GSOM 113 Old Testament Theology.pdf

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COURSE CODE: CTH323 COURSE TITLTE: Old Testament Theology CTH316 Hebrew Syntax Course Guide Course Code CTH323 Course Title...

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COURSE CODE: CTH323 COURSE TITLTE: Old Testament Theology CTH316 Hebrew Syntax Course Guide Course Code CTH323 Course Title Old Testament Theology Course Developer/Writer Revd. Dr. Miracle Ajah Hugh Goldie Lay/Theological Institution Arochukwu Course Editor Dr. Olubiyi Adeniyi Adewale National Open University of Nigeria Victoria Island, Lagos Course Coordinator Dr. Jacob A. Owolabi National Open University of Nigeria Victoria Island, Lagos Programme Leader Dr. Godwin I. Akper National Open University of Nigeria Victoria Island, Lagos NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA ii CTH316 Hebrew Syntax National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island Lagos Abuja Annex 5, Dar es Salaam Street Off Aminu Kano Crescent Wuse II, Abuja Nigeria e-mail: [email protected] URL: www.nou.edu.ng National Open University of Nigeria 2011 Printed 2011 ISBN: ------------------------------------- All Rights Reserved Printed by --------------------------------- For National Open University of Nigeria iii CTH316 Hebrew Syntax Content Page Introduction 4 What you will learn in this Course 4 Course Aims 4-5 Course Objectives 5 Working through this Course 6 Course Materials 6 Study Units 6 Textbooks and References 6-7 Assignment File 7 Presentation Schedule 7 Assessment 7 Tutor-Marked Assignments 8 Final Examination and Grading 8 Course Marking Scheme 8 Course Overview 8-9 How to get the Best from this Course 9-10 Tutors and Tutorials 10 Summary 11 iv CTH316 Hebrew Syntax Introduction CTH 323: Old Testament Theology is a one-semester 2- credit unit course. It will be available toward the award of the under-graduate degree in Christian theology. The course is also suitable for anybody who is interested in the theological study of the Bible. The course will consist of 14 units and it will examine a theological study of themes in the Old Testament including: God, creation, humanity, gift of land, sin and evil, worship, priesthood and sacrifice, redemption and mission. The material has been especially developed for students in African context with particular focus on Nigeria. There are no compulsory prerequisites for this course. The course guide tells you briefly what the course is about, what you are expected to know in each unit, what course materials you will be using and how you can work your way through these materials. It also emphasizes the need for Tutor-Marked Assignments. (TMAs) Detailed information on (TMAs) is found in the separate file, which will be sent to you later. There are periodic tutorial classes that are linked to the course. What You Will Learn in this Course The overall aim of CTH 323: Old Testament Theology is to lead you to study the theological ideas found in the Old Testament with particular emphasis on God, humanity, sin, redemption and mission. Old Testament theology is a part of Biblical theology. Therefore, our study of the theological themes of the Old Testament will include the witness of the Old Testament to Jesus Christ in the New Testament. Your understanding of Old Testament Theology will equip you to explain Christian faith to other people - Christians and non-Christians. You will find biblical theology to be an enriching study as you benefit from the insights of other biblical theologians. Course Aims The aim of this course (CTH 323 – Old Testament Theology) is to study some of the theological themes found in the Old Testament, using exegetical methodologies in a canonical order, relating the Old Testament themes to the New Testament, and drawing implications for believing communities in contemporary Africa. This will be achieved by: Introducing you to the Methodologies and Currents in Old Testament Theology Discussing the nature and attributes of God in the Old Testament Exposing you to the realities of God’s creations and the endowments God made for humanity. Analyzing the importance of covenants in humanity’s relationship to the God and to one another. v CTH316 Hebrew Syntax Attempting to discover the origin of sin and evil, and explores the provisions made in the Old Testament for its solution. Equipping you with a better understanding of the dynamics of worship, priesthood, prophecy, and sacrifices. Analyzing the future of Biblical Studies in African context. Course Objectives To achieve the above course aims, there are set objectives for each study unit, which are always included at the beginning. The student should read them before working through the unit. Furthermore, the student is encouraged to refer to the objectives of each unit intermittently as the study of the unit progresses. This practice would promote both learning and retention of what is learned. Stated below are the wider objectives of this course as a whole. By meeting these objectives, you should have achieved the aims of the course as a whole. On successful completion of the course, you should be able to: Define the methodologies and currents in Old Testament Theology Discuss the nature and attributes of God in the Old Testament Appreciate the realities of God’s creations and the endowments God made for humanity. Analyze the importance of covenants in humanity’s relationship to the God and to one another. Discover the biblical view of the origin of sin and evil, and explore the provisions made in the Old Testament for its solution. Become equipped with a better understanding of the dynamics of worship, priesthood, prophecy, and sacrifices. Become conscious and work towards the future of biblical studies in African context. Working through this Course To complete this course, you are required to read the study units, read the recommended books and the other materials provided by the National Open University (NOUN). Each unit contains self-assessment exercises, and at points during the course you are required to submit assignments for assessment purposes. At the end of this course there is a final examination. Below you will find listed all the components of the course and what you have to do. Course Materials Major components of the course are: 1. Course Guide vi CTH316 Hebrew Syntax 2. Study Units 3. Textbooks 4. Assignments file 5. Presentation schedule You must obtain these materials. You may contact your tutor if you have problems in obtaining the text materials. Study Units There are fourteen study units in this course. Each unit contains a number of self-tests. In general, these self-tests question you on the material you have just covered or require you to apply the material in some ways, and thereby, help you to gauge your progress and to reinforce your understanding of the material. Together with your tutor marked assignments, these exercises will assist you in achieving the stated learning objectives of the individual units and of the course. Set Textbooks These textbooks are recommended for your study in this course: 1. The Holy Bible (RSV or NIV). 2. Palmer, Timothy P. (2011) A Theology of the Old Testament. Bukuru: Africa Christian Textbooks. 3. Hinson, David F. (1976) Theology of the Old Testament. London: SPCK. 4. House, Paul R. (1998) Old Testament Theology. Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press. 5. Rowley, H. H. (1956) The Faith of Israel. London: SCM Press LTD. 6. Gwamna, Je’adayibe Dogara (2008) Perspectives in African Theology. Bukuru: Africa Christian Textbooks. 7. Parrat, John (1997) A Reader in African Theology. London: SPCK 8. Hargreaves, John (1979) A Guide to the Book of Genesis. London: SPCK 9. Millar, J. Garry (1998) Now Choose Life: Theology and Ethics in Deuteronomy. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press. 10. Migliore, Daniel L (1991) Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology. Grand Rapids: W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Assignment file In this file you will find all the details of the work you must submit to your tutor for marking. The marks you obtain from these assignments will count toward the final mark you obtain for this course. Further vii CTH316 Hebrew Syntax information on assignment will be found in the assignment file itself and later in this Course Guide in the section on assessment. Presentation Schedule The “presentation schedule” included in your course materials gives you the important dates for the completion of your tutor marked assignments and attending tutorials. Remember, you are required to submit all your assignment as and when due. Assessment There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. First are the tutor marked assignments; second, there is a written examination. While working on your assignments, you are expected to apply information and knowledge acquired during this course. The assignments must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance with the deadlines stated in the assignment file. The work you submit to your tutor for assessment will count for 30% of your total course mark. At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final three-hour examination. This will also count for 70% of your total course mark. Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs) There are fifteen tutor assignments in this course. You need to submit all the assignments. The best three (that is, the three with the highest grades of fifteen assignments) will be counted. The total mark of the best three will be 30% of your total course mark. Assignments for the units in this course are contained in the Assignment File. You should be able to complete your assignments from the information and materials contained in your set textbooks, reading and study units. However, you are advised to use other references to broaden your viewpoint and provide a deeper understanding of the subject. Final Examination and Grading The examination will consist of questions you will come across in tutor marked assignments. You are therefore advised to revise the entire course after studying the last unit before you sit for the examination. Course Marking Scheme The table below gives a breakdown of the course mark: Assessment Marks Assignments 1-21 Three assignments, best three viii CTH316 Hebrew Syntax marks of the assignments counts for 30% of course marks. Final examination The final examination counts for 70% of overall marks. Total 100% of course marks Table 1: Course Marking Scheme Course Overview This table brings together the units, the number of works you should take to complete. Unit Title of Work Week’s Assessment Activit (end of unit) y Course Guide 1 Methodologies and currents in Assignment 1 Old Testament Theology 1 2 God (Nature and Attributes) 2 Assignment 2 3 Creation (Origin and Providence) 3 Assignment 4 4 Humanity (Nature and Purpose) 4 Assignment 4 5 Covenants 5 Assignments 5 6 Land as a Gift 6 Assignment 6 7 Sin and Evil 7 Assignment 7 8 Worship 8 Assignment 8 9 Priesthood 9 Assignment 9 10 Sacrifice 10 Assignment 10 11 Redemption and Mission 11 Assignment 11 12 Prophecy 12 Assignment 12 13 Community 13 Assignment 13 14 Prophecy 14 Assignment 14 15 Revision 15 Assignment 15 16 Examination 16 Assignment 16 TOTAL 17 Weeks Table 2: Course Overview How to Get the Best from this Course In distance learning the study units replace the university Lecturer. This is one of the great advantages of the distance learning system. You can read and work through specially designed study materials at your own pace. ix CTH316 Hebrew Syntax Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Following this is a set of learning objectives. These objectives enable you know what you should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. The objectives should guide your study. After studying the units must cross check whether you have achieved the objectives. If you adhere strictly to this art of checking whether the objective is achieved or not, you will definitely improve your chances of passing the course. The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from other sources. This will usually be either from your set books or from a “Reading” section. Whenever you need help, don’t hesitate to call and ask your tutor to provide it. 1. Read through this Course Guide thoroughly. 2. Plan your study schedule. You should refer to the ‘course overview’ for more details. Find out the time you are expected to spend on each unit and when and how to turn in your assignments. 3. Stick to your study schedule. Don’t allow anything to get you distracted from your study schedule. 4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and objectives for the unit. 5. Gather the study material you need. All you need or a unit is given in the ‘Overview’ at the beginning of each unit. The study unit you are working on and one of your set books should be on your desk at the same time. 6. Work through the unit. The content of the unit has been arranged in a sequential order. Instructions would be given on where to read from your set books or other articles. Use the unit to guide your reading. 7. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm you have achieved them. 8. Don’t proceed to the next unit, until you are sure you have achieved the objectives of the unit you are working on. 9. Don’t wait until your assignment is returned before working on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. x CTH316 Hebrew Syntax 10. When you complete the last unit, you can be preparing for exams. Be sure that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the course objectives (listed in this Course Guide). Tutors and Tutorials There are 8 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. The dates, times and location of these tutorials, together with the name and phone number of your tutor will be communicated to you. This will be done as you are allocated to a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must mail your tutor marked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least two working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible. Do not hesitate to contact our tutor by telephone, e-mail or discussion board if you need help. The following might be the circumstances in which you will find help necessary. Contact your tutor if: You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings. You have difficulty with the self-tests or exercises, and You have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor’s comment on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment. You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to interact with your tutor by asking questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the course of your study. To maximize the benefits of the course tutorials, it is advisable that you prepare a question list before attending them. When you participate in the discussions your intellectually life will be deeply enriched. Summary CTH 323 intends to introduce you to biblical theology of the Old Testament. Upon completing this course, you will be able to answer questions such as: xi CTH316 Hebrew Syntax 1. What is the meaning of Old Testament theology? 2. What are the attributes of God in the Old Testament? 3. What are the implications of the theologies of creation and providence for the existence of sin and evil in the world? 4. What does the Old Testament teach about the nature and purpose of humanity? 5. What is role of covenant in humanity’s relationship with God and with one another? 6. Why is worship necessary and are the roles of priesthood and sacrifice? 7. Why is land ownership a major factor in many communities? 8. Is there any provision for redemption and mission in the Old Testament? 9. What is the future of biblical theology in Africa? Of course, the questions you will be able to answer are not limited to the above list. Biblical theology of the Old Testament offers you more. I am excited to lead and guide you in this study of theological themes in the Old Testament and in the whole Bible. I hope you will enjoy the course. xii CTH316 Hebrew Syntax Course Guide Course Code CTH323 Course Title Old Testament Theology Course Developer/Writer Revd. Dr. Miracle Ajah Hugh Goldie Lay/Theological Institution Arochukwu Course Editor Dr. Olubiyi Adeniyi Adewale National Open University of Nigeria Victoria Island, Lagos Course Coordinator Dr. Jacob A. Owolabi National Open University of Nigeria Victoria Island, Lagos Programme Leader Dr. Godwin I. Akper National Open University of Nigeria Victoria Island, Lagos xiii CTH316 Hebrew Syntax NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA xiv CTH316 Hebrew Syntax National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island Lagos Abuja Annex 5, Dar es Salaam Street Off Aminu Kano Crescent Wuse II, Abuja Nigeria e-mail: [email protected] URL: www.nou.edu.ng National Open University of Nigeria 2011 Printed 2011 ISBN: ------------------------------------- All Rights Reserved Printed by --------------------------------- For National Open University of Nigeria CONTENTS PAGES xv CTH316 Hebrew Syntax Module 1 Creator and Creation 4 Unit 1 History and Methodology of Old Testament Theology Unit 2 God (Nature and Attributes) Unit 3 Creation (Origin and Providence) Unit 4 Humanity (Nature and Purpose) Unit 5 Covenants Module 2 Endowments, Abuse and Recovery Unit 1 The Gift of Land Unit 2 Sin and Evil Unit 3 Worship Unit 4 Priesthood Unit 5 Sacrifice Module 3 Other Relevant Subjects Unit 1 Redemption Unit 2 Mission Unit 3 Community Unit 4 Prophecy xvi CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY MODULE 1: CREATOR AND CREATION Unit 1: Methodologies and Currents in Old Testament Theology Unit 2: God (Nature and Attributes) Unit 3: Creation (Origin and Providence) Unit 4: Humanity (Nature and Purpose) Unit 5: Covenants Unit 1: History and Methodology of Old Testament Theology Contents 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objective 3.0 Main body 3.1 Defining Old Testament Theology 3.2 Barriers to the study of OT Theology 3.3 Possible approaches to the study of OT Theology 3.4 History of OT Theology 3.5 Tools and Method for OT Theology 3.6 Implications for Africa 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments 7.0 References/Future Reading 1.0 Introduction You are welcomes to this course, CTH 323. The Course CTH 323 (Old Testament Theology) is structured into three modules. Module 1 presents the Creator and Creation, discussed under five units in the following order: the History and Methodology of OT Theology; the Nature and Attributes of God; the Origin and Providence of Creation; the Nature and Purpose of Humanity; and Covenants. Module 2 is captioned Endowments, Abuse and Recovery, which is an offshoot of Module 1. Its five units discuss Land as a Gift; Sin and Evil; Worship; Priesthood; and Sacrifice. The last section, Module 3 presents Other Relevant Subjects in Old Testament Theology, namely: and Redemption, Mission; Community; and Prophecy. 2.0 Objectives By the end of this unit, you should be able to: Define Old Testament Theology Identify some of the barriers to the study of Old Testament Theology Note some of the approaches to the study of Old Testament Theology -1- CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY Write an overview of the history of Old Testament Theology Be acquainted with the tools and method of Old Testament Theology Discuss some of the implications of doing OT Theology as an African 3.0 MAIN BODY 3.1 Defining Old Testament Theology The word “Theology” is derived from two Greek words, theos and logos which in English mean “the study or discourse of God” and implies that those who undertake to study God will learn a great deal about God’s nature, actions and attitudes. P. R. House (1998, 53) argues that from learning about God, the student would in turn discover how God relates to the created world, including the human race and that all analyses begin with God and flow to other vital subjects. So, the Old Testament Theology can be defined as “the task of presenting what the Old Testament says about God as a coherent whole.” Only by keeping God at the forefront of research can one compose a viable and balanced theological work. Scholars however are not in agreement on how OT Theology should be defined or explained. According to W. C. Kaiser (1988, 477), “Old Theology is a discipline in search of a definition, a methodology, an organizing center or motif, and a permanent berth in the curriculum of divinity.” Schlimm (http://catalystresources.org/issues/373Schlimm.htm - 12/7/11) who summarized the opinions of scholars on the best way to approach OT Theology into three subheadings: (1) by naming a single theme as the Old Testament’s unifying concept, (2) by explaining the problems with answering this question, and (3) by answering this question in a way that treats the diversity of Old Testament materials. By the first opinion: Naming a single theme, the scholars sought somewhat simple explanations to how the Old Testament speaks about God, humanity, and creation. They attempted to name a singular theme as the rubric that brought all of the OT together into a coherent and organized whole. Examples are: Walther Eichrodt’s Theology of the Old Testament, which argued that covenant, was the central unifying feature of the Old Testament; and G.E. Wright’s God Who Acts: Biblical Theology as Recital, which provided both the academy and the church with a lens for viewing the Old Testament as a record of ways God had acted powerfully in Israel’s history. The second opinion: Critique and Uncertainty observed that attempting to fit all of the Old Testament within one rubric proved too difficult a task. Interpreters became increasingly aware of diversity among biblical texts. In 1970, B. Childs declared that biblical theology was in a state of crisis, citing not only its inability to find a central focus, but also (1) its failure to deal with both the divine and human aspects of Scripture, (2) its difficulty in articulating the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, and (3) its -2- CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY inability to provide a foundation for theological education (cf. Biblical Theology in Crisis [Westminster, 1970]). Recognizing Diversity was the third opinion that found expression in recent decades. According to this view OT theology is the mainstay of biblical studies; it does not emphasize one concept as the singular item that brings all of the OT together. Instead, they are quite aware of the diversity of genres, concepts, and perspectives within the canon. A key example is W. Brueggemann’s Theology of the Old Testament: Testimony, Dispute, Advocacy (Fortress, 1997). Brueggemann maintains that at the core of OT faith is testimony to God’s core character, which he describes in terms of covenant solidarity and unlimited sovereignty. Another important work that presents the OT’s diversity is E. Gerstenberger’s Theologies in the Old Testament (Fortress, 2000). The plural noun in this title is not accidental. This volume examines the different theologies present among various social institutions in the OT: families, villages, tribes, nations, and exiles. This course will uphold the fact that Old Testament Theology is both a complex assortment of concepts and a variety of perspectives on each of these particular concepts. We will respect the diversity of Old Testament materials, because the OT offers a variety of perspectives so that God may speak to all of humanity in all of its differences, including the African. Self-Assessment Exercise Define Old Testament Theology, and summarize the three different opinions of scholars on how OT Theology could be explained. 3.2 Barriers to the study of OT Theology There are certain difficulties confronting the study of Old Testament Theology. P. R. House (1998, 12) summarized it under five headings: (1) Historical barriers, (2) Literary barriers, (3) Theological/Hermeneutical barriers, (4) General unfamiliarity with Old Testament, and (5) Scholarly barriers. Historical Barriers The historical context of the Old Testament is different from ours. Even though one does not have to be an expert in ancient history to read the Old Testament intelligently, some historical context is necessary. Such knowledge is particularly important if for no other reason than that the books of the Old Testament are not in chronological order. Unfortunately few readers are knowledgeable in even basic background matters. -3- CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY Literary Barriers While most readers can easily understand narrative books like Genesis, Joshua and Esther among others, poetic works and prophetic works are more difficult to manage. For one to correctly interpret the OT, the person should be able to understand the different types of OT literature and how to interpret them. A wrong understanding would lead to a wrong interpretation and application. Theological/Hermeneutical Barriers Myriads of theological questions abound in the OT that requires informed answers. Most times scholars are not in agreement of which answer to accept. Examples: How does one reconcile the love of God and the wrath of God? How does the OT relate to NT? How should one relate the OT to the current readers and worshippers? General Unfamiliarity with OT The barrier of general unfamiliarity with the Old Testament hampers many readers. If there ever was a time when the Old Testament’s contents and emphases were well known, then that time has passed. Most students have not read through the entire OT, hence the difficulty in grasping the comprehensive message of the OT. Scholarly Barriers OT scholars do not agree on how to approach the OT history, content, and theology. The diversity of opinions can be quite confusing. In approaching OT studies the student is left with a dilemma: on the one hand is the opportunity to analyze and enjoy enriching, inspired, literature; yet on the other hand lie the problems of understanding, interpreting and unifying the material being studied. Any attempt to discuss OT Theology must therefore strive to bridge these gaps while remaining faithful to the OT’s message. Self-Assessment Exercise Discuss the five barriers to the study of Old Testament Theology 3.3 Possible approaches to the study of OT Theology A survey of the study of OT Theology shows is quite difficult to choose a starting point for a description of the study of Old Testament theology. P. R. House (1998, 13) identified five possible approaches to the study of OT Theology: -4- CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY (1) One could begin with the OT itself. How the Old Testament’s theology grows and develops within its own pages must be part of a serious analysis of the subject. Attempting to chart how ideas originated and grew to maturity has the potential to leave interpreters seeking the history of theological processes rather than the conclusions of theology proper. (2) One could also start the description with the New Testament’s treatment of the Old Testament, as the New Testament writers made extensive use of the Old Testament. To start here, however, is to run ahead of one’s self. The New Testament authors knew the Hebrew Scriptures thoroughly and expected their readers to possess a similar familiarity. Most current readers need to examine the whole of the Old Testament and digest its theological contents before undertaking a study of the relationship between the testaments. Some knowledge and expertise are needed to proceed further. (3) Examining how the early church fathers, medieval interpreters and leaders of the Reformation viewed Old Testament theology is another potential entry point. John Calvin and Martin Luther are particularly notable examples of figures from church history who interpret the Old Testament as a theological document closely linked to the New Testament. The problem with this approach is that none of these individuals ever produced a single volume specifically devoted to Old Testament theology. Their ideas must be gleaned from literally dozens of sermons, commentaries and other works. (4) Some modern writers argue that the synagogue tradition is the place to start when assessing Old Testament theology because rabbinic scholars have been commenting on the Hebrew Scriptures since the Old Testament was completed. This approach has the same constraints as trying to gather the various comments from church history. Again, Judaism and Christianity disagree over the value of a two-testament Bible and over the nature and work of Jesus Christ. (5) The last approach is an attempt by scholars to analyze and explain what the OT itself taught; then sought to incorporate those teachings into a larger biblical or systematic theology. Furthermore, an attention is paid to historical data. Over the years, this approach is preferred. Self-Assessment Exercise Evaluate the five possible entry points to the study of Old Testament Theology. 3.4 History of Old Testament Theology Earlier, we had discussed the five possible entry points of OT Theology, which included: Starting from Old Testament itself; New Testament; Early church fathers, medieval -5- CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY interpreters and leaders of the Reformation; Rabbinic scholars; and later, the attempt to synchronize the message of the OT with biblical or systematic theology. Our focus in this section is to have an overview of the nature and practice of biblical theology by different groups and scholars over a period of time. P. R. House (1998, 15) highlighted four periods, each of which moves OT Theology studies onto new and challenging ground. Beginnings: From Gabler to Wellhausen (1787-1878) While the Bible has been read theologically since its formation, in the early, medieval and Reformation church there was no biblical theology or OT Theology as a discipline. Tertullian, Augustine and Martin Luther did not do biblical theology by itself. Instead, they did general Christian theology (Palmer 132). The origins of biblical theology as a separate discipline are commonly traced to Johann Phillip Gabler (c. 1753-1826), who made a distinction between biblical theology and dogmatic or systematic theology. According to Gabler, the origin of biblical theology lies in the Bible itself, while dogmatic theology stems from individual theologians with prior philosophical and ecclesiological commitments. Gabler suggested a three-stage approach to examining biblical theology. First was the gathering of historical data from OT and NT; second was a comparison of the various parts attributed to each testament; and third was to note the agreements and disagreements in order to determine what universal notions emerged. Gabler never wrote an Old Testament theology, but in his work Georg Lorenz Bauer (c. 1796) divided the biblical material into the study of God, humankind and Christ. G.P.C. Kaiser (c. 1813) Following Gabler’s and Bauer’s seminal efforts, Old Testament theologians began to respond to their findings. Kaiser was the first scholar to view the study of Old Testament theology as essentially a history of religion rather than a history of God’s revelation. This emphasis on OT theology as a strictly historical exploration was to become the dominant methodology in biblical studies later in the century (House 19). Other scholars who made remarkable impact during this period were Wilhelm M.L. de Wette (c. 1813) - philosophical approach to theology; Wilhelm Vatke (c. 1806-1882) – “History of Religions” approach to theology, which had a great influence on J. Wellhausen (c.1878); etc. However, OT Theology was reduced to historical questions during this period. Matters of faith were excluded. The historical approach had triumphed on every side. The result was “the tyranny of historicism in OT studies” (Palma 132). The Dominance of Historicism: 1878-1920 During this period the OT Theology was eclipsed by the History of Israelite Religion. Three factors were responsible: (1) Greater historical consciousness; (2) Archeological discoveries of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Ugarit and Greece among others (3) The literary -6- CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY critical works of Vatke, Graf, Kuenen, and above all Wellhausen (Lemke, "Theology - Old Testament," ABD). In 1878, Julius Wellhausen’s Prolegomena to the History of Ancient Israel dictated to a great extent the agenda in OT research. His contributions came from his ability to synthesize the findings of earlier scholars into a readable and unified whole. Wellhausen proposed the JEDP documentary hypothesis, which presented the Pentateuch as a composite document that was put together from different sources, and which could account for the seeming contradictions and inconsistencies found in it. The Re-emergence of Old Testament Theology: 1920-1960 The dominant hold which the history-of-religions approach had exercised over the discipline of OT theology began to wane during the period between the two world wars. Several factors helped bring this change about. Among them were the general changes in theological climate following World War I, a reaction against the extremes of 19th- century historicism and evolutionary developmentalism, and new developments in the field of OT scholarship itself (Lemke, "Theology - Old Testament," ABD). The year 1933 may be said to mark the beginning of a new era in OT theology with the appearance of two works, one by E. Sellin and the other by W. Eichrodt. By far the most outstanding and enduring representative of the new era in OT theology is Eichrodt's Theologie des Alten Testaments, (Theology of the Old Testament) originally published in three parts between 1933-39 (Eng 1961-67). He used historical-systematic method to understand the main themes of the OT. His Theology is synchronic (systematic) built around the theme of the covenant. In spite of legitimate criticisms and acknowledged shortcomings, Eichrodt's work so far remains unsurpassed in comprehensiveness, methodological thoroughness, and theological acumen (Hayes and Prussner 1985, 277). Another remarkable contribution of this period came from Gerhard von Rad through his two-volume Old Testament Theology. Von Rad believed strongly that the Old Testament speaks repeatedly of God’s saving acts in history. He argued that the interpreters of OT must take Israel’s confession about God as preaching, not specifically as history (House 35). The Growth of Diversity: 1960-2000 This period witnessed the emergence of diversity of opinions and methodologies never seen before in OT Theology. Conservative scholarship, which had not been a serious partner in the discipline’s dialogue for many years, once again entered the picture. For lack of consensus in methodologies presented by both critical and conservative scholars, Brevard Childs (c. 1970) concluded that biblical theology was in crisis in his book. Childs proffered a canonical approach to the study of OT Theology. He separated his canonical approach from other methodologies. His approach does not utilize a single -7- CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY theme, nor does he choose between systematic or tradition-based categories. Instead child stated that a canonical approach recognizes that both types of features appear in the Old Testament, as do “innumerable other options” (House 46). Other notable scholars of this period include: Walter Kaiser (c. 1978 – Toward an Old Testament Theology), whose work is thoroughly conservative in its opinions on revelation, history and unity of the scripture; Claus Westermann (c. 1982 – Theologie des Alten Testaments in Grundzugen), the work presented the theology of OT as having the task of summarizing and viewing together what the OT as a whole, in all its sections, say about God; and Walter Brueggemann (c. 1992), who sought to cast OT Theology in a different mold. He maintains that at the core of OT faith is testimony to God’s core character, which he describes in terms of covenant solidarity and unlimited sovereignty (Schlimm, http://catalystresources.org). Another important work aware of the OT’s diversity is E. Gerstenberger’s Theologies in the Old Testament (Fortress, 2000). The plural noun in this title is not accidental. This volume examines the different theologies present among various social institutions in the OT: families, villages, tribes, nations, and exiles. Self-Assessment Exercise Identify the different historical periods of OT Theology presented by P. R. House, and summarize the main contributions of scholars in each of the period. 3.5 Tools and Method for OT Theology The survey of the different historical periods in OT Theology (done above) has made it clear that several methodologies for composing Old Testament theology exist. In this Course, we shall adopt a combination of methodologies that would suit our purpose. P. R. House (1998, 53) presented five factors that should guide whatever methodology one adopts in OT Theology: (1) It must have a historical base. (2) It must explain what the Old Testament itself claims, not what preconceived historical or theological systems impose upon the biblical material. (3) When part of Christian theology, Old Testament theology must in some way address its relationship to the New Testament. (4) By joining with the New Testament to form biblical theology, Old Testament theology offers material that systematic theologians can divide into categories and topics for discussion. -8- CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY (5) By stating what the Old Testament says about God’s nature and will, Old Testament theology moves beyond description of truth into prescription of action (i.e. application to one’s context). So, our approach in this Course is to study some of the theological themes found in the Old Testament, using exegetical methodologies in a canonical order, relating the Old Testament themes to the New Testament, and drawing implications for believing communities in contemporary Africa. The selected themes are: God (Nature and Attributes); Creation (Origin and Providence); Humanity (Nature and Purpose); Covenants; Land as a Gift; Sin and Evil; Holy Place and Worship; Priesthood and Sacrifice; Redemption, Mission; Community; and Prophecy; discussed under three modules. Self-Assessment Exercise Can you summarize the five factors that should guide whatever methodology one adopts in OT Theology suggested P. R. House? 3.6 Implications for Africa Just like the global experience, biblical theology in Africa is in search for an acceptable methodology. The advent of Christianity to black Africa coincided with the western imperialism, which impacted on the way the missionaries did biblical interpretation. According to Gwamna (2008, 200): The resultant effects of this was the superior outlook of western missionaries on Africa and Africans as a whole, whose land, traditions, beliefs, philosophy and entire cosmologies, were branded as ‘undeveloped,’ ‘savagery,’ ‘animistic’ paganism,’ ‘native,’ ‘primitive,’ superstitious,’ ‘pre-logical in mentality’ and ‘incapable of conceiving God’, among others. In the words of Mbiti, “mission Christianity” produced a church, ‘trying to exist without a theology and without theological consciousness and concern in Africa.” Even the theology that evolved was one sided (Gwamna 200). So, in an attempt to extricate Africa from western imperialism in Africa’s theological thoughts, many African scholars have proffered different kinds of methodologies as an alternative in doing biblical theology in Africa. Some of the methodologies for doing biblical theology presented by African scholars include: Contextualization, Inculturation, Indigenization, Africanization, Intercultural Hermeneutics, African Theology, Black Theology, and Savannah Theology, etc (Note: these methodologies to biblical theology in Africa will be evaluated in the last unit of this Course). -9- CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY Theological consciousness in Africa is evolving rapidly. The pace will accelerate if biblical scholars in Africa would engage in serious study of Biblical languages, in order to read and interpret the bible for themselves and not rely on versions. Furthermore, biblical theology in Africa should not be lured into syncretistic tendencies, and it should not be at variance from global consensus of what biblical theology stood for. Self-Assessment Exercise Biblical theology in Africa is in search for a methodology. Discuss. 4.0 Conclusion From the foregoing, Old Testament Theology is a discipline that has a diversity of methodologies in its interpretation and application. The guideline for every methodology remains: OT Theology must have a historical base; it must explain what the Old Testament itself claims, not what preconceived historical or theological systems impose upon the biblical material; when part of Christian theology, Old Testament theology must in some way address its relationship to the New Testament; by joining with the New Testament to form biblical theology, Old Testament theology offers material that systematic theologians can divide into categories and topics for discussion; and by stating what the Old Testament says about God’s nature and will, Old Testament theology moves beyond description of truth into prescription of action. This Course adopted a synthesis of theological themes with exegetical methodologies in a canonical order. 5.0 Summary The following are the major points we have studied in this unit: The definition of Old Testament Theology has been variously defined because it is still a discipline in search of definition. The difficulties facing OT theology has been divided into five various sub- headings. The history of OT Theology has also been divided into four various sub-divisions. 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments Define the term: Old Testament Theology, and discuss some of the methodologies advocated by scholars for OT Theology. 7.0 References/Future Reading Gwamna, Je’adayibe Dogara (2008) Perspectives in African Theology. Bukuru: Africa Christian Textbooks. - 10 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY Hayes, John H. and Prussner, Frederick C. (1985) Old Testament Theology: Its History and Development. Atlanta: John Knox. House, Paul R. (1998) Old Testament Theology. Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press. Kaiser Jr., W. C. (1988) “Old Testament Theology” New Dictionary of Theology. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press. Lemke, W. E. (1992) "Theology - Old Testament," Anchor Bible Dictionary. New York: Doubleday Books. Palmer, Timothy P. (2011) A Theology of the Old Testament. Bukuru: Africa Christian Textbooks. Schlimm, M. R. (http://catalystresources.org/issues/373Schlimm.htm - 12/7/11) - 11 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY Unit 2: God (Nature and Attributes) Contents 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objective 3.0 Main body 3.1 The Nature of God 3.2 The Names of God 3.3 Attributes of God 3.4 Metaphors about God in the Old Testament. 3.5 Hermeneutical Considerations 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments 7.0 References/Future Reading 1.0 Introduction In the previous unit, we have looked into the definition of Old Testament Theology and the various barriers militating against the study of Old Testament theology. In this unit we will focus on the Old Testament concept of God. The Old Testament opens with the declaration; “In the beginning, God Created the heavens and the earth” (Gen. 1:1). The idea of God is an overwhelming concept emphasized in the Old Testament. There is the belief that God exists. Yet there is no concerted effort anywhere in the Old Testament to prove the existence of God. So, the Old Testament is not a laboratory for the test of whether or not God exists. It is a testimony of the Old Testament believing community of their relationship with the One who created and sustains the universe. 2.0 Objectives By the end of this unit, you should be able to: Discuss the Nature of God List the names of God Explain the metaphors about God in the Old Testament. Discuss the hermeneutical considerations of OT concept of God to the New Testament and the African context. - 12 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY 3.0 Main Body 3.1 The Nature of God The nature of God is discussed throughout the books of the Old Testament canon. God is described in the following terms: The God who creates; the Oneness of God; the Personal God and the Living God among others. The God who Creates The thought of God as creator is an indispensable feature of biblical theology. The Israelites believes that creation is entirely God’s doing. God’s uniqueness and sovereignty is manifested in Genesis 1:1, which declares: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” P. R. House (1998, 63) described how this notion ran through OT Canon: (1) In the Prophets creation serves as evidence of God’s concern for Israel and the rest of the human race and as proof that the Lord has every right to judge every living creature. For example, Isaiah claims that the fact that the Lord creates the heavens and earth means that the Lord never grows weary and is ever willing to comfort a hurting people grown weary of Assyrian oppression (Is 40:12-31). (2) Several Psalms celebrate the Lord’s status as Creator stressing God’s incomparability, the dignity of the human race made in the Lord’s image, the redemption of Israel and the constancy of God’s commitment to David and his lineage (Psalms 136 and 89). (3) Job 28 and Proverbs 8 argue that God’s skills as Creator prove the Lord’s unsurpassed wisdom. The Oneness of God Deuteronomy 6: 4 records, “Hear, O Israel: the Lord our God is one Lord.” This confession occupies a central place in the worship of the Jews, and influences their thoughts about religious matters. Scholars are not in agreement on how to interpret the Oneness of God in OT Theology. D. F. Hinson (1976, 19) reported that some may have interpreted it: ‘The Lord is one, but there are others.’ More likely, some believed: ‘The Lord is the only God for Israel, but there are other gods for other peoples.’ The other nations worship gods who share their power with lesser deities, but the Lord’s power is supreme in Israel. Most certainly ‘The Lord is One’ came to mean that ‘The Lord, the God of Israel, is the only God; all others are mere idols with no real existence and no power.’ Other references in to God as One or supreme found in the canon include: Exodus 20:2-3; 1 Sam 5:1-5; Psalm 82:1-5; Isaiah 41:4; 43:10; 44:6. The Personal God The God of Israel is personal. The personal nature of God in the Old Testament is readily shown by references to nearly every portion of the Canon. God is ascribed human functions, namely: God speaks (Gen. 1:3), hears (Exd.16:12), smells (1Sam 26:19) has - 13 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY eyes (Amos 9:4), personal emotions (Zeph 3:17; Ezek 16:8), etc. According Baab (1934, 28): It is clear that God is viewed as having personal and even manlike traits whereby he may communicate or otherwise relate himself to others. Yet these evidences of personal being are extremely superficial and inconclusive. They obviously fail to distinguish God from men; neither do they identify the deeper meaning of personality. As a matter of fact, the basic ingredients of the concept are to be found in the many indications of the self-determination, the ethical freedom, and the affective characters of the divine life. There is abundant evidence on each of these points, and its accumulation readily leads to the conclusion that the God exhibited in the Old Testament is personal in the deepest and most significant sense. The self-determination of God implies that God is able to conceive purposes and work for their realization in the processes of history as well as beyond. This assumes the power of thought and reflection as well as memory and volition. This self-determination and self- direction of God is seen in every document of the Old Testament. In Genesis 1:3, God said, ‘Let there be light!’ This utterance requires a preconceived purpose which receives fulfillment in the very pronouncement of the words quoted. The Living God The Old Testament presented God as Living. Jeremiah 10:10 records, “But the LORD is the true God; he is the living God and the everlasting King…” this signifies the God who acts in history, who performs mighty deeds of deliverance, and who manifests his power among men. He demonstrates that he is the living God by disposing of Israel’s enemies. In the words of Joshua, “By this you shall know that the living God is in your midst, and that he is surely going to drive out of your way the Canaanites” (Josh.3:10). According to Baab (1931, 25), “the implication of the word “Living” shows that God is not simply an idea; He is the power, acting upon and through human life and the natural order which He sustains. He delivers, redeems, saves, helps, and blesses.” Self-Assessment Exercise Identify and discuss the four main ideas of the nature of God in the Old Testament? - 14 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY 3.2 The Names of God The belief in the existence of God is common to many religions, and each of these religions has different names for the supreme deity. In the Old Testament different names are used for God, namely: Elohim, El, YHWH and Adonai among others. Elohim In Genesis 1:1, we read: “In the beginning God created…” The Hebrew word used for God is Elohim, a word which is plural in form, and which is sometimes used of foreign deities and translated gods. In the great majority of its occurrences, however, it is rendered God and refers to the Israelite deity. Of itself therefore its use neither demands nor excludes a monotheistic view. It is probable that the term took its rise in a polytheistic milieu, but in the most ancient texts of the Bible it is already used of a single God and is construed with a singular verb (Rowley, 1954:51). Rowley (1956) opines that this does not prove that Elohim is thought of as the only existing deity, and indeed there can be little doubt that in historical times many in Israel used this term of their God without any idea of denying the reality of other gods. Another possible implication of the usage of the word Elohim, could be its allusion to Trinity in a Christian parlance. Palmer (2011:17) argued that it was more likely that the plural form Elohim reflected a plurality of majesty or intensity. El The word El sometimes stands alone or it is used as a prefix to another word to form the name of God. So, El is a generic word for God or god in the Old Testament. Amongst many other terms for God found in the OT, El-Shaddai and El-Elyon were used in reference to the God of Israel. It is certain, however, that there was a stage when they were thought of as separate and distinct deities. Moreover, incorporated in proper names are elements consisting of the names of other gods who are known to us from the texts which have come down from Israel’s neighbours. For Example, when Abram offered a tithe to Melchizedek, the priest of El-Elyon, he equated the Canaanite deity El-Elyon (i.e. The Most High God) with El-Shaddai (i.e. The All Sufficient or Almighty God), the God of the Hebrews (Ajah, 2010:45). YHWH The most common name used for God in the Old Testament is the tetragrammaton (i.e. the four letters) YHWH. In Exodus 6:2, Moses was told that God appeared to the Patriarchs as El-Shaddai, and not as YHWH (translated the LORD), the new identity with which he was appearing to Moses. But it is clear here that the God of the patriarchs is identified with the God in whose name Moses came, though they bear different names. According to Rowley (1956:52), “In Israel the name Shaddai fell largely out of use, and - 15 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY was replaced by the name of Moses’ God. Where it remained, it was generally in poetry; and the same is true of Elyon. We never find any opposition between the God of Moses and the God of the patriarchs, or any undercurrent of feeling that the identification was not complete.” Concerning how the actual meaning of the letter YHWH or how it should be pronounced; scholars are not in agreement. Some rendered it as Yahweh, while others call it Jehovah. But, in the Hebrew tradition, the word is not pointed or pronounced. In its place they would prefer to pronounce it Adonai (though it would be translated as LORD – all the letters written in the upper case). Adonai In the Old Testament, Adonai could mean Lord, master, LORD depending on the context. The plural form Adonai, like the plural form Elohim, is regularly used with singular verbs and modifiers, so it is best to construe the Name as an emphatic plural or plural of majesty. When the plural is formed using a singular possessive ending (my Lords), it always refers to God, and occurs over 300 times in the Tanakah in this form (http://www.hebrew4christians.com/Names_of_G-d/Adonai/adonai.html -19/9/11). The Old Testament presented the Israelite God, YHWH as the only LORD, and not Baal (the Canaanite God of Rain and Fertility). The Canaanites used the term Baal, or Lord, for their gods, and in the post-settlement period Israelites worshipped at Canaanite shrines according to Canaanite rites, and used this term when they would have affirmed that they were worshipping the God of Israel. There was always an undercurrent of feeling that Israel’s God was not Baal, and in times of national tension this found open expression. Self-Assessment Exercise Mention and discuss two names used for God in the Old Testament. 3.2 Attributes of God The attributes of God refers to the way the Old Testament presented the characters of God. It is in the attributes of God that the distinctive elements of the faith of Israel lie. The characters of God listed in the OT include: Love, Justice, Holiness, and Faithfulness. Love The Old Testament presented God as the God of love. Israel was suffering in Egypt, God loved her and had pity on her and his love both expressed his own character and laid its constraint upon Israel. The Book of Hosea gave a graphic picture of how God loved his people, even though they remained unfaithful to him (Hosea 1-3). According to Rowley (1956:62), “It is sometimes supposed that it was to Hosea that Israel owed the thought of - 16 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY God as gracious and merciful. Yet it clearly went back far behind Hosea to the event of the Exodus, and in a passage which is held by many critical scholars to antedate the time of Hosea” (cf. Exodus 34:6). Indeed, Hosea developed the thought of God as gracious and merciful, and with an intensity born of his own tragic experience declared the constancy of God’s love, and pressed on people the demand of that love for an answering love and loyalty. Justice If God was a saving God in Exodus, he was by no means always represented as such. There were many occasions when he delivered his people, and there were other occasions when the prophets predicted woe for them. When Israel did not reflect God’s character in her internal life, but by the evils that were rampant revealed her sorry state, then her way could not prosper. This was not simply God was offended with her. It was the expression of his moral character and his love. For in the teaching of the prophets the only foundation for man’s well-being lies in obedience to the will of God. If God were indifferent to their well-being he would not be God of love. Hence the discipline of events was thought of as designed to bring Israel back into the way of God’s will, so that she might reap blessing, and the disasters foretold by the prophets were as much the expression of the character and will of God as the deliverance from Egypt had been. Israel’s election did not mean that she was the pampered favorite of God. It brought her high privilege; but it also laid heavy responsibility on her, and was charged with constraint, which she could only disclaim to her hurt (Rowley, 1954:63). Holiness Holiness was at first thought of as a numinous quality attaching to God and to persons and things that were separated from common use. In the faith of Israel a moral content was given to the term. This is associated especially with the teaching of Isaiah, who is fond of calling God ‘The Holy One of Israel’, though again it was not without preparation before his time. Rowley (1956:66) highlighted that in the call of Moses, the numinous quality of God’s holiness (i.e. awe in the presence of God in terms of power and separateness from humanity) and the moral consideration (i.e. goodness and mercy in sending Moses as an agent of deliverance) came together. There is a moral quality in the holiness of God, as well as the numinous quality which communicated itself to the very ground on which Moses stood (cf. Exod. 3:1ff). Faithfulness Faithfulness of God is often insisted in the Old Testament. This term implies that God is not arbitrary in character, but self-consistent and to be relied on. He does not resort to the exercise of power to cover fickleness, which man is therefore powerless to question. In him there is no fickleness, but in all that he is and all he does he is to be trusted. Malachi - 17 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY 3:6 records, “For I the LORD do not change; therefore you, O children of Jacob, have not perished.” It is true that there are many passages where God is said to repent of having done something. This term is not used in a moral sense, however, implying that God recognized that he had been at fault. There is certainly an element of anthropomorphism in the term, and it is used at various levels of meaning in the Old Testament. In general terms it may be said to mean that God changed his mind, not because of fickleness in himself, but because of failure in men or because of man’s repentance. Self-Assessment Exercise Summarize each of the attributes of God discussed in this section. 3.4 Metaphors about God in the Old Testament The Old Testament made several metaphorical labels on God, signifying how the community of faith in the Old Testament regarded God; namely: the Lord as King; God as a Rock; Father, Brother and Kinsman; God as Judge and Shepherd among others. The Lord as King The LORD as King is a "root metaphor." It generates such metaphors as the notion of the temple as God's royal dwelling - God's palace; the concept that God is the enthroned ruler of the Universe and presides over the heavenly court of divine armies (Lord of Hosts); that there will be a great battle, the "Day of LORD." The OT speaks of the Lord as King about 85 times; representative passages include: Num 23.21; Deut 33.5; 1 Sam 12.12; Isa 6.5; 33.17, 22; Jer 8.19; 10.7, 10; Dan 4.37; Mal 1.14; Psalm 10.16; 24.7, 8, 9, 10; 29.10. The root metaphor of the Lord as King utilizes two divine designation: “the King” and “LORD of Host” - the first gives us a glimpse of the LORD as the warring deity and the second as the enthroned reigning deity" (cf. Isaiah 6.1-5). In the biblical ideological complex in which the Lord as King is the very center, there are three components: chaos or battle, kingship, and temple. It is logical to assume that this root metaphor was especially cultivated in the milieu of the temple, which would help to explain its occurrence in the Psalter and related literature" (Mettinger, In Search of God, 104). God as a Rock The Hebrew word zur means "rock." The word was a figure of speech drawn from Palestinian scenery to portray divine strength and permanence. No doubt these local associations favourred the continued usage of the word (cf. Isa. 32:2), but it is quite probable that the primary meaning was given in the pre-Mosaic period when the patriarchal deity, Shaddai, was invested with mountain imagery (Anderson, "Names of God," IDB CD-Rom). In Akkadian prayers the deity was often addressed as "great mountain," and throughout the West men worshiped the great storm-god, Hadad, usually - 18 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY known as Baal among the Canaanites. Thus the mountain or rock imagery suggested by zur has its source in the North West Mesopotamian locale with which the patriarchs are connected. Support for this view is found in some of the early personal names like Elizur - "My God is a Rock" - Num. 1:5. Another early name was Pedahzur - "May the Rock Redeem" - Num. 1:10 (Anderson). According to OT testimony, Israel affirmed that the LORD is the Rock of Israel (Isa. 30:29; cf. Gen. 49:24). The name often appears in poetic literature (e.g., Psa. 18:2; parallel with lsa: 18:31; 18:46; 19:14; Isa. 17:10; 44:8; Hab. 1:12). An important passage in this connection is the so-called Song of Moses (Deut. 32:1), where it is affirmed that the LORD is the Rock who has given birth to his people (vs. 18) and whose stability and steadfastness are their sole refuge (vs. 4, 15, 30-31). In Isa. 26:4 the LORD is called an "everlasting rock" (Anderson). Father, Brother and Kinsman A cluster of names, such as "father"; "brother" ("kinsman") were used in antiquity to express the very close family relation between the deity and his worshipers. The conception of family kinship with the deity is reflected in personal names like Eliab, "My God is Father" (Num. 1:9; I Sam. 16:6); Ahiezer, "My [divine] Brother is help" (Num. 1:12); or Ammishaddai, "[The god of] my Kindred is Shaddai" (Num. 1:12). The ancient Semitic background of these divine names is the view that the god was actually a blood relative of the clan or family, whose members were by the same token sons, brothers, and kinsmen of the god (Anderson). God as Judge The title "Judge," like "King," refers to the function of the ruler. In a passage from the fourteenth-century Ras Shamra Tablets the two terms are used of the deity in poetic parallelism: "Our king is Triumphant Baal, our judge, above whom there is no one!" Moreover, the word "judge" was used for the early leaders of the Israelite confederacy, whose task was not just to arbitrate legal disputes (as in our restricted meaning of the term), but to get justice for Israel by acting in military crises when the confederacy was threatened (see the book of Judges). In the highest sense, the LORD is Judge (Gen. 18:25), for his actions in history set things right, by humbling the oppressor and exalting the oppressed. Other passages include Isa 33.22; Psa. 7:8, 9; 96:13). Shepherd The title "Shepherd" is also related to the office of kingship. In the ancient Orient the king was often styled as the shepherd of his people, as in the prologue to the Code of Hammurabi, and the court language was also applied to deities whose role was to lead and protect the people. Divested of its ancient polytheistic associations, the term was applied - 19 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY to the LORD throughout the OT period, and was particularly appropriate for expressing the personal relation between God and his people in the covenant. Examples: Israel is the LORD’s "flock" or the "sheep of his pasture" (Psa. 79:13; 95:7; 100:3); the LORD is the Shepherd (Gen. 49:24; Psa. 80:1, 2) who leads (literaly "shepherds") and enfolds his people with goodness and concern, as expressed classically in the Twenty-third Psalm. Others are: Isa. 40:11; cf. Ezek. 34:1. Self-assessment exercise Explain what the OT means, when it refers to the LORD as King, a Rock, and a Shepherd. 3.5 Hermeneutical Considerations The reality of God is the main focus of the Old Testament. This consciousness is not alien to the traditional African. Just as the African has much to learn from the Old Testament and Christianity, it is also true that some insights from the African traditional religion could facilitate a better interpretation of the scriptures in African context. For example, in the Old Testament, God has various names or titles; some are generic, but one is personal (Palmer 16). Different African traditions and cultures have a common name or title for God. Nyamiti (Parrat 61) opined that Christianity could learn much from the divine names and the divine attributes stressed by Africans, such as friend, fecundity, fatherhood, life- giver, protector. But he would need to examine them in the light of the cultural elements central to African cultures: dynamism, solidarity, participation, the sacred, and anthropentrism. In particular, the symbol of the Motherhood of God found in some African cultures, could, when used correctly, complement the biblical imagery of the Fatherhood of God, and open up a deeper understanding of the nature of the Deity. Self-Assessment Exercise Can you explain how a good knowledge of African concept of God could facilitate a good understanding of the concept of God in OT? 4.0 Conclusion From the fore-going, we have seen that in presenting the nature and attributes of God, the Old Testament affirms the existence of God, who is both personal and living amongst other attributes. As a personal God, he is able to conceive purposes and work for their realization in the processes of history as well as beyond. This assumes the power of thought and reflection as well as memory and volition. As a living person, God acts in history, who performs mighty deeds of deliverance, and who manifests his power among men. He demonstrates that he is a living God by disposing of Israel’s enemies. This understanding explains why different metaphors and names were used in connection with God in the Old Testament. - 20 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY 5.0 Summary This unit discussed the nature of God, as the God who creates, Oneness of God, the personal God and the Living God. We have also examined the various names for God: Elohim, El, YHWH, and Adonai; attributes of God: love, justice, holiness and faithfulness; and metaphors about God: the Lord as King, God as Rock, Father, Brother and Kinsman, God as Judge and Shepherd. The unit concluded with a hermeneutical consideration explaining how African concept of God could facilitate a better interpretation of the OT in African context. 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments Outline and discuss some of the attributes of God you know. How is God described as a Judge and Shepherd in the Old Testament? 7.0 References/Future Reading (http://www.hebrew4christians.com/Names_of_G-d/Adonai/adonai.html -19/9/11). Ajah, M. (2010) Tithing in the Old Testament. Ohafia: Onuoha Printers Hinson, David F. (1976). Theology of the Old Testament. London: SPCK House, Paul R. (1998) Old Testament Theology. Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press. Palmer, Timothy P. (2011) A Theology of the Old Testament. Bukuru: Africa Christian Textbooks. Parrat, John (2001) A Reader in African Christian Theology. London:SPCK Rowley, H. H. (1956) The Faith of Israel. London: SCM Press. - 21 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY Unit 3: Creation (Origin and Providence) Contents 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objective 3.0 Main body 3.1 Creation in the Pentateuch 3.2 Creation in Prophetic Literature 3.3 Creation in Wisdom Literature 3.4 Christ the Instrument of creation 3.5 Hermeneutical Considerations 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments 7.0 References/Future Reading 1.0 Introduction In the previous unit, we have gone through the nature and the attributes of God. We have also examined the various names of God as well as the metaphors that are used to describe God. In this unit, we will be concerned with Creation as a theme in the Old Testament. The Old Testament begins with the affirmation that God is the creator of the heavens and the earth (Gen. 1.1). Creation is the sovereign act of the Triune God who was before the foundation of the world. 2.0 Objective By the end of this unit, you should be able to: Explain the biblical concepts of creation in the Pentateuch, Prophetic, and Wisdom literatures. Discuss the presentation of Christ as God’s instrument of creation Draw contemporary lessons through hermeneutical consideration 3.0 Main Body 3.1 Creation in the Pentateuch The oldest creation narrative in the Bible is probably the one recorded in Genesis chapters 1 and 2. Scholars have different opinions whether or not there are two different accounts of the same event recorded by two different traditions, namely the Yahwist tradition (Gen. 2.4ff) and the Priestly tradition (Gen 1). House (2001:6) opines that the Pentateuch began - 22 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY the Bible’s sustained interest in creation and its attendant theology. It was here that themes such as God’s personal involvement with human beings, God’s sovereignty, God’s power, God’s giving of standards, and God’s willingness to forgive erring human sinners have their origins. It was also here that the fact that God is the only Creator, indeed the only Deity, begins its key role in Biblical theology. In some way all subsequent doctrines flow from these truths, all of which were founded on the principle that the Lord is the creator. These truths must be received and processed through human reason, but in the end they must be accepted as true by faith. God’s Sovereignty Genesis 1:1 claims that the Lord is the sole source and cause of creation’s existence. This verse also indicates that though the Lord is directly and personally involved in creation the Lord is separate from creation. Commentators generally agree with these initial points, but they have often debated what the opening phrase teaches about the timing of creation. On the issue of timing, House has this to say: Since there is no agreed-upon translation of the two verses, interpreting them is fraught with difficulties. Verse 1 may be translated absolutely (“In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth”) or dependently (“When God began to create the heavens and the earth …”). Though both translations are syntactically and contextually possible, Genesis 1:1 is best regarded as an absolute beginning, and indication of God’s control over all creation as complete (House, 2001:6). Besides emphasizing that the world owes its existence to God, the only one able to create, Genesis 1:1 reveals that the Lord is solitary and unique. That is, there is no other god involved in the creation process and therefore there is no deity like the Lord. Genesis 1:2 indicates that the Lord personally works in creation through his spirit. Though the earth was “formless and void,” the “Spirit of God was moving over the face of the waters.” Though it is possible for “spirit” to mean either “wind” or “spirit,” C.F. Keil correctly comments that here the spirit is “the creative Spirit of God, the principle of all life (Ps. 33:6; 104:30), which worked upon the formless, lifeless mass…” Sin and Evil The Pentateuch marks the beginning of series of narratives which centre on the emergence and development of evil within humanity – expulsion from Eden, Cain’s murder of Abel, and the marriage of the sons of God with human women and the great flood, until the time of Abraham which marks a new beginning for the people of God (Gen.1-12). Nurnberger (2004) commented that on the one hand the narrative describes what ought to be. Where there is no evil, there is no knowledge of the difference between good and evil, thus no necessity to hide anything from God or from each other, thus no - 23 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY shame. Similarly, in authentic human existence, there is no conflict between humanity and nature. The creator clearly intended human existence to be without hardship. On the other hand, the narrative depicts the discrepancy between what ought to be and what is. The commandment of God evokes human desire. While it is meant to preserve the wellbeing of humanity, it actually provides the occasion for disobedience. Where the moral norm is broken, shame emerges and with it the need to hide, to cover oneself, to find excuses and scapegoats. Adam blames his wife whom God has provided; Eve blames the snake, which God has made. Thus in the end God is to blame. At the end of the Genesis creation accounts certain theological elements are in place. First, the Lord has been portrayed as unique, personal, sovereign, caring, and good. God’s character is firmly presented as the core of all that is best in creation. Whatever is good about the heavens and earth can be traced directly back to God. Second, human beings are entrenched as the flawed stewards of creation. Third, sin must be overcome for creation to return to its intended purpose. Readers are left to cling doggedly to the belief that the personal God capable of creating the created order will also have the ability to recreate it as needed (House, 2001:9). Self-Assessment Question Explain the Sovereignty of God and the role of sin in creation. 3.2 Creation in Prophetic Literature The Old Testament teaching on creation goes beyond the Pentateuch. House (2001:9) argued that the prophets handled creation themes in a manner calculated to deal with the specific problems in their era as well as with the larger problems related to human sin left unresolved at the end of the Pentateuch. Isaiah and Amos are good representatives of how the prophetic literature uses creation themes to correct and exhort the people of their day. Both Isaiah and Amos focus on how a proper grasp of creation theology can form, or re- form, God’s people into a holy nation. Isaiah 40-48 addresses an audience that has been devastated by the Assyrian invasion known as the Sennacherib Crisis, which occurred about 711 or 701 B.C. This audience could easily have been tempted to serve the gods of Assyria, as king Hezekiah’s father Ahaz had done (see 2 Kings 16:10-18), given the fact that Assyria had destroyed all of Judah except Jerusalem, which Isaiah 1:1-9 says was left with but a few survivors. They could also have thought it wise to turn to the Babylonian gods, for the Babylonians were constantly opposing Assyria (see Isaiah 39). They might even have considered venerating Egypt’s gods, for the Egyptians had been able to withstand Assyria’s attempts to overrun their territory. Isaiah deals with their feelings of rejection by highlighting God’s greatness, power, Sovereignty, and mercy in 40:12-31. God cannot grow weary, and God cannot forget - 24 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY Israel, he argues. Why? It is because the Lord is the creator, the one who stretched out the heavens and the earth (40:12). Because the Lord is the one who makes nations and decides how important or unimportant they will become (40:15-17). Because it is the Lord who sets up and bring down rulers (40:23). Amos is not as interested in comforting and instructing as he is in waking up a stubborn, sinful nation. Working about 760-750 B.C., Amos seeks to warn the northern kingdom of Israel to repent before judgment comes. To achieve his purposes he calls upon creation theology at three crucial junctures to punctuate his emphasis on the day of the Lord, or the day of God’s wrath. This day is coming not only for Israel, but for all surrounding nations as well (Amos 1:2-2:8). After declaring Israel and its neighbors guilty of a variety of heinous sins in 1:12:8, the prophet proceeds to focus on Israel’s unjust and unrighteousness ways in 2:9-4:5. God brought Israel out of Egypt and called some of Israel’s best to be Nazirites and prophets, only to have these messengers rejected (2:9-12). Thus, judgment must come (2:13-15). God’s word for the people now is one of punishment, not of deliverance (3:1-5); their richest men and women have oppressed others and sinned in their religious observances (4:15), so God sent them smaller punishments to warn them (4:6-11), all to no avail. Why should Israel be terrified? Why should Israel repent? It is because the creator has decided to judge (4:12-13). Amos used the fact that the Lord is the creator to warn (4:12-13), express God’s wrath over injustice (5:8-9), and announce the end of God’s patience with a rebellious people (9:5-6). In other words, Amos uses creation theology quite differently than Isaiah does. Amos wants his audience to sense fear at continuing to rebel against the creator. He wants his audience to take no comfort in the knowledge that there is no other god. He wants his audience to tremble at the thought of the creator and let this awe change their behavior. Isaiah and Amos used creation theology to remake God’s people into a holy nation and a kingdom of priests, a goal first set forth in Exodus 19:5-6. Self-Assessment Question Discuss the concept of creation as presented by prophets Isaiah and Amos. 3.3 Creation in Wisdom Literature Psalms, Proverbs, and Job are considered as part of Ancient Near Eastern wisdom literature. They presuppose the existing tradition about creation, but moves in their own directions. Creation theology is strategic here in declaring God’s personal wisdom and absolute sovereignty over the created order. These twin emphases are in turn vital for these books’ arguments that the Lord is the source of all wisdom and that the Lord capably rules the universe in a way that demonstrates he is worth serving under all conditions. - 25 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY In Psalm 90, God’s personal majesty receives further definition through detailed creation theology. In 90:1 the Lord is depicted as protecting Israel throughout all generations. Then the psalmist claims that God has no personal end or beginning, and bases his opinion on God’s role as creator. The author says to God, “Before the mountains were born, or you gave birth to the earth and the world, Even from everlasting to everlasting, You are God” (90:2). Clearly, this text recognizes no end or beginning for the one who has created the world. It also recognizes that God’s “majesty can hardly be grasped by his creatures.” There has never been a time when the Lord was not God, and no such time will ever arise. Because the Lord is the creator, the psalmist goes on to argue that God has power to give and take life (90:3-6). The author also determines that one must pray to the creator for deliverance and forgiveness (90:7-17). Thus, in this psalm the creator is also the giver and taker of life, the one who forgives sin, the one who shelters Israel, and the one who has no beginning or end. Given these facts, it is appropriate for the psalmist to take all needs to the Lord. Creation theology becomes the basis, then, for intercession, for healing, and for confession of sin. Psalms 89 and 104-106 begin their survey of God’s saving works on Israel’s behalf with creation. Here creation is the beginning point of God’s redemptive plan that culminates in the Davidic covenant and the need for deliverance from exile. In these psalms the people cry out for help as they recall all that God has done in the creation of the heavens and earth, the exodus, the conquest, and finally in the chastisement of the chosen people. Current forgiveness would become, then, the latest in a long line of great acts that began with Genesis 1-2. Creation theology in this passage is intended to lead to contrition, and ultimately to cleansing and wholeness (House, 2001:10). Job and Proverbs have as high a view of God’s person and worth as the psalms, but they use these beliefs to make different theological points. For Job the issue is whether or not the creator is faithful, trustworthy, and kind. God’s power is never questioned in the book. Rather, God’s use of his unlimited authority and strength is under scrutiny. Thus, it is vital that in Job chapters 38-42 emphasize the capable and kindly manner in which God, the Creator, rules creation. Nurnberger (2004) commented that in Wisdom Literature we saw how a genre responded to the transcendent needs for meaning, acceptance and authority in the face of the enduring riddles of human existence. It was as if a new “Word of God” was born in their minds as they battle with the universal and never ending problems of life and death, righteousness and sin, nature and history. Self-assessment exercise Show how Psalms, Proverbs and Job presented the personal wisdom and absolute sovereignty of God over the created order. - 26 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY 3.4 Christ the Instrument of Creation The prologue to John’s Gospel in the New Testament proclaims Christ to be the logos, that is, the principle according to which the world was put together, or the wisdom with which God created the universe, as in Wisdom literature (cf. Prov. 8). Similarly Col 1:15 refers to him as the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation; for in him and through him are all things created. Referring to ultimate power, Christ was proclaimed to be Ruler of the universe, seated “at the right hand of God”, that is, as God’s prime minister or executive (Mtt 28:18; Acts 2:33, 5:31). His miracles were perceived to be the manifestations of messianic authority prophesied in the Old Testament. Furthermore, Christ occupies ultimate space, shown as having descended to the lowest, and ascended to the highest places imaginable (Eph 4:9f). He has been enthroned above all powers in the heavens, the realm of God (Eph 1:20). Also, Christ was presented as having ultimate beginning, as God’s instrument of creation (Col 1:15ff; Heb 1:2f; John 1:1-5). The understanding is that Christ acts both as the channel of God’s power and as the embodiment of God’s redemptive love. Christ represents God’s original intentions. This is where the creation narrative fits in. Self-assessment exercise Christ represents God’s mastery over Creation. Discuss. 3.5 Hermeneutical Considerations The Old Testament concept of creation is not a product of science, but a product of the community of faith. In the words of Hebrews 11:3, “By faith we understand that the worlds were prepared by the word of God, so that what is seen was made from things that are not visible.” The Old Testament believes that the LORD is the only God, so the only creator of the universe. According to Hinson (1976:24), “several important ideas follow from the belief that God created the heavens and the earth.” Such ideas include that God is Almighty (Exod 6:3); the LORD controls nature (Gen 8:22; Jer 31:35, 36; Amos 5:8; Ps 145:15, 16); God works miracles through nature (1kings 17); the LORD is God of wisdom (Ps 147:4, 5); God has a purpose for the creation (Gen 1:28; 2:15) and evil cannot stop the LORD’s work (Gen 6:12; Exod 32:7). Self-Assessment Question What are the implications that God created the universe? - 27 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY 4.0 Conclusion The Old Testament concept of creation is multifaceted. From the fore-going, the Pentateuch teaches that God alone is the creator, the cause and source of all things that are made. It claims that the creator is personal, and as such entrusts human beings with the care of the earth and with divine laws. The Prophetic writings accepted and built upon the points made in the Pentateuch. Writing to a dispirited, wavering, people of uncertain faith, Isaiah uses creation theology to comfort, challenge, correct, embolden, and instruct. Amos has little comfort to offer his erring, stubborn, oppressing audience. He uses creation theology to punctuate warnings about judgment for oppression and announcements that the creator’s patience with sinful Israel has been exhausted. Psalms, Job, and Proverbs adapt prophetic uses of Genesis 1-2 still further. The psalmists use Genesis 1:26-31 as a reason for praise, and monotheistic passages such as Isaiah 40-48 as reasons to bow down and worship the only living God. Job stresses the notion that God is a wise, capable, and revelatory God to conclude that the Lord is worth trusting and serving when one suffers due to no fault of theirs. Proverbs invites those who need wisdom to seek it from the one who has possessed it from the very beginning. Wisdom is available to human beings because the creator wills to reveal it to them. 5.0 Summary The above adopted a canonical approach in evaluating the concept of creation in the Old Testament. The Pentateuch gave the foundational understanding of creation as the product of God. This section discussed the sovereignty of God and the presence of sin in creation. Prophetic writings followed after the Pentateuch teachings. Prophetic books of Isaiah and Amos were examined. Each of the books resorted to the creation theology as a tool for demanding obedience to commands of God, who is the creator. Wisdom literature amplified the personality and wisdom of God in creation. Christ as the instrument of God’s creation and a hermeneutical consideration concluded the unit. 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments Critically examine the concept of Creation in the Hebrew Canon of the Scriptures. 7.0 References/Future Reading Hinson, David F. (1976). Theology of the Old Testament. London: SPCK House, Paul R. (2001) “Creation in Old Testament Theology”, www.sbts.edu../sbjt_2001fall2.pdf House, Paul R. (1998) Old Testament Theology. Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press. - 28 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY Nurnberger, Klaus (2004). Biblical Theology in Outline. Pietermaritzburg: Cluster Publications Palmer, Timothy P. (2011) A Theology of the Old Testament. Bukuru: Africa Christian Textbooks Parrat, John (2001) A Reader in African Christian Theology. London:SPCK - 29 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY Unit 4: Humanity (Nature and Purpose) Contents 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objective 3.0 Main body 3.1 Humanity as a creature 3.2 Humanity as a thinking being 3.3 Humanity as an ethical being 3.4 Humanity as a free being 3.5 Humanity as a religious person 3.6 Humanity as the image of God 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments 7.0 References/Future Reading 1.0 Introduction In the previous unit, we have examined the presentation of the creation as recorded in the Genesis, in the prophetic literature as well as the wisdom literature. We have established that the creation asserted the sovereignty of God. We also briefly examined Christ as the instrument of creation as presented in the Old and the New Testaments and we rounded it up by examining the hermeneutical considerations for creation. In this unit, we would be examining the concept of humanity as presented in the Old Testament. The Old Testament declares that humanity is a creature of God with a definite nature and purpose. Humanity occupies a unique place among the creatures. Our duty in this unit is to examine the distinctive features of the nature of humanity recorded in the Old Testament. 3.1 Humanity as a creature The graphic account of the creation of humanity by God is recorded in Genesis 2. Other references abound in the Old Testament, which attest to the creation of humanity by God. Humanity is a creature sharing the weakness and limitations of all creatures, made of flesh and so is subject to sickness and death (cf. Job 14:2; Ps. 103:15-16). The frailty of human flesh was highlighted in order to glorify the everlasting God (Isa 40:6-8). The weakness of humanity in comparison with the power of God was again brought out in the Chronicler’s history of Sennacherib’s invasion of Judah. King Hezekiah reassures the people and tells them to be strong and of good courage, for they have on their side a greater power than the Assyrian. “With him is an arm of flesh, but with us is the Lord our God to help us and to fight our battles.” (II Chr. 32:8). Baabs (1949:62) argues, “Humanity is thus undependable, not because of sinfulness, but because in him is - 30 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY weakness inherent in his nature as creature participating in the frailty of all created beings.” The close connection between humanity and animals makes them both children of nature. Humanity breathes the air which surrounds him; he reproduces his kind as do the animals; he partakes of food; he sleeps for the renewal of his strength; he wears clothing—perhaps the skins of animals—to protect his body; and he lives with his own kind for survival and companionship. In none of these activities does he differ greatly from the beasts of the field. As a conscious organism struggling for existence, he should be depicted as one who makes all of the complicated adjustments demanded by his basic drives, which brought his civilization into existence. Self-assessment exercise Humanity is undependable, not because of sinfulness, but because weakness is inherent in his nature. Discuss. Humanity as a Thinking Being Perhaps, one of the most distinguishing features of humanity from other creatures is the thinking ability in the human. Old Testament presented several Hebrew words that may be helpful in understanding this aspect of humanity. The words are: ruach (spirit), nephesh (soul), 1ev or levav (heart, mind), and basar (body). When used of humanity, ruach has a wide range of meanings, from “breath” to “the spirit of prophecy.” It may connote wind, air, gas, temper, disposition, vivacity, vigour, courage, anger, patience or impatience, spirit (bitterness of spirit), and the spirit of prophecy. It is imparted by God (Zech. 12 :1); it is the principle of life within humanity (Job. 27:3); it is preserved by God (10:12); it is the life of all human beings, which God holds in his hand (12:10); it is given by God to all people upon the earth (Isa. 42:5); God is the “God of the spirits of all mankind” (Num. 16:22; 27:16); God weighs the motives of each person (Prov. 16:2). At death the ruach departs from humanity (Psa. 31:5; 78:39; 146:4; Job 17:1; 34:14; EccI. 3:21; 12:7). The second term is nephesh, variously translated as “soul, living being, life, self, person, desire, appetite, emotion, passion” however; it also bears the meaning of volition and judgment. It is never the symbol for rational power alone (Baabs, 1949:67). Humanity has reality in the Bible because he is, not because he is a spiritual being, a bodily organism, or a thinking-feeling centre of consciousness. Israel’s thinkers did not minimize human’s power to conceive ends and to will them into being; neither did they glorify the body and its natural functions as ends in themselves. They achieved a balance between body and mind in their thinking about humanity which enabled them to avoid certain intellectual problems, and which confronted them with others just as difficult. Baabs (1949) opined that the Old Testament community of faith had no problem as to the sinfulness of matter, - 31 - CTH 323 OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY so that asceticism never arose as an influential movement in Israel. They did create the problem as to humanity’s ultimate destiny beyond history, since body and soul must share the same fate in the absence of a real dualism as to human nature. Self-assessment exercise How is thinking ability one of the distinguishing features of humanity as God’s