HGD Study Checklist - Prenatal Development

**Week 2** ========== Part 1: Fertilisation and Prenatal Growth**\ ** Define the three major phases of the prenatal period. **Germinal period** Characterised by cell replication and implantation. **Embryonic period** Results in the formation of most tissues and organs **Foetal period** Assoc...

**Week 2** ========== Part 1: Fertilisation and Prenatal Growth**\ ** Define the three major phases of the prenatal period. **Germinal period** Characterised by cell replication and implantation. **Embryonic period** Results in the formation of most tissues and organs **Foetal period** Associated with physical growth and maturation. Describe the key growth and development milestones of the three phases of the\ prenatal period. **Germinal period** Week (0-2) - Conception - Cleavage: a period of rapid mitotic cell division. - Implantation: blastocyst implants into the uterine wall. **Embryonic period** Week (3-8) - Cell growth and differentiation **Foetal period** Week (9-birth) - Tissue and organ maturation + growth Describe how foetal nourishment occurs via the placenta. Through the umbilical cord, the placenta provides oxygen and nutrients to a developing baby, it also removes waste like substances from the baby's blood. - Produces oestrogen and progesterone. Part 2: Genetics and Inheritance\ Describe the genetic characteristics of typical human cells. DNA is found on chromosomes within our cells. a. Somatic cells are diploid cells which have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs of them) b. Gametes are haploid cells which have 23 chromosomes. Describe the relationship between genes and inheritance Offspring acquire their genetics from their parents through heritability. **Heritability:** Heritability is the process by which you acquire traits from your parents\ Chromosomes come in pairs. In each pair, one contains the gene from the female that codes a certain trait, and the other contains the gene from the male that codes a certain trait. Define and characterise the common types of genetic and chromosomal\ disorders. Single gene -- cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anaemia, Huntington's disease, marfans syndrome. Polygenic -- heart disease, hypertension, obesity, diabetes, arthritis, some cancers (breast) Chromosomal -- trisomy 21 (down syndrome), turner syndrome Mitochondrial -- can cause issues such as deafness and cardiomyopathy. Part 3: Teratogens\ Describe what a teratogen and how they impact prenatal development. A teratogen is an agent that causes abnormal development in a foetus. This can include: Radiation, infections + viruses, chemicals such as smoke from smoking, and drugs (both medicinal and abusive). Provide examples of different teratogens including their effects and strategies to avoid exposure.\ Exposure to cigarettes both directly and indirectly is a teratogen. Possible effects include miscarriage, low birth weight and length, 300% risk of SIDS and 50% risk of mental impairment. Exposure to drinking can cause same problems, however there is a huge risk of FAS. **\ **Part 4: Maternal Physical Changes\ Describe the expected maternal changes during pregnancy. The first trimester should see little change in body mass of the mother. The second and third trimester sees the foetus increase in size, placing pressure on the back and respiratory system. **Part 5: Maternal Changes to Physiology**\ In the context of physical activity, describe the expected maternal changes to:\ Cardiovascular system\ Musculoskeletal system\ Metabolic control\ Maintenance of euthermia\ Describe exercise and physical activity recommendations during pregnancy. **Part 6: Maternal Health and Pregnancy Outcomes**\ Describe common maternal health concerns including gestational diabetes, pre-eclampsia, excessive weight gain, pre-term birth and birth weight. Describe the evidence for the role or safety of exercise and physical activity in the context of these concerns. **Week 3** ========== Part 1: Introducing the Brain\ Describe the anatomical and functional units of the brain including neurons, signalling, and organisation. Neurons are a type of cell that make up the nervous system and support mental activity. In each neuron there is: a cell body (contains nucleus, and contains genetic coding and is involved in protein synthesis) dendrites (which receive neural signals from other neurons and pass it through) and an axon (which propagates a neural signal to adjoining neurons) Signalling (communication between the brain) between neurons occurs at the synapses via neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft. Organised into grey and white matter. Grey- cell body and dendrites White- axon and glial cells which allow parts of brain to communicate. Part 2: Processes of Structural and Functional Development of the Brain\ Describe the key processes and trends of neurodevelopment from conception up to adulthood 1. Neurogenesis - Process by which neurons are generated and created. 2. Migration - Neurons then move into their new home within the brain. - Directed by glial cells and chemical markers (growth factors) 3. Differentiation - Although genetically identical, a neurons genetical expression is different (therefore they specialise) 4. Apoptosis - Neurons which receive low stimulation are removed/ die. 5. Arborisation - Complexity of dendrites increases, allowing greater complexity of information received by the neuron 6. Synaptogenesis - Extensions of axons to form synapses with other neurons. 7. Synaptic sculpting - Stimulated synapses are strengthened and if little activity occurs, the connection will dissolve. 8. Myelination - Allows for faster and more efficient neural signalling. Provide and discuss examples of environmental influences on development of the brain. Part 3: Piaget's Theory\ Describe Piaget's theory of cognitive development and its relationship to motor development. Piaget proposed a theory that cognitive development occurs through a process he calls adaptation. Adaptation is made of two processes within: - Assimilation- which is that children attempt to interpret new experiences based on their present interpretation of the world. - Accommodation- which is that children attempt to adjust existing experiences through structures to account for new experiences. Describe Piaget's four stages of cognitive development. Sensorimotor (0-2) - Children learn through predominantly movement and sensory input. Movement occurs through reflexes in early-life and begins to become more voluntary. Preoperational (2-7) - Children are not yet able to logically manipulate information, they start using symbols such as language and pretend play. Transductive reasoning (reasons from specific to specific and begins to understand social relationships. Egocentrism Concrete operational (7-12) - Mastering logic in concrete ways (logic which can be seen, touched, or experienced). Children begin to use logic to solve problems. Children also begin to demonstrate an ability to modify, organize, or reverse thoughts. Formal operational (12+) - Able to understand abstract principles which have no physical reference. Begin to hypothesis things (hypothetical-deductive reasoning), adolescent egocentrism (heightened self-focused) Begin to consider the consequences of Piaget's theories and stages of development when working with children and adolescents. Could be many outliers with the children, every child is different and begins to experience different things in life. One theory may not lead to another. Understand criticisms and alternative theories. - His clinical method lacked scientific control as much of his work was conducted on his own children. - He most likely underestimated the abilities of children. - He described but did not explain development. - His models of cognitive development didn't have a lifespan orientation. Part 4: Brain and Cognitive Development\ Define the cognitive domains of executive function and memory. Define fluid and crystallised intelligence and their changes Describe general changes to cognition and intelligence up to adulthood. Part 5: Physical Activity and Cognitive Performance =================================================== Describe the evidence for physical activity interventions to influence cognitive function in children and adolescence. **Week 4** ========== Part 1: Endocrine System\ Describe the secretion, growth and development effect, and lifespan\ changes of key hormones including:\ - Human Growth Hormone\ - Insulin-Like Growth Factor\ - Androgens\ - Testosterone\ - Oestrogens. Part 2: Height, Mass, and Body Proportions\ Describe changes to height, mass, and body composition across the lifespan (anthropometry) Length and body mass increase rapidly in the first years before the rate of increase begins to slow down and eventually past 50 years of age small shrinkages in height can occur. Body mass triples in the first year of life, from 2-5 years body mass increases \~2kg per annum, leading to adolescence mass increases \~3kg per annum.\ Identify periods of accelerated increases in growth. - The onset of puberty sees a rapid increase in growth of height and mass. - Body proportions will change, and a person becomes less top heavy throughout childhood. Part 3: Skeletal Development\ Describe how and when pre- and post-natal growth of the skeleton occurs. Prenatal skeletal development occurs through either intramembranous ossification or endochondral ossification. Mesenchymal cells from the mesoderm form a model of the bones. **Intramembranous ossification** (no hyaline cartilage involved) 1. Mesenchyme cells create a model and osteoblasts form\ ossification centres. 2. The osteoblasts then create the extracellular matrix which\ is calcified and fuses together. **Endochondral ossification** 1. The mesenchymal cells turn into chondroblasts which\ create a hyaline cartilage model of a bone. 2. Osteoblasts begin forming at primary ossification centres\ in the midportions of long bones. 3.  Secondary ossification points and the epiphyseal plate\ form \ Part 4: Muscular Development\ Describe how and when growth of the skeletal muscle occurs across the lifespan. [Prenatal] muscle growth occurs via hyperplasia and hypertrophy. \~7 weeks -- muscle fibres are formed from myoblasts. \~8-9 weeks -- neuromuscular junctions begin to form. \~19 weeks -- neuromuscular junctions are maturing. \~25 weeks -- most myogenesis is complete. [Postnatal] development Muscles increase predominantly in length with the addition of sarcomeres (thickening/ hypertrophy tends to be delayed. Motor neurons are not fully myelinated. Muscle fibre distributions are similar to adult distributions. **Childhood growth is marked by the addition of sarcomeres.** Describe general changes to cardiac muscle. - Grows by hyperplasia and hypertrophy. - Growth of heart follows sigmoid growth pattern of the whole body. In adolescences the heart also has a growth spurt Part 5: Cardiovascular Fitness\ Describe changes in cardiovascular physiology across the lifespan. [Heart rate]\ Child's HR is ⟨ compared to an adolescent/adult at rest and during submaximal exercise\ Infant \~ 100-160 bpm (resting)\ 1--10-year-old child \~70-120 bpm (resting)\ \>10 years \~60-100 bpm (resting)\ A child is capable of having a ↑ maximal heart rate compared to an adolescent/adult [Stroke volume]\ SV is ↓ compared to adolescent/adult at rest and during exercise\ Birth \~ 3-4 ml/beat\ 6-year-old \~ 27ml/beat\ Adult/Adolescent \~70ml/beat [Cardiac output]\ Q is ↓ compared to adolescent/adult at rest and during exercise. [V̇O2peak] Very little data available\ Linear relationship between age and VO2 Peak until adolescence [Other factors]\ Blood Haemoglobin\  concentration than adults\ Smaller energy stores Explain the implications of these changes for physical activity. A child will find the same workload harder than an adult. Because of decreased CO, decreased SV, increase HR, etc. Part 6: Muscular Performance\ Describe changes in muscular performance across the lifespan. Having a minimal level of muscular strength is essential for movement\ Muscular strength increases linearly with age until adolescence\ Strength activities can improve strength across the lifespan. Cephalocaudal means "head to toe\" and describes the pattern of development that occurs from the head to the tail in the early years of life. Infants are able to life their head off of the ground before they are able to lift their feet, arms, etc. **Week 5** ========== Part 1: Infant Reflexes and Stereotypies\ Describe common reflexes in infancy and discuss their purpose Emerge in last four months of prenatal life and first four months after birth. **Involuntary and subcortical** - Provide information on infant health and neurological maturation. - Primitive reflexes help to secure nourishment and protection. Primitive Reflexes: Sucking and Search -------------------------------------- **Sucking** - Stimulation of the lips - Results in negative intraoral pressure and the tongue presses upwards and forwards. - Essential for non-voluntary feedings as well as self-soothing. **Searching (aka rooting reflex)** - Stimulation of the cheek - Results in head turning towards the direction of the stimulus. - Assists with feeding to turn the head towards the breast. Primitive Reflexes: Palmar Grasp -------------------------------- **Palmar Grasp - Hands** - Stimulation of the palms of the hands - Results in the four fingers closing. - Important for the development of early grasping and reaching. **Palmar Grasp -- Foot** - Stimulation on the ball of the foot - Toes flex or grasp. - Its disappearance is required to stand erect. **Babinski Reflex** - Stimulation of lower or lateral foot - Big toe extends. - Re-emergence in adulthood indicative of upper motor neuron lesion Primitive Reflexes: Stepping and Crawling ----------------------------------------- **Stepping** - Pressure on the feet when held upright. - Exaggerated and alternating step like movements - Can be present from birth an seems to evolve to voluntary walking patterns. **Crawling** - Alternate stimulation of foot in a prone body position - Leg and arm move in a crawling like action. - Can be present from birth and seems to evolve creeping. Primitive Reflexes: Head and Body Righting ------------------------------------------ **Head-righting** - Rolling the body - Head aligns with the body. **Body-righting** - Rolling or moving thew head - Body aligns with the head. Primitive Reflexes: Pull-up Reflex ---------------------------------- **Pull-up** - Loss of upright supported posture - Arms flex or extend to return to upright position. - Assists with attainment of upright posture. Define rhythmic stereotypies and discuss their role in development. It is proposed that rhythmical stereotypies are manifestations of incomplete cortical control of endogenous patterning in maturing neuromuscular pathways. Part 2: Voluntary Movements of Infancy\ Describe the development, timing and constraints to stability movements including:\ Head control\ Body control\ Rolling\ Upright Posture\ Sitting\ Standing\ Describe crawling and creeping (prone locomotion) including timing, patterns, and constraints Infant Voluntary Movement ------------------------- Gradual disappearance of infant reflexes - Voluntary movements become the dominant form of movement. - Cortical structures start to inhibit reflexes. Voluntary infant movement can be divided into: - Stability - Locomotion Developmental sequences in these movements tend to appear predictably and sequentially. - Rate Limiter: A system which acts as a limiter or influence on an individual performing a new skill or motor pattern E.g., an infant must develop head control in order to sit. Head Control ------------ Head control is difficult due to low strength and large relative size of the head. - Initial voluntary movements of the head are small (\~1 month) \~2 months able to lift head from prone position (on tummy) - Very effortful \~3 months can now extend the neck. \~5 months can lift head from a supine position. Body Control: Rolling --------------------- Rolling is important as it opens up options for crawling and standing. Front to back (\~4 months) before back to front (\~5 months) Initial attempts are a full body movement without segmentation of body parts. - Once the infant incorporates a torso twist, they can usually roll. Time on the ground is essential for developing rolling. Body Control: Sitting --------------------- \~3 months can support head when placed in a sitting position. \~5 months can maintain sitting with the use of the arms. - Still needs to be placed into sitting position. \~7 months can sit independently from a supine or prone position. \~8 months can sit independently. Body Control: Standing ---------------------- \~9 months will pull themselves up into a standing position. - Need an external object for support. - Requires head control, upper body strength and leg strength. \~12 months can often stand unassisted. - Will often moves around furniture. Early standing will have feet wide apart, toes pointed out, hands high in guards. - Increases base of support and balance. Prone Locomotion: Crawling and Creeping --------------------------------------- Crawling -------- \~7 months crawling with chest and stomach to floor. 7-8 months develops to chest off the floor both legs often working simultaneously. - Often rock back and forward Creeping \~9-12 months up on hands and knees, legs flexing under body. - Legs and arm moving alternately.  **\ **Part 3: Emerging Fundamental Locomotion Skills\ Describe the development, timing, and constraints to:\ Walking\ Running\ Jumping\ Hopping\ Describe combined movement skills like skipping including timing, patterns, and constraints to development. Part 4: Fine Motor Skills\ Define fine motor skills and compare them to gross motor skills. Small movements of small muscle groups generally involving the hands and the feet such as grasping, object manipulation, etc. Gross motor skills, however, is the use of larger muscles (back, chest, legs,) for crawling, walking, running, etc. Describe changes in fine motor skills during childhood including: Manipulation skills\ Object control **Manipulation** ---------------- Manipulation is the use of the hands. - Reaching and grasping - The development of reaching as a voluntary movement occurs in infancy. Grasping changes, the size or shape of the object. - Small objects are grasped by 1 finger and 1 thumb. - Medium objects are grasped by 3 finger and 1 thumb. - Large objects 4 and 1. - Larger are two hands. Grasping -------- Infants seem to differentiate the size and shape of objects as early as 4 months of age. - Employ various grip configurations for different objects. Anticipation and object control Exploratory procedures and haptic perception - Rough/ smooth, weight, etc **Development of Object Manipulation** -------------------------------------- Birth to 3 months - Clutch objects in palm 4 to 9 months - Visual control improves and more hand movements. - Poke, scratch, rub, wave, and bang objects - Move objects from hand to hand. 9 to 10 months - Ability to sit makes two-handed manipulation easier. 12 months - Role differentiated bimanual manipulation e.g., removing/ inserting objects. **\ **Part 5: Fundamental Object Control Skills\ Describe the development, timing, and constraints to:\ Overarm throwing\ Catching\ Describe factors which may contribute to the development of these skills. **Overarm throwing** -------------------- Preparatory Phase - Movement of the arm away from intended target Execution Phase - Movement of the arm towards the intended target Follow Through - Any movement after release of the object **Throwing Maturation** ----------------------- Stage 1 (\~1.5-2.5 years) - Lack of prep phase. - No/ little feet movement. - All in the arm. Stage 2 (\~3 years) - Rotation of head, shoulder, hips. - Rounded sling arm action. - Start to bring back leg through. Stage 3 (5-8 years) Prep phase: contralateral movement Execution phase: sequential rotation - Front leg knee extends. - Opposite arm moves back. **Throwing Constraints** ------------------------ Instruction - Provision of cues and guided practice improves throwing. Body Scaling - The size of the object will impact upon the throwing pattern. Catching Maturation ------------------- Stage 1 (\~2 years) - Arms held out. - Arms flex after ball contact - Eyes tend to watch the thrower. Stage 2 (\~3 years) - Slight flex in arms - Arms flex prior to contact Stage 5 (6-7 years) - Elbows flex and palms up. - Able to adjust body for flight of ball. **Week 6** ========== Part 1: Social and Language Development Describe the social capabilities of an infant or child with a focus on speech and language development. ================================================================================================================================================= Language Development -------------------- Language is a system of a communication that uses voice symbols to regulate a way in creating meaning. - Speech and language development are linked to the onset of independent walking. - Speech recognition involves matching acoustic forms to a stored set of spoken words which make up the listeners vocabulary. Phonological lexicon - The store of speech sounds that make up known words. Lexical access - The process of matching a spoken word to a stored memory description of the word. Components of language ---------------------- Phoneme: the smallest unit of sound that makes a meaningful difference in a language. - Hat has three phonemes h. a. t. Morpheme: smallest grouping of phonemes which make up meaning in a language. - Suffixes and prefixes -- re as in repeat or reorder mean to do again. Semantics: the set of rules we use to obtain meaning from morphemes. - Adding "ed" to the end of a verb makes it past tense reorder"ed" Syntax: the set of rules of a language by which we construct sentences. Language Acquisition Overview ----------------------------- **Non-verbal Communication (Birth)** - Infant communicates non-verbally (e.g., crying, showing discomfort) **Cooing (From Birth)** - First intentional vocalizations (e.g., ba, da) - Infant replicates sounds and tones from surrounding language. - Practices vocalizations and learns conversational pace and pauses. **Elaborate Vocalizations (4-6 Months)** - Infants produce more complex sounds required for any language. **Babbling (7 Months)** - Intentional vocalizations lacking specific meaning (e.g., ma-mama, da-da-da) **Receptive Language (Around 10 Months)** - Understands more than can speak. - Recognizes own name, responds to requests (e.g., smile, clap) - Uses context to understand (e.g., tone, facial expressions) **Speaking Words (Around 12 Months)** - Holophrasic speech: partial words that parents can understand. - Pronunciation errors (e.g., nana) - Underextension: applies word to one object (e.g., \"dog\" = family dog only) - Overextension: applies word to similar objects (e.g., all animals are \"dog\") **Toddler Language (1-3 Years)** - Vocabulary: 50-200 words, begins using telegraphic speech (e.g., \"baby bye-bye\") - Leaves out articles and other parts of sentences (e.g., \"me hungry\") - Uses infant-directed speech from adults (exaggerated sounds, high-pitched voice) **Early Childhood Language (3-6 Years)** - Vocabulary expands from \~200 words to \~10,000 words by age 6 - Learns 10-20 new words per week through **fast mapping** (linking new words to known concepts) - Takes words literally. - Learning grammar but applies rules incorrectly (e.g., \"the kangaroo that dieded\") **Early Childhood Social Capabilities (3-6 Years)** - Imagination influences play and tasks (e.g., dressing themselves, creating new games) - Start exploring gender differences and influenced by gender norms. - Many have imaginary friends, which evolve in characteristics over time. **Mid-Late Childhood Communication (6-12 Years)** - Vocabulary grows from \~10,000 words to \~40,000 words by age 10. - Improved comprehension and less literal interpretation of language - Can categorize and associate words with known concepts. - Begins telling jokes or playing with words. Describe strategies to improve communication with children ============================================================ Simple but direct language. Be at their level both physically and verbally. - Build rapport by finding out their interests. Complementary/ excited by interests. Identify parenting styles and their influence on development. =============================================================== Four parenting styles (proposed): ================================= 1. Authorative: supportive and show interest in their kids' activities but are not overbearing and allow them to make constructive mistakes. 2. Authoritarian: traditional model of parenting in which parents make the rules and children are expected to be obedient. 3. Permissive: holding expectations of children that are below what could be reasonably expected from them. 4. Uninvolved: disengaged from their children. They do not make demands on their children and are non-responsive. Part 2: Physical Activity Guidelines, Play and Sport Describe the physical activity and sedentary behaviour guidelines for infants and children in Australia **PA Guidelines -- infancy.** ============================================================================================================================================================================================ - Don't partake in exercise but engage in physical activity such as tummy time. - 30 minutes per day of tummy time is recommended, start incorporating grasping. - Interactive floor play once mobile. Sleep - 0-3 months: 14-17 hours/ day - 4-12 months: 12-16 hours/ day **PA Guidelines -- Toddlerhood.** - 1-2 years of age should get at least 3 hours of physical activity each day. - Running, playing tips, ball games, twirling, jumping, dancing, skipping. - Avoid restraining in a pram and limit time spent seated or laying down. Sleep - 1-2 years: 11-14 hours/day - Emphasis on quality of sleep and consistency. **PA Guidelines -- preschool 3-5 y** - Active for at least 3 hours each day, 1 hour of energetic play - Running playing tips, ball games, kicking, throwing, jumping, dancing, skipping. - Should take place throughout the day, not all at once and it should be fun. - Not allowing more than 1 hour of sedentary screen time per day Sleep - 10-13 hours/ day **Week 7** ========== Part 1: Ecological psychology Understand the role of the environment in shaping and controlling action. ========================================================================================================= - The environment around us influences what we do. For example, a chair is designed for sitting, so it encourages us to sit. The things in our surroundings help guide our actions by offering clues on what we can do with them. - Ecological psychology provides a theory of action selection and control that emphasizes the importance of the environment. Explore sub-theories of ecological psychology -- affordances, perception-action couplings - **Affordances**: These are the possibilities for action that the environment provides. For example, a ladder gives you the chance to climb, while a ball gives you the chance to throw or kick it. What we can do depends on both our abilities and what the environment offers. [Normans' door dilemma] - **Perception-Action Coupling**: This means that how we see things (perception) and what we do (action) are connected. For example, when you see a ball coming toward you, your brain automatically prepares your body to catch or avoid it. Our actions are guided by what we see and sense around us. [Catching a flying ball] ### Help us understand how actions are and aren't selected, and how they are controlled. - **How Actions Are Selected:** We choose our actions based on what we need and what the environment allows. For example, we reach for water when thirsty, but only if there's a glass of water nearby. Both our desires and the environment\'s possibilities help decide what we do. - **How Actions Are Controlled:** Once we pick an action, like reaching for a glass, our movements adjust based on what we see. If the glass is too far, we stretch more. Our senses and body work together to make sure the action is done smoothly. - **Why Some Actions Aren't Selected:** If the environment doesn't allow it (like trying to walk through a wall) or if we lack the ability (like lifting something too heavy), certain actions aren't chosen. Part 2: Scaling Practical application of ecological psychology ================================================================ Modifying tasks and environment constraints to meet the body and action capabilities of learners. ================================================================================================= - Body size - Functional capabilities such as strength "how organisms react with their environment" by modifying tasks to equate for a person's body type, age, constraints, etc is a practical application of altering how an organism "person" can react to the environment they are placed in. Scaling to the actions and bodies of children could better transition children between these phases and support their development. Manipulating a tennis ball in size, and bounce for children of younger ages in a practical application and an affordance change to meet ability to environment ratio\ Understand how the manipulation of constraints can be used to shape behaviour Understand how body and action scaled capabilities influence sport performance. Action and body scaled affordance. A child cannot do what an adult can do, they are incapable physically, therefore practically applying an affordance or change in environment to meet a person's ability. **Scaling for tactical and game skill development in tennis** Looks more like the adult game but the game that is 'temporally' and 'spatially' comparable to adult\ this will aid in rallies of similar length but scaled down to not constrain a child development.\ Better learning\ Mores shots (more opportunities)\ Heightened demand on perceptual skills. Part 3: What this means for your practice and future study. ----------------------------------------------------------- Ecological psychology can help us design better childrens sport experiences through considering body and action scaled capabilities (affordances) of the learner. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- While many sports consider this early, children are often playing the adult game by 10 years! ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Scaling to the affordances available to children has many benefits Skill Psychological Retention? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- This is a great example of how a principled approach to manipulating constraints (e.g. task) can shape behaviour. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Week 8** ========== Part 1: Endocrine System\ Describe the secretion, growth and development effect, and lifespan\ changes of key hormones including:\ Human Growth Hormone\ Insulin-Like Growth Factor\ Androgens\ Testosterone\ Oestrogens. Part 2: Physical Development\ Describe changes to height, mass, and body composition during adolescence **Changes in height** - Approximately half of maximal adult bone mass is accumulated during adolescence. - Peak height velocity precedes peak bone mass accrual. - After maximal adult height is fulfilled, the chances of gaining additional bone mass are slim. - Growth at epiphyseal plate ceases at different times for different bones \~18-19 years. - Closure of epiphyseal plate ceases earlier in females due to maturation. **Body mass** - Leading up to adolescence, body mass increases \~3kg per annum - During first three years of adolescence males accumulate \~20.4kg and females \~15.9kg **Muscular System** - Muscle growth through hypertrophy accounts for a considerable amount of weight gain during growth. - Growth occurs due to increase of anabolic hormones during puberty. **Cardiovascular changes** - Stroke volume increases during adolescence. - Increased cardiac output. - Absolute vo2 max increases gradually but relative vo2 max remains stable. Part 3: Puberty\ Describe the development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics during puberty. Males, ------ - Testicular enlargement and lengthening of genitals. - Onset of spermarche. - Rapid enlargement of the larynx, pharynx, and lungs. - Growth of facial and body hair. Females, -------- - Appearance of breast buds, followed by breast development. - Menses begins. - Enlargement of ovaries, uterus: thickening of the endometrium. Define and compare biological vs chronological maturation ### Biological Maturation - Refers to the physical and internal development of the body and brain over time. - It includes changes like growth in height, development of muscles, hormonal changes, and brain development. - Biological maturation happens at different rates for different people, meaning some might physically mature faster or slower than others. ### Chronological Maturation - Refers to a person\'s age in terms of the number of years since birth. - It\'s the simplest way to track age, but it doesn't account for how physically or mentally developed a person is. - Chronological age is the same for everyone born on the same day, but it doesn't reflect individual differences in physical or mental growth. Describe and compare different methods of assessing maturational status. **Maturational status** refers to an individual\'s stage of development compared to typical growth patterns. It reflects where a person is in terms of physical, biological, or psychological development relative to their age group. For example, in biological terms, maturational status might indicate whether someone is ahead, on time, or delayed in terms of puberty, growth, or other physical milestones. In simpler terms, it's about how far someone has progressed in their development compared to others of the same age. Part 4: Social, cognitive, and behavioural changes\ Describe how physical changes to the brain manifest themselves into behavioural changes and profiles of an adolescent. - In adolescence, the density and complexity of the synapses increases. Increased myelinations make the transmission of the neural messages more efficient: both sensory and motor. - The prefrontal cortex undergoes considerable development throughout adolescence and is not fully developed until age 20. Involved in impulse control. - Because the prefrontal cortex is also involved in impulse control, the ability to inhibit impulses explains the tendency towards risky and impulsive behaviours in some adolescence. Part 5: Physical Activity\ Describe the influence of maturation on physical activity performance and participation. In males advanced maturation = - Greater gains in height, weight, and superior performance in tasks. In females advanced maturation = - Greater gains in height, weight, and weight-for-height - Gains in weight are predominantly associated with increased fat rather than muscle mass. Body size and maturity status are well documented as predictors of athlete selection, performance, and socialization in several sports. Explain how maturational status can be used to inform the prescription of physical activity in adolescence Maturational status helps tailor physical activity in adolescents by matching exercises to their developmental stage. More biologically mature adolescents may handle higher intensity activities, while those less mature may benefit from lighter or skill-based exercises. It helps prevent injury, supports proper growth, and ensures that physical activity promotes healthy development at the right pace. **Week 9** ========== Part 1: Physical Growth\ Describe changes to height, mass, and body composition during adulthood. - Height begins to gradually decrease at approximately age 40, degeneration of intervertebral disks. - Early adulthood is usually peak for muscles mass. Discuss the physiology and performance capabilities of young to middle aged adults. - Muscular strength decreases from mid-adulthood onwards. - Muscle mass tends to decline from \~50 years, loss is attributed to decrease in number and size of the fibres. Part 2: Brain Development and Senses\ Describe the development of neurocognition in early and mid-adulthood. Brain grows in both size and weight, reaching its maximum during early adulthood -- and then subsequently contracting in size later in life. Gray matter of brain continues to be pruned back, and myelination continues to increase.\ The prefrontal cortex, undergoes considerable development throughout adolescence and is not fully developed until age 20\ Involved in impulse control Early adulthood sees the peak of nervous system performance. Declines in volume start around mid-20's, anywhere from 0.5-1% per annum on average (holy moly) This starts out lower and increases with age Describe the trajectory and causes of changes to the senses, primarily vision and hearing\ **Vision** - At age 40 visual acuity begins to decline, eye lenses change shape and elasticity, lenses become less transparent. - Presbyopia is a very common change to the visual system which limits vision, signs include eye strains, headaches, problems seeing objects that are close. **Hearing** - Hearing problems increase during middle adulthood. - Hearing loss is most common for high frequency sounds. - Caused by combinations of age and environmental exposure. -age increases loss of hair cells in inner ear -exposure to higher noise levels. Part 3: Climacteric\ Define the term climacteric. Climacteric is the midlife transition where fertility in male and females declines. It occurs to people of female sex (menopause) and to a lesser extent in males. It's a biological process, however, environmental factors can cause climacteric to occur. Describe the biological driven changes to the sexual system in mid- adulthood **Female Climacteric** [Perimenopause:] a period of transition in which the ovaries stop releasing an oocyte and the level of oestrogen and progesterone production decreases. Commences \~2-8 years prior to menopause (usually 40). [Menopause]: defined as a 12-month period without menstruation and usually occurs \~50 years of age [Menopause and bone:] osteoporosis is a concern following menopause due to reduction in oestrogen levels. Post menopause, osteoclasts breakdown down excessively without being replaced by osteoblast.s. Oestrogen binds to osteoclasts and has an inhibitory action, primarily through reducing the number of\ mature osteoclasts and apoptosis\ Oestrogen also binds to osteoblasts. Its absence increases osteoblast apoptosis and reduces their response to mechanical stress. Net effect is an increased tendency for bone resorption which negatively affects the mechanical property of bone tissue. Most evidence suggests multicomponent exercise to be most beneficial for bone health post-menopause. Compare the degree and impact of these changes between male and female sexes. **Male climacteric** The male climacteric is incredibly different as the reduction in testosterone declines more gradually and males will be more fertile for greater extents of their lifespan. Whilst men do not experience a similar "menopause" there are a number of changes that can occur: - Erectile dysfunction - Prostate enlargement and difficulty urinating - Andropause (drop in test causing low sex drive and fatigue) Part 4: Physical Activity\ Define and describe the Australian Physical Activity guidelines for adults. Adults should be active most days, preferably every day. Each week, adults should do either:\ - 2.5 to 5 hours of moderate intensity physical activity -- such as a brisk walk, golf, mowing the lawn or\ swimming. \- 1.25 to 2.5 hours of vigorous intensity physical activity -- such as jogging, aerobics, fast cycling, soccer or\ netball \- an equivalent combination of moderate and vigorous activities.\ \ - Include muscle-strengthening activities as part of your daily physical activity on at least 2 days each week. \- Reduce time spent sitting\ \ \ **A number of personal, social, and environmental factors influence physical activity levels:**\ - Age and sex\ - PA - higher in men than in women \- inversely associated with age.\ - Association between marital status and physical activity behaviour produced mixed findings\ - Depends on how you measure\ - Overweight or obesity negative influence on physical activity Discuss factors which impact adults' participation in physical activity. Past exercise behaviour or exercise habit emerged as a consistent predictor of current activity status.\ - positive associations with healthy diet; however, only a small number of studies examined dietary behaviour.\ - Smoking was inversely related to physical activity.\ Enjoyable scenery while exercising and frequently observing others exercise were positively associated\ with physical activity participation. **Barriers to physical activity**\ - lack of time, too tiring, too weak, fear of falling, bad weather, no facilities, and lack of exercise\ partners Part 5: Ageing\ Describe causes of secondary senescence and death as well as how these change over the lifespan. **Week 10** =========== **Part 1: Physical Growth**\ Describe changes to height, mass, and body composition during older adulthood. Describe changes to the musculoskeletal system including the term sarcopenia. Age related loss of muscle mass, strength, and function. It originates from the Greek meaning "lack of flesh". Begins in fourth decade of life and accelerates after the age of approximately 75 years. Most atrophy is seen in the fast twitch (FT) fibres. **Part 2: Brain Development**\ Describe the development of neurocognition in older adulthood. **Cognitive Decline**: Many older adults experience a decline in processing speed, working memory, and executive functions. Quick decision-making and multitasking can become harder. **Memory Changes**: - **Episodic Memory**: Recall of recent events often declines. - **Semantic Memory**: Knowledge and facts usually stay stable or improve. - **Procedural Memory**: Skills learned over time, like riding a bike, are generally retained well. **Brain Structure Changes**: The brain loses volume, especially in areas important for memory and decision-making. White matter may also decline, slowing down communication between brain cells. **Compensatory Mechanisms**: Older adults often use strategies to cope with decline, like relying on past experiences or using reminders. **Neuroplasticity**: The brain can still adapt and form new connections. Engaging in learning and social activities can support cognitive function. **Influence of Lifestyle Factors**: Physical health, diet, and social interactions affect cognitive aging. Staying active and healthy can help slow down decline. **Variability in Aging**: Cognitive aging varies widely. Some people decline significantly, while others maintain good cognitive function. Factors like genetics and education play a role. Describe differences in normal vs pathological ageing Normal aging involves gradual, manageable changes in cognitive and physical abilities, while pathological aging leads to significant decline and health challenges. Pathological aging is often marked by diseases that severely impact quality of life, whereas normal aging allows for continued adaptation and engagement.\ Describe current evidence around interventions to prevent or reverse age- related neurocognitive decline. - Increased exercise interventions for cognitive functions in adults older than 50. In cognitively normal older adults, moderate evidence suggests that exercise interventions improve neurocognition. - Strong evidence that PA is associated with reduced risk of developing MCI and dementia. **Part 3: Movement**\ Define balance and postural sway and describe developmental trends into older adulthood. **Balance** The ability to control the position of the body. - Static balance: maintenance of body position when base of support is constant, but centre of gravity is moving. - Dynamic balance: maintenance of body position when both the base of support and centre of gravity are moving. **Postural Sway** Almost imperceptible back and forth motion in an upright position. - Matures in adolescence/ early adulthood. - Increases from as early as 30 onwards. - Major declines are seen in older age, require greater muscular activity to reduce postural sway. **Balance performance declines with age** An older adult will attempt to compensate by increasing muscle activity though hip movements to control the centre of balance within the base of support. Causes: decrease in strength and power and increase in impairments to proprioception, cognitive function, vision, and vestibular system. Describe changes to the fundamental movement skill of walking into older age. **Changes to gait during early to mid-adulthood are subtle.** **In older age, negative changes are more noticeable:** - Stooping posture - Reduced hip extension during support phase - Wider stance during double support phase - Variable step length and rate - Mimic patterns from children in early stages **Dual tasking** is performing a motor activity (usually walking) while simultaneously performing a cognitive task. I dual task conditions, gait velocity is slower and a stride-to-stride variability increases, regardless of age. Part 4: Activities of Daily Living\ Define activities of daily living (ADLs), instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) and Functional Capacity. **Activities of Daily Living (ADLs)** ADLs are basic self-care tasks that individuals perform daily to take care of themselves. They include: - Eating - Bathing - Dressing - Toileting - Walking or transferring (moving from one place to another) **Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs)** IADLs are more complex activities that support daily living and require higher cognitive functioning. They include: - Managing finances - Shopping for groceries - Cooking meals - Doing laundry - Using transportation (driving or using public transit) - Managing medications **Functional Capacity** Functional capacity refers to a person\'s ability to perform ADLs and IADLs effectively. It measures how well someone can live independently and manage their daily tasks, reflecting their overall physical and mental health. Discuss how the ability to undertake ADLs and IADLs change in older age and how this impacts disability and functionality. As people get older, their ability to do Activities of Daily Living (ADLs) and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs) often changes: ### **Changes in ADLs and IADLs** 1. **Physical Limitations**: - Older adults may find it harder to do basic tasks like bathing, dressing, or walking due to decreased strength and balance. 2. **Cognitive Decline**: - Memory problems or conditions like dementia can make it difficult to manage tasks like cooking or taking medications. 3. **Chronic Health Conditions**: - Diseases like arthritis or heart problems can limit mobility and energy, affecting daily tasks. 4. **Social Isolation**: - Less social interaction can make it hard to get help or participate in community activities. ### Impact on Disability and Functionality - **Increased Disability**: - Difficulty with ADLs may mean that older adults need help with basic self-care, leading to a higher risk of disability. - **Reduced Independence**: - Trouble with IADLs can make it hard to live independently, requiring assistance from family or caregivers. - **Emotional Effects**: - Struggling with daily tasks can lead to frustration, feelings of loss, and depression, affecting overall happiness. Part 5: Physical Activity\ Define and describe the Australian Physical Activity guidelines for older adults. For people aged 65 years and over, we recommend at least 30 minutes of moderate intensity PA on most, preferably all days. Try reducing the time you spend sitting down -- break that time up as often as you can **Week 12** =========== xxx