High-Rise Buildings.pdf

--------- - UNDERSTANDING THE VERTICAL CHALLENGES  IJ Fire Protection Systems 4.1 Active Fire Protection Systems...

--------- - UNDERSTANDING THE VERTICAL CHALLENGES  IJ Fire Protection Systems 4.1 Active Fire Protection Systems One significant benefit in a high-rise active fire protection system is the information provided by the FACP. Firefighters arriving at the FACP can size up Occupant safety of any structure is paramount, and device activations and the status of the different build­ tall buildings present significant occupant safety chal­ ing systems. The FACP area is the preferred location lenges. A balanced, active fire protection system is for the fire command center (FCC) when it is located vital to meet this challenge. It provides increased life in or near the main lobby entrance. The FACP area is safety measures not only for the owners, occupants, not always found in the lobby area, however, and thus visitors, and contractors, but also for firefighters and its location needs to be clearly identified in the prein­ other first responders. cident fire and battle plans for the building. The active fire protection system CFPS) in a tall 4.1.1 How do active fire protection building will accomplish the following: systems and fire alarm control 1. Automatically trigger the fire alarm system (FAS) panels aid in controlling fires? before the arrival of the fire department/brigade The fire protection systems (FPS) extinguish or con­ or other emergency services. trol the fire and fire spread. They also aid in providing 2. Activate the FAS and annunciate the detection of smoke-free egress and access routes and ensure the a fire condition at the fire alarm control panel necessary exit lighting, directional signs, and stair (FACP) when it has the capability. and corridor markings. The FACP notifies the fire and 3. Identify the location of the device that has emergency services that a potential problem has devel­ activated and make an appropriate announce­ oped at the building location, and people may need ment over the FACP voice communication their help. The FACP also notifies the occupants and system. visilurs LhaL an occurrence has developed, and it is necessary for them to take appropriate actions to avoid When required, the FPS systems will activate the being injured. While the FPS automated operations following: can be an asset in lessening the initial fire and smoke movement, the FACP at the fire command center iden­ 1. Fire pump and sprinkler system waterflow alarm tifies the type of initiating device, the floor number, 2. FAS smoke control system connected to the and even the room location in some instances. The HVAC system, shutting down the affected area FACP data display window will start an initial situa­ and closing the smoke dampers tion awareness process to investigate the cause of the 3. Stairwell pressurization; release stairwell reentry fire alarm and receive further feedback from building doors, and when connected to the FAS, the floor personnel before the arrival of the fire and emergency fire doors; recall the affected elevator bank cars service personnel. in a Phase I mode when a lobby or elevator This up-to-date information will enable the inci­ machine room smoke detector and sprinkler dent commander to ascertain what actions have been waterflow alarm is activated; and the building's taken and what actions should be taken next. If the fire extinguishing system when present actions taken up to this point have controlled the 77 78 High-Rise Buildings: Understanding the Vertical Challenges problem, then after verifying this to be true, the IC Frustration because they cannotrapidly get can announce an "all-clear" signal, which allows the where they need to go. occupants to return to their normal activities. Once Frustration when they are reassigned from the..... the all-clear announcement has been given, building attack team to a different type of service, such as :, ;'\ management should be directed to restore the FPS helping occupants with disabilities evacuate. and FACP to t_heir normal working order and deter­ Frustration from fire alarms ringing and mine wh t went wrong and what needs to be done to causing noise annoyance and noise pollution. prevent a recurrence. If it is an actual event that needs to be controlled by the intervention of the firefighters, 4.1.4 How are fire protection systems the IC would implement the building's "battle plan" inadvertently hampered? for the floors involved and implement the actions and There are several ways that fire protection systems activities necessary to control fire and smoke move­ may inadvertently be hampered: ment, assist and direct the evacuation and rescue process, and deploy the necessary firefighting forces Central monitoring station placed on hold by to extinguish the fire. taking the FAS offline without any justification Signage and color codes incorrect 4.1.2 What are the challenges or fears the System shut down by contractors and uninten­ occupants might experience once the fire tionally not put back online alarm system has been activated? Parts of system tampered with by occupants and Occupants may experience any of the following: visitors; vandalism Replacement parts improperly installed, not the Fear of the unknown and uncertainty concern­ right size, or functioning differently than ing what they are experiencing original parts Trepidation at having to leave their belongings Aggravation with other occupants leaving too slowly and impeding the escape efforts Confusion from directions to do something that 4.2 Fire Command Center (FCC) is counterintuitive to them Forced air (stairwell pressurization) in their The main purpose of the fire command center is to faces as they descend the stairs display a fire alarm activation on the alarm panel, Fire alarms ringing and causing frustration by provide emergency voice communications to the occu­ interfering with other communication pants and to serve as an interior command post when circumstances allow. The FCC may be posted by a competent fire and life safety director or be unat­ 4.1.3 What are the challenges or frustrations tended until the fire department/brigade arrives. A firefighters might experience once the fire tall building FCC/FACP may be found behind a lobby alarm system has been activated? concierge desk, on a lobby wall, in a room off the lobby, Firefighters may encounter any of the following: or in some cases, below grade in a separate room. The location of the FCC must be clearly indicated on the Prior to FD arrival, be aware that in high-rise preincident fire plan (fig. 4-1). residential occupancies, an automatic fire alarm While the building code for new construction one-way voice system may have made emergency specifies an FCC room, a command center for action announcements informing occupants all-hazard threats may compromise a building lobby. beyond the fire apartment to evacuate the Further consideratim s for al). FCC should include the building. (More information about making need for a strategic location, e.g., the street side of building announcements is presented in appen­ the building with fire department/brigade exterior dix 4.11.6.) access, and/or blast-resistive construction with a Having to interact with occupants coming down blast-resistant window looking into the lobby area. the stairs as firefighters are trying to get up the It is recommended that a secondary FACP should be stairs while carrying heavy equipment. remotely located on a floor other than the lobby floor Delay as they go up the stairs due to overcrowd­ and be equipped with voice communication capabil­ ing of the stairs. ity, among other features. (More information on fire  4 Fire Protection Systems 79 Fig. 4-1. A tall building lobby desk FCC with a fire alarm Fig. 4-2. A floor fire warden red phone is usually located control panel that has a two-way voice communication at the stairwell exit door. This red phone may also be capability to the fire alarm speakers and floor red warden used by the fire department/brigade if there is a problem phones with their portable radios. command centers is presented later in this chapter in the appendix, section 4.11.1, and in chapter 8, section 8.3.3.) 4.3 Fire Alarm Control Panel (FACP) Beside the FACP receiving and identifying an initiat­ ing alarm device activation at the FCC, it also features either a two-way or one-way voice communication system to notify the occupants and to support fire department/brigade operations. A two-way voice Fig. 4-3. A fire department/brigade plug-in phone may be communication system will feature a message over found in the stairwell by the standpipe riser or the elevator lobby. The red plug-in phone above is connected the speakers on individual floors to the occupants. to a reel (blue disc) to extend the phone line. The message may be amplified on select floors and/ or broadcast throughout the building over the FACP especially in hotels and apartment buildings, where speaker system (fig. 4-1). Communications may also other than in the apartment or hotel room of fire be conveyed in a limited way via a wall-mounted floor origin, a shelter-in-place tactic may be directed by red fire warden phone (fig. 4-2) or fire department/ the incident commander. (For more information, refer brigade plug-in phone floor portal on individual floors to chapter 8, section 8.3.3.1, "FACP voice alarm com­ at specific locations (e.g., standpipe locations and munication systems at the FCC.") egress points on the floor) (fig. 4-3). When fire depart­ The average fire alarm and detection system (FAS) ment/brigade plug-in phones are available, they usu­ life cycle is 15 years. This period is not written in the ally are found at or near the FCC. Where these red codes or standards but is a generally accepted indus­ phones are found, the fire department/brigade should try standard. With older systems, it is possible that operate them ( especially the plug-in types) on any fire component production to support repairs on the FAS response to a tall building not only to verify that the may occur on a less frequent basis, making longer system works, but also to familiarize fire companies wait times for parts, or production may cease all with a secondary means of communication. together. Either way this will exacerbate rectifying A one-way voice communication system will fea­ FAS system malfunctions. ture a message that is amplified either on select floors or throughout the building over the FACP speaker 4.3.1 Fire alarm activation system to notify the occupants. This feature will also A functional FACP that is online is the first line of support fire department/brigade operations, defense as an early warning system, especially in a 80 High-Rise Buildings: Understanding the Vertical Challenges tall building environment. Taking the building FACP policy. These proactive measures helped reduce the system off-line for any period during normal business number of times the FDNY Manhattan had to dispatch occupancy hours (e.g., 08:00-16:00) is not a viable a full response force (one battalion chief, three engine solution for addressing any problems with the system, companies, and two ladder companies). Instances of especially an unwarranted or unnecessary fire alarm full response dropped from around 300 responses per that may cause a fire department/brigade response. year to less than 48 per year. In many large metropolc For FACP malfunctions, especially those hindering itan areas, a normal full response force is dispatched normal business operations, the NFPA recommends for fire alarm system alerts at some large complexes increasing the frequency of routine fire alarm inspec­ or other notable buildings where many occupants tions to ensure the system is compliant and properly will be affected by fire or other all -hazard incidents. working. (Fire alarm systems are explained in greater Such a significant number of fire units arriving at the detail later in this chapter.) scene often disrupts the operations, activities, and schedules of building occupants where the fire alarm 4.3.1.1 Unwarranted/unnecessary fire alarms. A tall build­ was transmitted, along with occupants of other build­ ing FACP may experience various fire alarm activa­ ings in the surrounding areas. The fire units arriving tions, such as a malicious alarm, caused deliberately do not intend to disrupt business as usual; they are by a person, or a nuisance unwarranted alarm, which there to rectify something that has gone wrong. Their occurs by mistake. Unwarranted alarms may occur very presence does disrupt, however, and it reportedly due to defects in the alarm or control panel or from can lead to significant business losses. The impact improper maintenance of the device, equipment, or on business interruptions is not as great when only system. Another possibility is improper placement of one unit responds. a smoke detector. An unwarranted alarm may be The maintenance and cleaning frequency of the caused by the FACP being tested or serviced, as well FACP system depends on the type of equipment and as from ordinary occurrences such as burnt micro­ the ambient conditions (see NFPA 3: Standard for wave food or cigarette smoke. Unwarranted alarm Commissioning of Fire Protection and Life Safety activations may also result from normal maintenance Systems2). An ambient tall building condition may activities, especially hot work repairs, that are under dictate a six-month interval to clean the fire alarm control but are generating heat or smoke. Such alarms devices (smoke, HVAC duct detector) rather than an do not warrant fire department/brigade safety con­ annual cleaning. The cleaning cycle is subject to the cerns. Because of an increase in FACP unwarranted/ amount and type of dirt and dust accumulation on unnecessary fire alarm activations, some fire depart­ detecting devices, as well as mechanical equipment ments/brigades have reduced their normal full fire and elevator hoistway rooms. (Additional information alarm (fire companies) assignment to only one engine about unnecessary and unwarranted fire alarms is company. In these cases, unless a 911 follow-up call presented in appendix 4.11.2.) is made to report a fire or smoke condition and was received and forwarded to the fire alarm dispatcher, Code Segment: Inspection, Testing, and the first-arriving fire company could be confronted Maintenance of the FACP with a challenge. The first-arriving company may need to perform multiple tasks to ensure the life safety NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code Handbook, of the occupants before the arrival of additional fire 2016 ed., Chapter 16 Inspection, Testing and Maintenance units and a chief officer to assume command. To help reduce FACP malfunctions, an effective Source. Richard J. Roux and Christoph er D. Coache, eds., preventive maintenance program should be in place. "Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance," chapter 16 in NFPA Instructions on how to implement such a program 72: National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code Handbook (Quincy, can be found in NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm and MA: NFPA, 2016). Signaling Code Handbook.1 It is also important to rec­ ognize that inspection, testing, and maintenance must be conducted according to the manufacturer's 4.3.1.2 FACP manual voice communication scripts for fire instructions. A major hospital complex extending the departments/brigades. Fire departments/brigades length of three city blocks adopted an NFPA-compliant should be aware of the different types of FACP voice fire alarm device maintenance program, along with alarm communication systems used in high-rise build­ a new quarterly fire alarm inspection and testing ings. Some high-rise buildings may have a one-way  4 Fire Protection Systems 81 FACP voice alarm communication system that announces a prerecorded, scripted message prior to fire department/brigade arrival. A two-way FACP voice communication system will also feature floor warden phones. An on-duty fire and life safety direc­ tor will make an initial manual announcement before the fire department/brigade arrives. (More informa­ tion about fire and life safety directors and voice alarm communication systems is presented in chapter 8, sections 8.3.2 and 8.3.3.1.) For an FACP automatic voice messaging system, a fire department/brigade should develop pre-scripted messages. On fire department/brigade arrival, a fire unit should make a manual voice announcement tell­ ing occupants that the fire department/brigade has arrived at the building, followed by further instruc­ Fig. 4-4. Above the stairwell door is a pressurization system tions or information for the building occupants. These supply louver that adjusts according to the pressure scripted building announcements "should be differential within the stairwell to maintain an acceptable pressure as various doors open and close. An acceptable well-planned, short, precise, and action oriented. The pressure would not prevent doors from being openable purpose is to deter the independent actions of build­ with an effort greater than 30 psi (2.1 bar) of force. ing occupants that would place them in harm's way."3 (More information about making building announce­ and directed to begin to move according to a staged ments is presented in sections 4.11.6 and 4.11.7.) evacuation from several floors that would be identi­ fied in the pre-incident fire plan. The areas that would initially be evacuated would 4.3.2 Other FAS components include the fire floor, two floors above the fire floor, 4.3.2.1 Fixed systems. Other FAS components at the and two floors below the fire floor. Occupants will FCC that can further support fire department/brigade evacuate to an IBRA floor location area that has com­ operations include the stairwell pressurization system, munication with the building's fire brigade or FCC firefighters' manual smoke control system, reentry personnel. When this first notification is completed, doors manual release, Phase I automatic elevator bank occupants above the primary fire evacuation area recall, and the FAS/central monitoring station manual should be notified that a fire event has been reported, switch (to ensure the fire alarm is transmitted to the the fire department/brigade is responding, and the central station). reported fire floor is being investigated to determine the conditions. On arrival, the fire department/bri­ 4.3.2.1.1 Fixed (stairwell)pressurization system. Fixed gade will determine if further evacuation is required (stairwell) pressurization systems began to be incor­ and will then communicate this to the occupants in porated in high-rise buildings in the early 21st century theIBRA. and are becoming more common features. These sys­ A fixed stairwell pressure system in a tall build­ tems maintain a stairwell free of smoke contaminants ing may be a single or multiple injection system. When (fig. 4-4). A tall building with a fixed stairwell pres­ a stair door opens on the fire floor, "the airflow surization system is designed to provide a smoke-free through the open door is designed to prevent smoke evacuation environment to the greatest extent pos­ backflow."5 A single injection system has air pressure sible. Air pressurization systems, based on the concept supplied at one location with the injection point at of moving clean, fresh air with fans, can assist occu­ the top. This system can fail if numerous stairwell pants in proceeding to the building exits or to an doors are open or if someone unnecessarily chocks a in-building relocation area (IBRA), or area of refuge, door in an open position near the injection point. A where a fire or smoke condition has not occurred. multiple injection system is a better tall building This location is typically protected against fire and design because it can supply air from numerous loca­ smoke migration.4 Prior to the fire department/bri­ tions throughout the stairwell. Supply inlets may be gade arriving to a tall building with primarily office installed every three to five floors to distribute the occupancy, tenants should be notified of the alarm air throughout the stairwell more evenly. 82 High-Rise Buildings: Understanding the Vertical Challenges Firefighters should also be aware that if the stair the research findings would support the mission of pressurization system is not calibrated accurately, it the fire and emergency services, enhance the effec­ may reduce the necessary door-opening force. If so, tiveness of fire operations, and provide increased life more than the designed allowable doors may be safety for firefighters and people evacuating the build­ opened, subjecting the system to failure. According ing. This research effort has proven beneficial, and to NFPA 14: Standard for the Installation of Standpipe the matrix of response for the FDNY today includes and Hose Systems, "The maximum airflow allowed a unit dedicated to ventilation support. On arrival into the stairwell is limited by the force required to and at the direction of the IC, the ventilation support open the door from the floor to the stairwell, usually group will set up portable equipment to pressurize 30 pounds of force, to allow children and elderly occu­ stairwells. pants to exit."6 This automatic fixed stairwell pres­ surization system must be connected to the fire alarm 4.3.2.1.2 Firefighters' smoke control system (FSCS). At system panel where required. the fire command center, the FACP section for fire­ Tall buildings constructed before the early 1970s fighters' smoke control system (FSCS) operations may were not equipped with fixed stairwell pressurization differ from one building or fire alarm manufacturer systems, and only a limited number of new buildings to the next (fig. 4-5). For example, "p" on one panel constructed in the years following had the systems might represent "Pressurize," but on another panel, installed. Noting that the majority of buildings were it might represent "Purge" or exhaust. Since smoke not equipped to pressurize their stair shafts, the FDNY control operations may differ, it is recommended that solicited the services and support of the National an operational guide be posted near the FCC to assist Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) to con­ firefighters with manual operation of the smoke con­ duct research to validate and affirm the use of por­ trol system. (Additional information on FCC/FSCS table equipment to achieve stairwell pressurization. operational guidelines is presented in appendix 4.11.3.) The goal of the research was to establish the optimal fan size, design performance, and fan positions. Measurements taken would record pressure differ­ entials, air temperature, carbon monoxide, meteoro­ logical data, and levels of sound. It was expected that Code Segments: Fire Alarm and Control Systems NFPA 5000: Building Construction and Safety Code, 2003 Section 55.2.5 Emergency Control, Sub-section 55.2.5.1. A fire alarm and control system. Where required by another section of this code, shall be arranged to actuate automat­ ically the control functions necessary to make the protected Fig. 4-5. A tall building wall-mounted fire alarm control premises safer for building occupants. Sub-section 55.2.5.2. panel in a lobby fire control center features firefighters' Where required by another section of this code, the fol­ smoke control system panels (C, D, and E) to manually lowing shall be actuated by the complete fire alarm panel. control the HVAC system. The control toggles in panel D (2) Stairwell or elevator shaft pressurization. will operate the air system in pressurized and exhaust modes. NFPA 92: Standard for Smoke-Control Systems, 2021 4.3.2.2 Reentry doors. For the fire service, the primary Sources: National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 5000: Building purpose in response to a call for help is to protect life Construction and Safety Code, 2003 (Quincy, MA: NFPA, 2002), safety and property. This is achieved through the pro­ https ://www.nfpa.org/cod es-and-standards/a II-codes­ cess of search, rescue, evacuation, and fire extinguish­ and-standards/list-of-codes-and-standards/detail?code=5000; ment. When called on to operate in structures not of and National Fire Protection Asso ciation, NFPA 92: Standard great height, stairway doors are generally not locked for Smoke-Control Systems, 2021 (Quincy, MA: NFPA, 2020), on the stairway side of the door, and when they are, https: //www. nf pa. o rg/sta n d a rd_items/s ea re h_resu Its? it is only a relatively short travel distance in the stair­ sear chStr=92. way to an exit at street level. When confronted with a life safety and firefighting problem in a tall building,  4 Fire Protection Systems 83 however, evacuation and the effective use of stairs is and could not gain access onto other floors. This of primary concern to the IC. Building owners and smoke spread that affected the stairwells directly managing agents are concerned with security and contributed to nine fatalities. (For more information safety in and on their property. That often creates a about the MGM Grand Hotel fire, refer to chapter 2, conflict between free access and egress versus secu­ section 2.5.4.3.) rity lockdown. Total ingress and egress security would Stairwell reentry doors are usually found in tall be a situation in which once an occupant left the con­ buildings within a multitenant occupancy. On the fines of the floor they were on and entered a stairwell, corridor side, the stair door leading onto a stairwell they would not be able to gain reentry to the floor via should always be accessible but may be locked from the same door. They also would not be able to enter the stairwell side of the door. If doors are locked on any other floor, except at the ground level, where they the stairwell side, every fourth floor (for example: 4, would arrive at the lobby or exit directly to the exte­ 8, 12, 16, etc.) must be a reentry floor that has an auto­ rior of the building onto a public street or an alley matic fail-safe door lock that will open on any acti­ leading to a street. But during a tall building fire or vation of a fire alarm device or a Phase 1 automatic emergency, this situation would be dangerous and elevator recall. A fail-safe lock is housed within the impractical since the stairwell doors play an active door latching mechanism with an override switch at role in a building evacuation. This dilemma was rec­ the fire command center. Within the stairwell, the ognized during a code development cycle, and an doors on the reentry floors must be identified on the acceptable solution, now known as the stairway reen­ stair side of the door. Doors not allowing reentry must try system, was proposed. include signage on the stair side of the door indicating As explained previously, the fire service is chal­ the location of the nearest door that permits reentry. lenged by many security measures concerning the The locks on these secured doors can also be released means of egress secured from unauthorized entry. automatically or manually when any elevator cars are This is contrary to having all means of egress avail­ recalled in Phase 1 by inserting the firefighters' ser­ able to fire service personnel to perform duties and vice key in the street level elevator lobby control panel. to allow occupants the freedom to move about the The code changes following the MGM fire addressed building as needed or instructed. The stairway reen­ reentry capability and the enactment of the national try system allows stairwell doors to be openable Hotel and Motel Fire Safety Act of 1990, requiring a from the occupancy side off the floor to gain access full sprinkler system. 8 into the stairwell but is locked from the stairwell side, excluding reentry. In some local districts the 4.3.2.3 Automatic elevator bank recall/Phase 1 fire alarm next reentry level may be at the ground floor level, activation. In the automatic elevator bank recall Phase allowing people to egress at the exit discharge onto 1 system, when specific detection devices activate the lobby, street, or where a stairway reentry system within an elevator bank, a building fire alarm acti­ is in place. According to the code, a reentry (ingress) vates, and any elevators in that bank will return to floor is provided every four floors, thus creating the terminal floor (street level/sky lobby) without in-building relocation floors. For fire department/ stopping. On arrival, the elevator car doors will open. brigade operations and battle plans, stairway reen­ In this return mode, the elevator car operating but­ try door locations should be noted on the building tons are automatically overridden for any car stops. information card. (Additional information about Floor occupants are prevented from accessing and leveraging building intelligence is presented in chap­ using the elevators during a fire. This safety return ter 7, section 7.7.) mode will also provide an elevator in readiness, or an In 1980, the MGM Grand Hotel fire in Las Vegas, elevator dedicated for firefighter use. An automated NV killed 84 people and injured more than 700.7 The elevator recall will be activated by fire alarm initiat­ fire started in a restaurant and expanded undetected ing devices such as a smoke detector in the elevator in the ceiling area (plenum) above the casino floors. lobby or machine room, a shaft smoke detector, or Many people were trapped within the stairwells of the activation of a sprinkler device in the building. In the 23-story high-rise hotel. Hotel guests were able to the latter instance, all banks of elevators will return get into the four stairwells that were part of the to their terminal floors. In a large elevator lobby, a planned escape route, but the stairwells were filled second cross-zoning smoke detection system may be with smoke. Since the reentry doors were locked, installed when multiple elevator cars are in the bank. people who entered the stair enclosures were trapped (More information about firefighters' service manual 84 High-Rise Buildings: Understanding the Vertical Challenges Code Segment: Stairway Doors and FACS Emergency Control New York City Building Code 2008, Section 403 Special Detailed Requirements Based on Use and Occupancy. Section 403.12 Stairway door operation. Doors opening into interior stair enclosures shall not be locked from either side. However, a door locked from the stair side may be permit­ ted provided that such door is equipped with an automatic fail-safe system for opening in the event of an activation of any automatic fire detection system, or when any elevator recall is activated, or when any signal is received from the fire command center. Such door shall be deemed as open­ able from the stair side. Stair re-entry signs shall be posted throughout the stairway indicating that re-entry is provided only during fire emergencies. Such signs shall be in accor­ dance with Section 1026.4.2. NFPA 101: Life Safety Code, 2003, Section 9.6.5 Emergency Fig. 4-6. A building central monitoring station is usually Control. located near a telephone switch panel. Section 9.6.5.3 The functions specified in 9.6.5.2 shall be permitted to be actuated by any fire alarm and control system where otherwise not required by this code. are no designated building staff members on the Additionally, such a fire alarm and control system shall be premises to receive a call, the local authority having permitted to recall elevators, as required in Section 9.4, if jurisdiction will be notified. the activation of the system for such recall is by means of These telephone communication lines should the elevator lobby, hoistway or associated machine room be arranged in separate paths so that a single point detectors only. of failure does not cause the second communication path to fail. The central monitoring station should Sources: City of New York, NYC Building Code 2008 (New York: be approved by the local fire department/brigade. City of New York, 2008), https://up.codes/viewer/new_york_city/ In some large metropolitan areas, the central mon­ nyc-building-code-2008; and National Fire Protection itoring station must obtain a license from the fire Association, "Emergency Control," in NFPA 101: Life Safety department/brigade with periodic renewal every Code, 2003 (Quincy, MA: NFPA, 2003), https://www.nfpa.org/ few years. Currently, remote central monitoring sta­ codes-and-standards/a I I-codes-and-standards/1 ist-of-codes­ tion companies may be located anywhere across the and-standards/detail?code=lOl. United States. 4.3.3 Standardization of high-rise building fire Phase 1 and Phase 2 operations is presented in chap­ alarm control panels ter 9, section 9.9.3, "Elevator operation protocols.") Each fire alarm manufacturer has the means to arrange information buttons such as ''Acknowledgement" or 4.3.2.4 Central monitoring station. A building central ''ACK"; "Trouble" or "TBL"; and "Supervisory" or "SUPV" monitoring station system is linked in union with the in various locations on the fire alarm control panel for tall building fire alarm control panel to transmit a their system. The manual FACP operation for the fire­ fire alarm signal to a remote off-site monitoring cen­ fighters' smoke control system can be even more chal­ tral station service (fig. 4-6). The alarm signal may lenging. Multiply the number of fire alarm manufac­ be an alarm device activation, a supervisory signal, turers, the number of tall building fire alarm systems or a trouble signal transmitted out of the building via in existence, and the number of new systems by the other communication means, such as a primary or number of high-rise buildings in your community, and secondary public utility telephone line. On receipt of you will have a reasonable idea of the magnitude of both supervisory and trouble signals, the central what firefighters must understand about operating monitoring station will notify the premises. If there tall building FACPs under emergency conditions.  4 Fire Protection Systems 85 l Code Segment: Remote Fire Station Alarm Systems Code Segment: Standard Emergency and Supervisory Signals Service Interface NFPA 101: Life Safety Code Handbook(2003 ed.), Section 9.6.4 NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code, 2016, Emergency Forces Notification. Section A.18.11 Standard Emergency Service Interface. Section 9.6.4.2 (d) Remote Station Fire Alarm System is a Annunciators, information display systems, and controls for system installed to transmit alarm, supervisory, and trouble portions of a system provided for use by emergency service signals from one or more protected premises to a remote personnel should be designed, arranged, and located in supervision location at which appropriate action is taken. accordance with the needs of the organization's intended to use the equipment. Where annunciators, information NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code, 2016, display systems, and controls for portions of the system are Chapter 26 Supervising Station Alarm Systems. provided for use by emergency service personnel, these Section 26.3.8.3* Supervisory signals. Upon receipt of a should have a common design and operation to avoid con­ supervisory signal that is not prearranged, the central sta­ fusion of users. tion shall perform the following actions. (1) ·communicate Source. National Fire Protection Association, "Standard Emergency immediately with the persons designated by the subscriber Service Interface," section A.18.11 in NFPA 72: National Fire and notify, the fire department, law enforcement agency, Alarm and Signaling Code, 2016 (Quincy, MA: NFPA, 2015), or both when required by the authority having https://www.nf pa.org/codes-an d-stan da rds/a I I-cod es-and­ jurisdiction. standards/list-of-codes-and-standards/detail?code=72. Section 26.3.8.4 Trouble signals. Upon receipt of a trouble signal or other signals pertaining solely to the matters of equipment maintenance of the alarm systems, the central code or standard.9 This would allow fire departments/ station shall perform the following actions: (1) 'Communicate brigades to seek a common design and operational immediately with persons designated by the subscriber. standard for high-rise building FACPs. Appendix Section A26.3.8.3 It is anticipated that the central station will first attempt to notify designated personnel at the protected premises. When such notification cannot be 4.4 Standpipe/Sprinkler Systems made, it might be appropriate to notify law enforcement or the fire department, or both. For example, if a valve super­ 4.4.1 Standpipe systems visory signal is received where protected premises are not In tall buildings, a standpipe hose connection vertical occupied, it is appropriate to notify the police. riser system is a common way to deliver a water supply for manual firefighting operations. In high-rise build­ Note: An asterisk(*) in the NFPA standards indicates that the term ings in the United States, these fixed piping systems is explained in the code's annex. are usually located in one or more enclosed stairwells. Sources: National Fire Protection Administration, "Emergency The codes in Canada have required that these outlet Forces Notification," in NFPA 101: Life Safety Code Handbook, connections be located within the occupancy or public 2003 ed. (Quincy, MA: NFPA, 2003); and National Fire corridor in order to keep smoke from migrating into Protection Administration, "Supervising Station Alarm Systems," the stairwells. Standpipes are "fire hydrants in the in NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code, 2016 sky" for firefighters. A standpipe system is generally (Quincy, MA: NFPA, 2015), https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and­ installed as stated in NFPA 14: Standard for the standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-codes-and-standards/ Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems, but detail?code=72. national, state, and local codes may modify some sec­ tions to meet other requirements.10 A local AHJ may require a person to be licensed by the fire department/ brigade in order to perform standpipe testing, inspec­ There is a solution, however, that can be enacted tion, and maintenance. Some jurisdictions require a by either the local, state, or national levels. The solu­ license that can be renewed every three years. tion is to enact NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code, 2016, Annex Section A.18.11, as a stan­ 4.4.1.1 Standpipe riser and hose outlets. There are sev­ dard emergency service interface text in a sanctioned eral types of standpipe systems, ranging from wet to 86 High-Rise Buildings: Understanding the Vertical Challenges dry systems and automatic to nonautomatic (manual). Code Segment: Dry Standpipe Systems during An automatic wet standpipe contains water at a con­ Construction or Demolition stant pressure throughout the system in the vertical and horizontal piping of the system. Standpipe risers Local Law 64 (2009), New York City, Section 3303.8.1 Air are usually found in heated stairwells to protect them pressurized alarm system for dry standpipe systems during from freezing temperatures. A tall building standpipe construction or demolition operations. riser is connected to the fire pump to increase water pressure and provide the required flows at the nec­ 4. Specifications. The following provisions shall apply to the essary residual pressures throughout the system to air pressurized alarm system: meet the code standards of the AHJ. A manual dry standpipe system does not contain water stored in its 4.1. Pressure. Pressure shall be maintained in the standpipe piping. It relies on an engine company (a fire service and cross connections at all times and shall not exceed 25 appliance engine/pump) to supply and meet the build­ psig (172 kPag) by utilizing nitrogen or an air compressor ing pressure and flow demands through the fire with an air dryer. The supervisory pressure shall be as deter­ department/brigade connections. mined by a registered design professional. Dry standpipe systems may be automatic or manual. An automatic dry standpipe is usually found 4.2. Automatic air pressurized alarm activation. The alarm in a nonheated structure (e.g., car park, vehicle garage, shall be automatically activated when the pressure drops or loading dock). This piping system contains either below the supervisory pressure or rises above the maximum air or nitrogen under pressure above a clapper valve pressure of 25 psig (172 kPag). When the alarm is acti­ or an electrically controlled device that keeps the vated, notification shall be made to the Fire Department in water flow valve closed until a sprinkler head or other accordance with Section 901.7.7 of the New York City Fire device releases the air or gas and opens the clapper Code, all work at the site shall cease, except as provided valve to allow water flow from a connected water in Item 4.2.1, and an investigation of the entire standpipe supply.11 To protect a tall building undergoing con­ system and air compressor shall be immediately performed struction, a dry system is filled with air or nitrogen to determine the cause of the alarm. Unless authorized by under pressure in order to effectively monitor the the Fire Department, no construction or demolition work integrity of the pipes. A manual dry standpipe has no shall resume until the standpipe system is repaired and the water, air, or nitrogen pressure within the piping appropriate pressure is restored, except that any repairs to system. It relies instead on a fire service appliance the standpipe system needed to restore the required pres­ engine/pump to supply the required water flow and sure shall be undertaken immediately and the standpipe pressure demands. system restored as soon as possible. There shall be com­ A combination system consisting of both a stand­ pliance with the requirements of Section 901.7.7 of the pipe riser and floor sprinkler branch line may be found New York City Fire Code while the standpipe system is out in both automatic and dry systems. The combination of service. Upon completion of repairs to the standpipe standpipe/sprinkler system is commonplace in tall system a full inspection of such system shall be performed, buildings. However, firefighters gathering building which shall include, among other things, visually tracing intelligence should note if the floor sprinkler branch the standpipe, including risers, cross connections and sia­ line is supplied by one or more risers. If the sprinkler mese connections to verify that no breach exists and check­ branch line is supplied by more than one riser, it indi­ ing all gauges of the standpipe system to ensure the stand­ cates several sprinkler zones that will cover a large pipe system has been restored to a state of readiness. floor layout. A semiautomatic dry system is a stand­ pipe that has both wet and dry system branch lines Note: kPag = kilo pascals gauge. and may be supplied by the same riser. The dry por­ Source. City of New York, "Local Laws for the City of New York 2009, tion would be required when some floor levels/areas Law 64," Section 3303.8.1, October 7, 2009, 2-3, https:// are exposed to outside weather conditions. For exam­ www1. nyc.gov/assets/bui !di ngs/local_laws/l I 64of2009. pdf. ple, an open area garage or building vehicle access area would incorporate a dry riser system, while the remaining portion of the building riser would remain a wet system. Firefighters need to be aware that to manual valve must be opened, to allow water to enter operate a dry riser, the standpipe actuation device the riser (fig. 4-7 and fig. 4-8). In some older buildings (deluge manual pull station) must be pulled, or a firefighters may come across a dry standpipe system  4 Fire Protection Systems 87 extinguish fire and provides the best protection to firefighters. Class IL Provides a connection for a I½" (44 mm) hoseline that is primarily used when trained fire brigades are in place and before the arrival of the fire department/brigade. Class IIL Provides a hose connection for both 2½" (64 mm) and l¾" {44 mm) hoselines {fig. 4-9). The installation of both Class II and Class III is declining because of safety concerns if untrained occupants attempt to use this equipment. Some municipalities have issued a variance to remove stand­ pipe hoselines if the tall building is protected with an Fig. 4-7. A deluge manual pull station needs to be automatic sprinkler system throughout the structure. activated for a water supply for some dry standpipe riser systems. This concept is based on the expectation that fire departments/brigades will provide their own equip­ ment for efficiency and safety of operations. 4.4.1.1.2Auxiliaryhose cabinets. According to NFPA 14, standpipe hose connection outlets should be located on each floor level within stair enclosures. Auxiliary hose outlets may be located elsewhere within the occu­ pancy or in an open public space (e.g., shopping mall, transit facility) when the stairwell standpipe hose con­ nection is more than 150 ft {46 m) from a hose connec­ tion. [This distance is arrived at by the expected use of 130 ft {40 m) of hose with 20 ft (6 m) of water stream reach.] Auxiliary hose outlets will then be installed where required. While an auxiliary floor hose Fig. 4-8. A sign posted at the hose outlet, "Deluge System Hose Rack/Activate Deluge Pull Station," serves as a reminder to firefighters who usually operate off a wet standpipe riser. that has no water supply, considered to be nonauto­ matic. When this occurs, the fire department/brigade must supply water through the inlet valve. These anomalies must be included on the BIC and battle plans for the building. Standpipe hose systems are divided into three classifications: Class L Provides a connection for a 2½" {64 mm) hoseline in buildings that are three or more stories above or below street level. For a Fig. 4-9. This stairwell standpipe riser is a combination high-rise building fire attack, this is the most system that features a sprinkler system floor branch line, effective hose diameter for controlling a fire. a standpipe riser OS&Y isolation valve, and a Class Ill While it may be more arduous to place in hose outlet with a 2½" (64 mm) standpipe pressure­ operation, it provides a larger volume of water to reducing valve. 88 High-Rise Buildings: Understanding the Vertical Challenges connection meets a code distance requirement, it is will allow the system to be fully charged not recommended to use the same floor hose outlet for with water. the initial fire attack. It can be used as a connection to conduct overhaul operations or for a fire watch, 4.4.2.2 How long to return the system to normal? The however. length of time to restore a sprinkler system that has been activated and then shut down depends on sev­ 4.4.2 Sprinkler systems eral factors. Such factors include the length and size 4.4.2.1 Should you shut down the sprinklers or keep them of feeder piping, the number of sprinkler heads that flowing? Once the sprinkler has been activated, it were activated, and whether the heads that have been should not be deactivated until the incident com­ activated have been replaced with new heads. A dry mander determines the fire is extinguished or is under sprinkler system may take longer to reset since the control and no significant fire extension has or will piping system needs to be drained, the clapper valve occur. It also should not be deactivated if it is the reset, and the pressures for the air and water equal­ result of an action other than a fire incident, such as ized. For a new installation dry sprinkler system or a an accident that may have occurred from broken replacement of the manual reset clapper, however, a sprinkler heads, pipes, or valves. Once the location of novel feature is an automatic resetting device that an accident site or compromise is found, and it is eliminates the labor-intensive resetting process. determined to be the cause of the water flow, then the Regardless, if the IC determines that the FPS system system can be shut down. reset timeline will be extensive, a fire watch should It is generally good practice to limit the water be assigned until the system is back to normal. flow by inserting a chock or other device that can When manually resetting a FAS device for a short cover the discharge orifice in the sprinkler head and time period after a sprinkler system discharge, it is greatly reduce the water flow. There are two consid­ best practice to place the central monitoring tempo­ erations when deciding to shut down an activated rarily off-line until the FPS system is reset, and it is sprinkler head: verified that the system is back to normal. Once the FPS reset is verified as back in service, the building 1. Is the fire in the immediate area of the activated representative should call the central monitoring sprinkler head under control? If the fire in this station to put the system back online. This process is area is confirmed to be under control, then one way to help reduce unnecessary alarms. The cen­ overhaul operations need to be conducted. tral monitoring station system does have a way to Shutting down the system will allow the envi­ track how long the system has been off and the pro­ ronmental conditions to improve and will assist jected length of time it will take to get back in service. with overhaul operations. If the central station is not notified that the system 2. Is there any possibility of fire extension to areas has been repaired within a certain time frame, they above and/or around the activated sprinkler have a responsibility to call the premises back if the head area that may be smoldering and are ready system is not back to normal. to reignite? It is important to recognize that once the system and/or zone is shut down, there 4.4.2.2.1 Change out sprinkler heads. Replacing an will be residual water in that zone that will activated sprinkler head with a new one can be done continue to drain from any open head. If there is by firefighters on scene or by property management. a drain valve for that portion of the system, it is The appropriate number of spare sprinkler heads recommended to expedite operations and open should never be fewer than six sprinkler heads, and the drain valve and/or test connection that will they must be of the appropriate types and tempera­ relieve any pressure in the system/zone. This ture ratings. Proper wrenches and the spare heads will allow the replacement of those sprinkler should be in a cabinet. A best practice is to install the heads that fused. To reactivate that zone, open spare sprinkler cabinet on the wall within the fire the supply control valve, and the sound of water pump room (fig. 4-10). entering the system/zone will be evident. Note that as water enters the piping, air will become 4.4.2.3 What are the problems of firefighting in sprinklered trapped and should be exhausted from an air areas? Most of the time, once the sprinkler head has bleeder valve or a test connection that should be activated, there will be a water runoff, which gives located at the end of the branch or system. This the firefighters an indication of where the sprinkler  4 Fire Protection Systems 89 Fig. 4-10. A sprinkler cabinet with extra heads is usually Fig. 4-11. Rooftop fixed water storage tanks on several mounted on the wall in the stationary fire pump room. tall NYC buildings. In the foreground building, there are seven gravity water tanks (cedar wood) on the rooftop. discharge and fire area is located. This water flow not only provides a visible sign, but the noise given off by reserve water supply solely for the standpipe/sprin­ the discharging head provides an auditory sign as kler system [ e.g., a tank with a capacity of 45,000 gal well. Once the firefighters have control of the fire, (170,300 l), with a fire reserve capability of 15,000 gal they will need a portable ladder to get to the sprinkler (56,800 l)]. head and put a device into the sprinkler head to stop Apressure tank contains water that is pressurized the flow. When searching for an activated sprinkler by air. A pressure tank is kept at % water level, with head in areas where stock is piled high, firefighters ¼ pressurized air, and features high and low pressure must be aware of the possibility of the stock being alarms and water level alarms. Pressure water tanks overloaded with the weight of the water and suscep­ provide more flexibility in the design of a system. tible to falling over into the aisles. Beyond the chal­ These tanks may be installed at various floor levels lenges due to water-saturated stock, this task may be that can accommodate the number of tanks required further complicated by the location of the sprinkler depending on the height of the building and number head, which might be positioned above unstable stock of zones. They may also be found in the basement. and shelving or in a small crawl space. In addition to replacing the sprinkler head, fire­ Public Water Supply Piping Isolation Valves fighters will have to overhaul the area. Overhaul will entail opening up voids and combustibles in the area Public water supply piping may have more than one under­ to determine if the fire has burrowed into them and ground line feeding a high-rise building. During a fire com­ is still smoldering, awaiting a chance for reignition. pany building recon survey, note where the outside stem and yoke (OS&Y) isolation valves are located (e.g., "Cellar 4.4.3 Fixed water storage supplies for fire water meter room off stair C"). protection A tall building stationary water supply system that is integral to the standpipe/sprinkler system may consist of a gravity feed and/or pressure water tank. 4.4.4 Stationary fire pumps The water supply is pumped from a municipal water Currently, the most common stationary fire pump supply connection, and the reservoir capacity will (fig. 4-12) in tall buildings is a centrifugal type. The be based on the design criteria to meet the demand pump's power may be a diesel engine or electric motor. needed of the fire protection water-based system for Those powered by electricity should also be connected a specific period of time according to code standards to a standby power source (emergency generator). (e.g., 30 minutes). An elevated gravity tank (rooftop/ This pump, which is connected to a public utility upper floor level) utilizes the gravity down force to water company, has an augmented water supply feed provide pressure to the standpipe/sprinkler system from either the FD Cs and/or the gravity/pressure tank (fig. 4-11). High or low water level alarms will provide system within the building. A fire pump that is an an audible alert at these tank water supply levels. automatic type is activated when the water pressure When a gravity tank also serves as the building's drops or an FPS waterflow device activates. The pump reservoir for domestic water consumption, a tank intake water supply may be connected to more than clapper flotation device is installed to maintain a one water main supplying the building. 90 High-Rise Buildings: Understanding the Vertical Challenges of the overall fire pump operation. When the pumps are located on the same floor, failure of a lower-level pump will no longer result in cavitation and damage to the higher-level pumps that it supplies. In the updated arrangement, if the first pump in series fails, there would still be sufficient pressure for the other pumps in series to pressurize the system.13 4.4.5 Fire department connections (FDCs) Fire department connections (also called FDCs or siamese connections) are part of a building's fire sup­ pression system. A tall building should have a mini­ mum of one FDC to allow the fire department/brigade to augment the system with the pressures and volume of water required as per code standards. According to the AHJ, when a building is served by more than one street or access accommodation (e.g., loading dock, ramps to car parks, etc.), one or more additional FDCs will be required and will be interconnected to Fig. 4-12. A tall building stationary 750 gpm fire pump. augment the entire system. The arrow points to the yellow OS&Y isolation valves, For a single tall building with FDCs on different indicating a combination standpipe/sprinkler system. streets or a high-rise complex with multiple FDCs, In NFPA 20: Standard for the Installation of the connection must be visible and readily accessible Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection, the fire pump for firefighting operations in maneuvering the hose­ design for high-rise buildings is explained.12 This stan­ line connection. A second FDC location also provides dard has specific provisions for water supply arrange­ another water inlet in case the FDC is not functioning ments and fire pump requirements for the design of properly or if its location is unsafe, such as when an new high-rise buildings, including the complex designs exterior fai;ade or glass is in danger of falling or other required for super and mega structures. The new debris is dropping down from the fire area. requirement has a safety factor so that even if an A mounted sign above an FDC with just the let­ impairment to one of the systems occurs, the fire pro­ ters "FDC" does not inform the engine/pump operator tection system will meet the suppression demands. of the necessary specific building intelligence con­ According to an article for the website, "Buildings," cerning the FPS type (e.g., sprinkler full/partial, dry standpipe, etc.) available to supply (fig. 4-13). An One of the most significant changes in fire appropriate FDC sign above each connection should pump design for high-rise buildings is that have clear and concise lettering (e.g., letter size not fire pumps operating in a series can no longer less than l"), with the specifics of the system type, be located on different floors. The practice floors/zones supplied, and at what pressure. of vertical staging placing the second and third fire pump in series on higher floors 4.4.5.1 Other FDC enhancements. Some fire departments/ requires that the discharge pressure from the brigades will require that a blue or red light within a lower pump be enough to feed the pumps on protective cage be installed above each FDC so it can the higher floors. Consequently, if the fire be easily spotted at night. There often is a requirement pump at the lowest level fails, the rest of the for an FDC to have a locking cap with a fire depart­ fire pumps in series will also fail for lack of ment/brigade access key to prevent vandalism to the adequate suction pressure. Under the NFPA connection or to keep trash from accumulating 20 provisions, fire pumps in series must be (fig. 4-14). Some departments may require that build­ installed in the same pump room. This mod­ ings have a 5" Storz FDC for a large hoseline to feed ified fire pump design increases the reliability the system rather than connecting two 2½" hoses  4 Fire Protection Systems 91 Fig. 4-13. FDC signage (Jersey City, NJ) for a combination standpipe/sprinkler system indicates that the building is divided into two zones. It also indicates the floors covered for each zone: low zone-ground floor to floor 16, and high zone-floors 17 to the roof. Fig. 4-15. A high-rise building (Jersey City, NJ) 5" Storz FDC with a red light to be easily located at night Fig. 4-14. FDCs with locking caps help prevent accidental damage, vandalism, and physical attack (fig. 4-15). Other departments/brigades may request pumping pressure signage for the upper zone floor level above the FDC (e.g., "Zone 2, FL 45, 325 psi"), cal­ culating the ceiling height at 10 ft (3 m) (fig. 4-16). The Fig. 4-16. An FDC for a combination sprinkler/standpipe system. The signage indicates both the low zone (floors rule of thumb for a building with 10 ft (3 m) ceiling 1.5 through 31) and high zone (floors 32 through 59), as height is to supply the FDC with 100 psi (7 bar) and well as the minimum operating pressure of 245 psi add 5 psi (0.34 bar) per floor. Thus the 45th floor would (17 bar) for the low zone and 430 psi (30 bar) for the require 325 psi (22 bar). It must be noted this is to sup­ high zone. port the operations of 2½" (64 mm) hoseline and a Courtesy. Bill Gustin, Miami-Dade Fire Rescue smoothbore nozzle. To further assist the engine/pump operator, the Code Segment: Fire Department Connection Caps FDNY and NYC codes require color coding the FDC swivel caps: yellow-combination standpipe/sprinkler NJ Fire Code (2015 ed.) "Fire Protection Systems," system; green- sprinkler system; and red-standpipe Section 914.3.1 Locking Fire Department Connection Caps. system by the fire department/ brigade (fig. 4-17a The fire code official is authorized to require locking caps and b). on fire department connections for water-based fire protec­ tion systems where the responding fire department carries 4.4.6 Water-based fire protection system appropriate key wrenches for removal. testing 4.4.6.1 Flow tests. The AJH may require that a five-year Source. "Fire Protection Systems," ch. 9 in Fire Code 2015 of New Jersey (State of New Jersey, 2015), https://up.codes/viewer/ system acceptance flow test is conducted to confirm new_jersey/ifc-2015. that the fire standpipe/sprinkler components are in good order and meet the fire department/brigade requirements for their use.14 The system would be 92 High-Rise Buildings: Understanding the Vertical Challenges considered to have failed the flow test if there are 4.4.6.2 Hydrostatic tests. A hydrostatic test is another leaks or the system is unable to withstand the high method to determine ifthe standpipe/sprinkler system pressure forces applied to it. The flow test is performed pipes and valves will safely withstand pressure applied annually on sprinkler branch lines and every five years to them when they are pumped for fire demand for each standpipe system (fig. 4-18). For more infor­ (fig. 4-19). The pressure applied should exceed the mation on standpipe and sprinkler testing, see appen­ highest pressure required for the system and/or zone. dix 4.11.4, as well as NFPA 14: S tandard for the The test would run for a specified time interval and Installation ofStandpipe and Hose Systems, chapter 11, would be determined to have failed ifthere is a water "System Acceptance."15 leak or if the pipes or valves are distended or change shape to any degree. Fig. 4-17a and b. (a) FDCs (FDNY) with separate connections for the sprinkler system breakaway (top two green caps in this photo) and the standpipe riser (bottom two swivel/red caps). Either cap is an appropriate cover for the connection inlets. The FDC signage (2" lettering) Fig. 4-19. A pressure gauge is connected to the FDC for provides clear and concise building intelligence to the the five-year hydrostatic standpipe test. engine/pump operator as to the FPS systems. (b) An Courtesy. Glenn Corbett FDC combination system (yellow caps) signage shows a building address, which heightens an engine/pump operator building intelligence on the type of fire In New York City, the fire department does require protection system, especially when there are multiple a five-year hydrostatic standpipe/sprinkler system FDCs on different sides of the building and/or when an test for each FDC. For a high-rise residential building, engine/pump company or a mutual-aid fire unit is however, they will conduct periodic system flow tests responding from another district or municipality. at 30-month intervals, and every second cycle this sprinkler flow test must be witnessed by the fire department. Since the system between the FDC and the lower check valve is dry, debris or trash may accu­ mulate at the FDC outlet. Trash may be maliciously placed merely by swiveling off the caps and inserting debris to obstruct the system, which will affect the augmentation of the standpipe/sprinkler system using this FDC. Before a firefighter connects a supply line to the FDC, it should be visually checked for any accu­ mulations of debris or other obstructions. A common failure of this test occurs when the ball drip valve is stuck in the open drain position and will not release. Another common failure occurs when the back flow check valve separating the FDC piping and system side remains seated or closed because ofrust or sed­ iment built up on the clapper. (For further informa­ tion, see appendices 4.10.1 and 4.11.4, along with Rules Fig. 4-18. A stairwell rooftop standpipe manifold with of the Fire Department ofthe City of New York.16) three hose outlets is a connection for the five-year acceptance flow test. A manifold connection will also indicate the stationary fire pump capacity in gallons per 4.4.6.3 Pressure-regulating device (PRD) testing. A minute (gpm). Each hose outlet will flow 250 gpm. pressure-regulating device (PRD) is defined inNFPA 14,  4 Fire Protection Systems 93 Code Segment: Maintenance and Flow Tests of Code Segment: Pressure-Reducing Valves and Standpipe Systems Relief Valves NYC Fire Code (2008 ed.), FC 905 Standpipe Systems. FC905.12 NFPA 25: Standard for the Inspection, Testing and Maintenance Maintenance. Standpipe systems shall be maintained, includ­ of Water-Based Fire Protection Systems, 2019 ing all required inspection, testing and servicing, in accor­ Section 13.5 Pressure-Reducing Valves and Relief Valves. dance with this section, FC901.6 and NFPA 25, Section 905.12.1 Standpipe hydrostatic pressure and flow 13.5.2 Hose Connection Pressure-Regulating Devices tests. Upon order of the commissioner, but at least once 13.5.3 Hose Rack Assembly Pressure-Regulating every 5 years, the standpipe system shall be subjected to a Devices hydrostatic pressure test and a flow test to demonstrate its suitability for department use. These tests shall be conducted 13.5.1.2/13.5.2.2*/13.5.3.2 A full flow test shall be in compliance with the requirements of the rules and shall conducted on each valve at 5-year intervals and shall be conducted at the owner's risk, by his or her representative be compared to previous test results. before a representative of the department. 13.5.1.2.1/13.5.2.2.1/13.5.3.2.1 Adjustments shall Source. City of New York, "Fire Protection Systems: Standpipe be made in accordance with the manufacturer's Systems-Maintenance," section 905.12 in New York City Fire instructions. Code, 2008 (New York: City. of New York, 2008), https://www. 13.5.1.3 A partial flow test adequate to move the valve nyc.gov/html/fdny/pdf/firecode/2009/fire_code_ll26_2008_ from its seat shall be conducted annually. amended_ll37_41_64_2009_final_complete.pdf. 13.5.2.3/13.5.3.3 A partial flow test for pressure­ reducing valves adequate to move the device from its seat shall be conducted annually. Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems as "a device designed for the purpose of reduc­ Note: An asterisk (*) in an NFPA standard indicates that the term ing, regulating, controlling, or restricting water pres­ is explained in the annex to the standard. sure."17 Other terms for these regulating devices, such Source. National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 14: Standard as pressure-reducing valve (PRV), pressure-restricting for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based valve, or pressure control valve, fit the description for Fire Protection Systems, 2020 (Quincy, MA: NFPA, 2019), a standpipe hose connection device. Its safety design https ://www. nf pa.org/cod es-an d-sta nda rds/a 11-codes­ feature is to reduce excessive water pressures either a nd-standards/1ist-of-codes-and-standards/detai I?code=25. flowing (residual) or static in a system or zone. Part of the standpipe system's five-year accep­ tance test is to conduct a flow test for each PRV. One way to accomplish a stairwell PRV flow test is to have 3. At the ground level hose outlet, connect a a dedicated 3" express drain riser with a hose outlet hoseline to discharge the waterflow outside the connection every other floor. This drain runs parallel building. This alternative method is more labor with the standpipe and will allow a flow test within intensive and time-consuming. a stairwell. While newer tall buildings have this drain, many existing buildings do not. When there is no When there is no possible way to conduct a PRV parallel express drain riser, an alternative PRV flow flow test via an express drain or it is impractical to test method is to shut down and drain another build­ use the other standpipe as the temporary express riser ing standpipe riser and use it as the temporary express drain, the other alternative method is to remove the drain riser. This would require several steps, however: PRVs and conduct a "bench" test at a certified facility. Before removing a PRV for a bench test, set up a 1. Temporarily replace the alternative drain riser removal procedure. PRVs with conventional hose outlets. 2. It may be necessary to run the hoseline connec­ 1. Mark all PRVs indicating the stairwell, floor, and tion through the floor corridor space from one static pressures. This may help reduce the risk of stair to another stair. This will be an inconve­ placing the PRV on the wrong floor when nience to the occupants. reinstalling. 94 High-Rise Buildings: Understanding the Vertical Challenges 2. Remove PRVs from one standpipe riser at a time, the cooking appliances installed directly under the and on every other floor. kitchen hood exhaust system. The potential exists, 3. After reinstalling all the bench-tested PRVs, however, for a rapidly advancing fire to extend into conduct a standpipe riser hydrotest. the ductwork. When periodic cleaning maintenance Testing standpipe PRV devices within an enclosed stairwell without a 3" express drain is a challenge in many existing tall buildings in order to meet the stan­ dard set forth. This is a good example for the fire ser­ vice to be proactive in the code development process to address these PRV testing deficiencies when there is no express drain riser present. If the required PRV five-year test is not conducted, firefighters are exposed to greater risk. (More information on PRV valve fire operations is presented in chapter 9, section 9.5.3.) 4.5 Fire Extinguishing Systems (FES) 4.5.1 Fire extinguishing systems for commercial kitchens The fire extinguishing system for a commercial cook­ ing area where grease-laden vapors are produced is a specifically engineered nozzle application that sits over each cooking appliance under the exhaust hood system. Because vegetable cooking oil has replaced other animal product oils, a wet chemical extinguish­ ing agent is best suited for current cooking operations. It offers a rapid surface knockdown of the flame and fire spread. In newer installations the fire extinguish­ Fig. 4-20. A commercial kitchen hood system protected ing system (fig. 4-20) will be connected to the FCC by a fire extinguishing system may be found in a tall building cafeteria or restaurant within a mixed-use fire alarm panel. For older installations, however, this occupancy. fire suppression system may not be connected to the Courtesy. Joseph Murphy FCC fire alarm panel. Once the fire extinguishing system discharges, another built-in design safety feature is that the energy supply (gas or electric) to the cooking, heating, or FL-16(AOOF) MOTORIZED DAMPER J,:"" baking appliances will automatically be shut down ----r 10" or isolated from their source of supply. According to 24" i the AHJ, any fire extinguishing system discharge is 9.9 Er-6" f also a reportable incident to the local health depart­ ment, which must issue a satisfactory certificate before the establishment may reopen. 4.5.1.2 Commercial kitchen hood systems. Commercial kitchen hood exhaust systems generally have an installed automatic fire extinguishing system and Fig. 4-21. A commercial kitchen hood system duct run fire dampers that close automatically when a detect­ diagram. This diagram will highlight not only the duct ing device activates (fig. 4-21). As designed, these run, but the number of duct bends before reaching the systems work efficiently to draw off the vapors from exterior portion of the building.  4 Fire Protection Systems 95 is not performed, the interior of the ductwork system will become built up with accumulated effluents, including grease. When fire extends into the ductwork, firefighters will trace the ductwork to its terminus point and extinguish any fire at that point as well as any other point along the route to its terminal end. Overhaul operations will require firefighters to open the ceiling or wall where the fire originated and also the ceilings, walls, and floors where it had the poten­ tial to spread, checking for fire extension. Fires in ductwork will spread rapidly when there is ample fuel and oxygen, particularly when the ducts are not designed with fire dampers to limit the distance fire could travel. Fires in kitchens and hood systems can Fig. 4-22. An exterior kitchen hood/duct termination quickly become serious fires, with danger to life and louver at roof level. Notice the cooking vapor grease significant cost of repair and replacement to the buildup around the louver. owners, unless the exhaust hoods are properly designed, installed, and maintained. 4.5.1.2.1 Duct runs. A commercial kitchen hood system (duct run) for a tall building cafeteria area or individual restaurants within the structure may be designed with angle turns before reaching an exterior wall (fig. 4-22). At each duct run angle turn, there should be an access portal to provide for inspec­ tion and cleaning. For a commercial kitchen exhaust duct system, firefighters should be familiar with the locations of the access panels. A best practice is to have a copy of the hood system duct run and the terminal end (exhaust fan) location mounted near the kitchen manual pull station and readily available at the FCC. Fig. 4-23. The preaction system is a combination fire alarm device (e.g., smoke detector) and a dry sprinkler system that is pressurized (usually with air) to provide 4.5.2 Preaction systems fire protection to a sensitive area in the building, such as A preaction sprinkler system is a combination FPS a data center. system that is interconnected with fire alarm (smoke/ gas) detectors and manual release devices. This agents (a term to describe the use of more "environ­ design method, which has sprinkler lines pressur­ mentally friendly" inert gases) have converted to a ized with either air or nitrogen, protects valuable preaction or water mist system. When gathering areas within a building (fig. 4-23). The termpreac­ building intelligence during a fire company recon, tion refers to the fact that a smoke, heat, or flame firefighters should note where a preaction sprinkler detector must activate first to operate the preaction isolation valve is located. It is usually located down­ valve to exhaust the air or nitrogen in the pipes. This stream from the floor sprinkler branchline or in the action allows water to enter the suppression system room. This fire protection feature should be added and be in a ready position to discharge when the to the pre-fire plan and should be noted on the dia­ fusible link on a sprinkler head is activated. Preaction gram of the battle plan. sprinkler systems are often used in spaces that would be sensitive to an accidental water release, such as 4.5.3 Other FES systems telecommunications centers, data centers, archives, Other types of fire extinguishing systems that may and rare book libraries, among others.18 Over the be found in tall buildings to protect areas other than years, sensitive areas that were once protected by the kitchen include clean agents, carbon dioxide, dry fire extinguishing systems using halon or other clean chemical, halon, and water mist systems (table 4-1). 96 High-Rise Buildings: Understanding the Vertical Challenges Table 4-1. Other Fire Extinguishing Systems Fire Extinguishing Systems _ Protection Applications Clean Agents: FM200, Electronic rooms, data centers, battery storage rooms, engine compartments, Novec 1230, lnergen telecommunications rooms, switch rooms, engine and machinery spaces, pump rooms, control rooms.1 Carbon Dioxide Nonoccupied control rooms, transformer vaults, and live electrical equipment.! Dry Chemical Live electrical equipment. Halon Halon use has