWTH is an INCREASE IN THE SIZE of an organism OR in the NUMBER OF CELLS, and is part of development. DEVELOPMENT includes ALL the CHANGES that take place BETWEEN CONCEPTION AND DEATH. It also includes all the repairs that take place following an injury.  LIVING THINGS ADAPT AND EVOLVE VARIATION OF TRAITS exists within all populations of organisms. When a particular VARIATION ALLOWS CERTAIN SPECIES TO SURVIVE in a new environment, it IS CALLED AN ADAPTATION The individuals of species that are better adapted to their environment tend to LIVE LONGER AND PRODUCE MORE OFFSPRING. This is KNOWN AS FITNESS The CHANGE IN THE FREQUENCY OF TRAITS IN A POPULATION AND SPECIES OVER TIME IS called EVOLUTION through NATURAL SELECTION. END OF PRESENTATION