FINAL STUDY GUIDE A&P PDF

FINAL STUDY GUIDE A&P Chapter 15 ( Look at Body cavities diagram, Quadrants diagram, Planes diagram, Cell diagram) Different parts of a cell and their functions 1. Chromosomes: Carries genetic factors 2. Gene: Contains hereditary information found on the chromosomes 3. Nucleoli: Globules that contai...

FINAL STUDY GUIDE A&P Chapter 15 ( Look at Body cavities diagram, Quadrants diagram, Planes diagram, Cell diagram) Different parts of a cell and their functions 1. Chromosomes: Carries genetic factors 2. Gene: Contains hereditary information found on the chromosomes 3. Nucleoli: Globules that contain RNA and DNA 4. DNA: Stores and transfers genetic information 5. RNA: Chemical messenger that facilitates duplication of genes by DNA 6. Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, a double membrane 7. Golgi apparatus (Golgi body): Synthesizes carbohydrates 8. Lysosomes: Sacs containing digestive enzymes to break down biologic materials 9. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): Extensive tubule network - rough ER synthesizes/transports proteins, smooth ER synthesizes and transport lipids and steroids 10. Ribosomes: Site of protein synthesis 11. Centrosome: Plays a role in cellular reproduction (mitosis) 12. Cell membrane: Maintains cell shape, protects cell, and regulates what enters and leaves the cell Different types of tissue and their different parts and purpose 1. Epithelial Tissue: Protects body parts and produces secretions, Covers and protects all body surface, cavities, and lumina, Absorbs and secretes substances from the digestive tracts, Secretes substances from glands, Provides filtration in the kidneys, Forms highly specialized epithelial tissues in the taste buds and nose, Transports particles contains in mucus away from the lungs 2. Connective Tissue: Anchors and supports other body structures. Blood is a special type of connective tissue that brings food and oxygen to the cells and carries wastes away Support, bind, or connect other tissues Provide nutrients to all body organs and remove waste Store vital nutrients Provide protection for organs 3. Muscle Tissue: Provides movement of the body Function: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac Appearance: Striated (striped) and nonstriated What controls its action, voluntary or involuntary 4. Nerve Tissue: Conducts impulses to and from all parts of the body Sensory Nerves: afferent-towards the brain Motor Nerves: efferent-away from the brain How do cells reproduce 1. Mitosis: Cells divide into two parts to reproduce themselves. Each “daughter cell: is an exact genetic duplicate of the original or “mother” cell. Mitosis is responsible for growth, repair, and replacement of injured and dead tissues Stages of Mitosis: 1. Interphase: The nucleus and nuclear membrane are well defined, and the nucleus is visible. Chromosomes replicate, each forms a double strand that remains attaches at the center by a centromere 2. Prophase: The nucleolus disappears and the chromosomes become distinct. Chromatids, halves of each duplicated chromosomes, remain attached by the centromere 3. Metaphase: Occurs when chromosomes line up randomly in the center of the cell between the spindles, along the metaphase plate. The centromere of each chromosomes then replicates 4. Anaphase: Characterized by centromeres moving apart, pulling the separated chromatids (now called chromosomes) to opposite ends of the cell. The number of chromosomes at each end of the cell equals the original number 5. Telophase: The final stage of mitosis, a nuclear membrane forms around each nucleus and spindle fibers disappear. The cytoplasm compresses and divides the cell in half. Each new cell contains the diploid (46) number of chromosomes 2. Meiosis: Cell division produces eggs or sperm that contains half the total number of chromosomes (23, called a gamete or germ cell) Know the body directions, areas and regions 1. Body directions 1. Superior: Above or in a higher position 2. Inferior: Below or in a lower position 3. Cranial: In or near the head 4. Caudal: Near the lower end of the body 5. Anterior (ventral): Toward the front or belly surface of the body 6. Posterior (dorsal): Toward the back of the body 7. Medial: Nearer the midline 8. Inferomedial: Nearer the feet, closer to the medial 9. Lateral: Farther from the midline, toward the side 10. Superolateral: Nearer the head, further from the median 11. Internal: Deeper within the body 12. External: Toward the outer surface of the body 13. Proximal: Nearer the origin of a part 14. Distal: Father from the origin of a part 15. Central: Situated at or pertaining to the center 16. Peripheral: Situated at or pertaining to the outward part of a surface 17. Parietal: Pertaining to the sides or the walls of a cavity 18. Visceral: Pertaining to the organs within a cavity 19. Supine: Lying with the face upward 20. Prone: Lying with the face dowards 21. Deep: Away from the surface 22. Superficial: On or near the surface Body planes 1. Frontal Planes: Vertical planes, passes through the body longitudinally from head to toe, dividing it into anterior and posterior parts 2. Sagittal Plane: Vertical planes, passes through the body lengthwise, divides the body into right or left sides 3. Transverse Plane: Horizontal plane, passes through the body at right angles to the frontal and sagittal planes, dividing it into superior and inferior parts Body cavities 1. Dorsal Cavity Cranial Cavity: Oral cavity, Nasal cavity, orbital cavity, brain, mouth, nose, eyes Vertebral Cavity: Spinal cord 2. Ventral Cavity Thoracic Cavity: Pericardial cavity, two pleural cavities, heart, lungs, large blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, and thymus gland 3. Abdominal Cavity Upper abdominal cavity: Stomach, most of the intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, adrenal glands, and ureter Pelvic cavity: urinary bladder, remaining part of intestine, rectum and internal reproductive organs Chapter 16 (View mechanisms of heat transfer pictures) 1. The skin is the largest organ and the most important function of the integumentary system is protection 2. What is the function and purpose of the skin? The function and purpose of the skin is protection, thermoregulation (temperature regulation), metabolism, sensation, communication, and storage. The purpose of the skin is 3. What is found in the dermis, and which is the major? The dermis, the “corium” is the true skin. It is the thickest skin layer, composed entirely of live cells. Found in the dermis is loose connective tissue, hair follicles, sweat (sudoriferous) glands, and oil (sebaceous) glands, elastic tissue (elastin) fat, collagen and fibrin. The major one is collagen, a touch resistant, and flexible fibroids protein 4. What are the principal cells of the epidermis and their functions? 1.Keratinocyte: Produce keratin, which waterproofs and protects the skin 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 2.Melanocyte: Produces the pigment melanin 3.Langerhans cells (also called non pigmented granular dendrocytes): Provides immune response, Participates in allergy response 4.Merkel cells: Promotes sensations of touch How does skin get its skin color? Skin gets its color by Melanin What do you protect the skin from, and how do you protect the skin? What is the mechanism of heat loss? Radiation: The diffusion or dissemination of heat by electromagnetic waves Ex. The body gives off waves of heat from uncovered surfaces Convection: The dissemination of heat by motion between areas of unequal intensity Ex. An oscillating fan blows currents of cool air across the surface of a warm body Evaporation: The conversion of liquid to a vapor Ex. Body fluid in the form of perspiration and insensible loss is vaporized from the skin Conduction: The transfer of heat to another object during direct contact Ex. The body transfer heat to an ice pack, causing the ice to melt What is the purpose and function of Vitamin D? The purpose and function of Vitamin D bone growth and repair How does the skin affect the body's vitamin D production? Vitamin D is produced in the skin when stimulated by sunlight, then, via enzymes in the body it is changed into calcitriol (calciferol) Chapter 17 (Read everything except table 17-1, table 17-2, water intake and output, table 17-4) Chapter 18 1. How is the spinal cord classified and know how many vertebrae are in each section. The spinal cord is classified by Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, and Sacrum and Coccyx. There are 7 vertebrae in the cervical, 12 vertebrae in the thoracic, 5 vertebrae in the lumbar, and the tailbone is the sacrum and coccyx. 2. Know how the thoracic cavity is classified and how they are grouped. The thoracic cavity is classified by 12 pairs of flat narrowed bones, the ribs. They are grouped by the first seven pairs are “true ribs” or vertebrosternal ribs, pairs 8-12 “false ribs” or vertebrocostal ribs, last two are false ribs are considered “floating ribs” or “vertebral ribs 3. How is muscle classified and their functions? They are classified by smooth, skeletal and cardiac. Skeletal muscles control skeletal movements and are voluntary, their functions include locomotion, facial expressions, and posture. Smooth muscles form part of the walls of blood vessels and hollow internal organs (viscera). Smooth muscles control involuntary motion inside body organs and structures. Ex are propelling urine through the urinary tract, moving food in the digestive tract and dilating the pupils of the eyes. Cardiac muscles which are involuntary are responsible for propelling blood through blood vessels. The heart muscle is the longest working muscle, pumping continually for life. 4. Structure of the skeletal muscles. Pg. 208-209 5. Know the differences between ligament, tendon, and joint and their functions. Ligament are strong fibrous bands that hold bones together, some ligaments connect bones to muscles or cartilage. Tendon the ends of muscle fascia lengthen into tough cords are called tendons, attaching muscles to bones. Joints the points at which bones join or attach to each other are called joints or articulations. Joints determine which motions are possible because of their attachments. 6. What are the special characteristics of muscle contractions? Contractility: ability to shorten and become thicker. Extensibility: ability to stretch. Elasticity: ability to return to normal length after stretching. Irritability: ability to respond to a stimulus (nerve impulses) 7. Explain how the muscle work in opposite actions (contraction and relaxation) pg. 212 8. What is the primary function of muscles, and how does it achieve this goal? The primary function of muscles is movement. Muscles achieve the goal by using muscle fibers. 9. What are the two types of contractions, and explain their differences? Isometric contractions do not increase the length of a muscle, but do increase muscle tension. Isotonic contractions shorten and thicken the muscle, causing movement 10. Explain the differences between aerobic and anaerobic exercise. Aerobic exercise (using oxygen) involves a long period of less-than-maximum exertion. Anaerobic exercise (without oxygen) mostly fast-twitch muscle fibers are used at close to maximum contraction strength 11. How is rehabilitation usually performed? It is usually performed with the guidance of physical and occupational therapists, but nurses often carry out prescribed exercise. 12. Explain how a nurse teaches a patient about mobility. Pg 213-214 Chapter 19 1. What is the function of the nervous system? The nervous system receives and stores information from the outside world (external stimuli) and uses it for future application. It also coordinates messages from internal body systems (internal stimuli) enabling the body to readjust constantly to changing internal and external environments. 2. What are the neuroglia functions and the nervous system functional portion? Neuroglia functions are 1. Astrocytes: supply nutrients to the neurons and form part of the blood brain barrier to keep harmful materials out of the brain. 2. Microglia: ingest and destroy microorganisms and wastes: they are phagocytes. 3. Oligodendrocytes: surround and insulate axons. 4. Ependymal cells: form the lining of the brain's ventricles and participate in the production of cerebrospinal fluid. 3. How does electrical impulse travel through the nerve? Dendrites are short, often highly branched extensions of the cell body. They receive impulses from axons of other neurons and transmit these impulses toward the cell body. Dendrites respond to chemical messages sent across the synapse. A nerve can transmit impulses in only one direction because of the location of neurotransmitters. 4. How is the nervous system divided, and what does it consist of? The nervous system is divided by the Central Nervous system which contains the brain, cerebrum, cerebral cortex, white matter, cerebral hemispheres, thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, cerebellum, brainstem, the spinal cord, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and ventricles. It also is divided by the peripheral nervous system which contains the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves 5. Hos is the cerebral cortex divided into four lobes, and what are their functions in the cerebral cortex? The cerebral cortex is divided into the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe. The frontal lobe is large and contains the areas from writer and motor speech. The parietal lobe is where sensations such as touch, taste, pressure, temp, and pain are received from the skin and interpreted. The temporal lobe receives and interprets auditory signals and processes language, and controls the sebastian of hearing, auditory interpretation and smell, memories are also stored here. The occipital lobe is visual transmissions and interpretation in the visual areas. 6. What are the three major accessory structures of the CNS? Meninges, CSF (Cerebrospinal Fluid) and Ventricles 7. What is the difference between cranial and spinal nerves, and name them? Cranial Nerves attach directly to the brain. LOOK AT THE TABLE 19-2. Spinal nerves attach to the spinal cord the spinal nerves are cervical 8 pairs, thoracic 12 pairs, lumbar 5 pairs, sacral 5 pairs, and coccygeal 1 pair 8. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves (24) and 32 pairs of spinal nerves (62) 9. What are the differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems and their effects on the human body? The sympathetic system produces a response that prepares individuals for an emergency, extreme stress, or danger. This fight or flight response readies people to defend themselves or flee from danger. The parasympathetic system is involved in relaxation. Produces responses that are normal functions of the body while at rest or not under unusual or extreme stress. It normally activates in a way that doesn't affect the total body. 10. What are the three types of neurons and explain their actions. Sensory Neurons are afferent neurons because they carry impulses to the brain or spinal cord from the periphery of the body by means of receptors, end organs that initially receive stimuli from outside or within the body. Motor Neurons carry impulse away from the CNS to structures that carry out activity, effectors. Interneurons carry out or integrate sensory or motor impulses and assist with thinking, learning, and memory. Chapter 20 1. What is the function of the following hormones, and what organ or structure controls them: -Melatonin (an antioxidant): Regulates sleep-wake cycles, May play a role in influencing reproductive processes. Controlled by the pineal body -Oxytocin: Causes uterine contractions, contractions of cervix and vagina, Influences orgasm, stimulates milk production. Controlled by the Pituitary posterior lobe. -ADH (vasopressin): Raises BP, promotes water reabsorption in kidney tubules, and influences the uterus. Controlled by the Pituitary posterior lobe -TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone): Regulates thyroid hormone (via secretion of thyroxine T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Controlled by the Pituitary Anterior Lobe -GH (Growth Hormone) Controls one and tissue growth and regulates metabolism (influences secretion of insulin-like growth factor I from life). Controlled by the Pituitary Anterior Lobe -ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone) Stimulates adrenal cortex to produce cortisol, corticosteroids, and androgens, and can stimulate melanocytes. Controlled by the Pituitary Anterior Lobe. -Glucocorticoids (mostly cortisol): Decreases inflammatory responses and promotes immunosuppression. Controlled by the Adrenal Cortex -Somatostatin: Inhibits release of insulin and glucagon; lowers rate of gastric emptying; reduces smooth muscle contraction and intestinal blood flow. Controlled by Delta Cells in the Pancreas. -Insulin: Regulator of carbs, protein and fat metabolism; enables cells to use glucose; lowers blood sugar; facilitates synthesis of triglycerides; suppresses exocrine secretions of pancreas. Controlled by the Beta Cells in the Pancreas -Glucagon: Speeds glycogenolysis; raises blood sugar; stimulates breakdown of fats and proteins. Controlled by the alpha cells in the pancreas -Calcitonin: Speeds calcium absorption from bone to blood; promotes calcium storage in bone; inhibits osteoclasts, thereby promoting bone formation; regulates phosphorus balance; assists in reabsorption of magnesium. Controlled by the Thyroid -PTH (Parathormone/Parathyroid hormones: Promotes formation of calcitriol and assists in release of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus into blood; activates vitamin D. Controlled by the Parathyroid -Thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine-T4): Regulates body metabolism (requires iodine) and growth and development; affects protein synthesis; affects sensitivity to catecholamines. Controlled by the Thyroid -FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormones) and LH (Luteinizing Hormones): Stimulates growth and secretions of eggs in ovaries (female) and sperm in testes (male). Controlled by the Pituitary Anterior Lobe -FSH+LH+ICSH—--Prolactin: Helps control ovulation and menstruation; important in sustaining pregnancy; Stimulates mammary glands to produce milk (after pregnancy); influences sexual gratification. Controlled by the Pituitary Anterior Lobe -Calcitriol: Increases calcium and phosphate absorption, inhibits release of parathyroid hormone (PTH). Controlled by the Kidney -Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone): Regulates electrolytes levels in extracellular fluid. Influence glucoses, amino acids, and fat synthesis in metabolism. Controlled by the Adrenal Cortex -T3 (Triiodothyronine): Stimulates calcium to leave plasma and allows it to enter bones. Controlled by the thyroid -Thymosin (thymic hormones): Stimulates production of T cells for cellular immunity. Controlled by the Thymus. -CCK (Cholecystokinin): Stimulates release of digestive enzymes from pancreas, release of bile from gallbladder, suppresses hunger. Controlled by the Duodenum -BNP (Brain-Natriuretic peptide): Influences lowering of BP. Controlled by the Heart -ANP (Atrial0natriuretic peptide): Reduces blood pressure by decreasing vascular resistance and fluid volume. Controlled by the Heart -HCG — -Erythropoietin (EPO): Stimulates production of erythrocytes (red blood cells RBC). Controlled by the Kidney 2. What are the classifications of dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and epinephrine? Catecholamines 3. What is the significance of prostaglandin and leukotrienes and the drugs affiliated with one of them? Chapter 21 1. What is the purpose of cones and rods? Cones receive color, Center of retina. Rods receive black and white and shapes, widespread over retina 2. What is the medical term for far-sightedness and near-sightedness? Farsightedness: Hyperopia or hypermetropia. Nearsightedness:Myopia 3. Define astigmatism. Is caused by irregularities in the curvature of the cornea and lens 4. Know which structures, including nerves, are in which area of the ear (outer, middle, inner) Outer Ear: Helix, Auricle (pinna), Ear lobe, External acoustic meatus, Mastoid process, Tympanic membrane (ear drum). Middle Ear: Incus, Malleus, Stapes. Inner Ear: Semicircular Canals, Oval Window, Vestibule, Pharynx, Eustachian tube, Cochlea, Cochlear portion, Vestibular portion 5. What is the normal pressure in the eye? 24 mmHg 6. What is proprioception? Location or position of the body depends on proprioceptors in the skin and semicircular canals of the inner ear. They are also located in muscles, tendons and joints and relay information about relationships of the body parts to one another. Chapter 22 1. What are the chambers, valves, and blood vessels inside the heart? State locations and if there is anything significant about them? The chambers are the Atria (Two upper chambers) Receiving centers for blood and the Ventricles (Two lower chambers) They pump blood out of the heart. The valves allow blood to flow in one direction only, preventing backflow. Atrioventricular Valves are between the atria and ventricles. The tricuspid valve between the left atrium and left ventricle. The mitral or bicuspid valves are anchored to papillary muscles located on the inner surface of the ventricles. The semilunar valve is where each ventricle empties through a valve with three crescent shaped (half-moon) cusps. The pulmonic valve separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary artery. The aortic valve separates the left ventricle from the aorta, the body's largest artery. The blood vessels are the coronary arteries and coronary veins. The coronary arteries branch off the ascending aorta to provide blood to the heart. The left coronary artery is known as the left main coronary artery passes along the left atrium and decides into the left anterior descending artery and the left circumflex artery. Right coronary artery branches out along the right AV groove to supply blood to the right atrium and left ventricle. It also supplies the SA node when not supplied by the LCX artery. The Coronary veins drain into capillaries in the myocardium where delivery of oxygen and nutrients occurs along with waste removal. 2. What is the function of the cardiovascular system? It is designed for transportation and communication throught the body 3. What are the layers of the heart and blood vessels and their locations? The tunica adventitia the outermost layer, The tunica media the middle layer and the Tunica intima the innermost layer 4. How does blood flow in and out of the heart, starting from the head or the toe. Pg. 262 5. What are the different blood vessel types, from largest to smallest? Arteries (largest), Veins (second largest), Capillaries (smallest) 6. What connects the blood vessels and what is its purpose? Capillaries. In the capillaries overall resistance is very low, so blood flows very slowly, allowing time for oxygen and nutrients to leave blood vessels and enter body tissues. 7. What creates a pulse? Arterial walls are strong and elastic and they expand every heartbeat which create a pulse 8. What is S1 and S2? S1 is the first normal heart sound called the lub. It is produced by closure of the AV valves when the ventricles contract. S2 is the second heart sound called the dud or dup it is produced by the closure of the aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves when the ventricles relax 9. What are the major blood vessels of the heart? Aorta, Superior vena cava, Inferior vena cava, and Pulmonary Artery 10. CO: Cardiac output which the amount of blood pumped by the ventricles in 1 min 11. BP: Blood Pressure is a function of CO and systemic vascular resistance is the the force that blood exerts against blood vessel walls 12. DBP: Diastolic blood pressure is the low-pressure wave, is the pressure exerted during ventricular diastole (relaxation) 13. SBP: Systolic blood pressure is the high-pressure wave, is the pressure exerted against vessels walls during ventricular systole 14. SVR: or Total peripheral resistance is the force opposing the movement of blood through blood vessels 15. ECG: Is a graphic record of minute electrical currents generated within the heart's conduction system 16. Preload: is the amount of pressure or stretching force against the ventricular wall at the end diastole (max relaxation of the heart 17. Afterload: The amount of pressure or resistance the ventricles must overcome to empty their contents, must be powerful enough to overcome resistance in the aorta and other arteries 18. Starling law: States that the greater the stretch the greater the following force of contraction (contractility) 19. Baroreceptor: They send signals causing body reaction to help maintain normal BP. They are special receptors in blood vessels walls 20. Pulse pressure: The difference between systolic and diastolic pressure 21. What is the heart's conduction system and state it in order. Pg. 266 22. What are the specific characteristics of the pacemaker? The first of these bundles, the SA node, is embedded in the endocardial wall of the right atrium where it is joined by the SVC. It is considered the heart pacemaker. 23. What does the electrical impulse of the heart create on an ECG, and give the meaning of each (WATCH THE VIDEO) Chapter 23 1. What are the components of blood? Plasma, RBC, WBC, and Platelets 2. What is the function and purpose of blood? The purpose of blood is to maintain a constant environment for all body tissues. It maintains this homeostasis via its viscosity (thickness) and by its ability to carry dissolved substances to all body parts. Blood is responsible for transportation of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, heat, waste products, disease-fighting substances and hormones to and from the cells. 3. Where are RBCs, WBC’s, and platelets produced? RBC are formed in the red bone marrow of bones. White blood cells produced in bone marrow. Platelets are produced in bone marrow 4. What are the normal lab values in the chapter? Hemoglobin (Hgb) male: 14-18g/dL, female: 12-16 g/dL, newborn: 16.5-19.5g/dL. Leukocytes (WBC) all adults: 5000-9000 million/mm. Platelets male: 150000-400000/mm 5. What is the composition of the formed elements in the blood, and what are their parts and purpose? 6. What is a blood type? Know the information given in class? Blood group A, B, AB, and O. View table 22-3 7. What are all the differences between T&S versus T&C/T&M? T&S takes about 15-30 mins to find out your type & screen. T&C/T&M takes about 45 min to an hour to do. 8. How are clots formed? Pg. 277 9. How long do blood components last? RBC: 120 days, Neutrophils: 10 hours, Eosinophils:12 hr to 3 days, Monocytes and lymphocytes: 100-300 days 10. What is the difference between a granulocyte and an agranulocyte? Granulocytes are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes or segmented neutrophils because their nucleus has so many lobes or the lobes are so divided as to look more than one nucleus. In agranulocytes the nuclei of these WBC do not contain lobes.. 11. Define HA1C: Glycosylated (glycated) Hgb (HbA1C, HA1C, A1C) is an average of blood sugar levels over time, which is important in diabetes management Chapter 24 1. What is the difference between an antigen and an antibody? An antigen is any foreign substance or molecule entering the body that stimulates an immune response. An antibody is a protein substance that the body produces in response to an antigen. 2. What is IGG, and how are they created? This is the only antibody transferred from mother to fetus across the placenta. It is produced on a second and future exposures to an antigen. (after a tetanus booster) 3. What is IG? Be able to state the different types and their functions and location. IG are antibodies that are commonly called gamma globulins or immunoglobulins. IgM is an antibody produced on initial exposure to an antigen; stimulates complement activity, it is found in the blood. IgG is the only antibody transferred from mother to fetus across the placenta; it protects fetus against antitoxins, viruses, and bacteria and protects the newborn for the first few months, it is found in the blood and tissues. IgA is a major component of secretions such as saliva, tears, and bronchial fluids, it is important in defense against invasion of microbes via the nose, eyes, lungs and intestines, it is found in blood, in gastrointestinal (GI) and mucosal secretions and in breast milk. IgE is responsible for immediate-type allergic reactions including latex allergies. IgD is believed to function as an antigen receptor, it is present in the blood in very small amounts 4. Know 24-2 : Effects of Aging on the Immune System 5. Know specific defense mechanisms. Specific defense mechanisms, the final line of defense against disease, allows the body to recognize and respond to foreign substances. Inborn immunity: Is inherited or genetic. Acquired or adaptive immunity: is attained through natural or artificial sources. Naturally Acquired Immunity: Occurs when a person is not deliberately exposed to a causative agent. Naturally Acquired Active Immunity: Results when a child is exposed to and develops a disease and subsequently builds up antibodies to infections caused by the same organism. Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity: Occurs between mother and infants. Immunity is transferred from mother to fetus during pregnancy via the placental circulation exchange. Artificially Acquired Immunity: Occurs when a person is deliberately exposed to a causative agent and can also be acquired through active or passive means. Artificially Acquired Active Immunity: Occurs through an injection of the causative agent into a person system. Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity: Occurs with the injection of ready-made antibodies into a person system. 6. What are T killer cells, T-helper cells, Cytokines, and their locations. T-helper cells have several subtypes. These cells often have no cytotoxic (cell-killing) function per se. They help regulate innate and adaptive immune response by instructing other cells to kill infected cells or pathogens. T-Killer cells are another subgroup of T cells that kill cells infected with pathogens or are otherwise damaged or defective. Cytokines are proteins that act as messengers to help regulate some functions of lymphocytes and macrophages during the immune response and some are given by injection to treat specific disease. Chapter 25 1. What controls the depth and rate or respiration? The medulla and pons 2. Where does normal breathing occur and what is its function? 3. Define the diaphragm and its purpose. Is a dome-shaped muscle separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities, which contracts and flattens to increase both chest (pleural) space and pleural vacuum. 4. Explain internal and external respiration. The exchange of oxygen for carbon dioxide within the alveoli of the lungs is called external respiration because it is involved with the external environment. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide within the cells is called tissue respiration, internal respiration or cellular respiration 5. How many lobes are there, and which side has the most. There are 5 lobes. The right lung has 3 lobes and the left lung has 2 lobes. So the right lobe has the most. 6. What is the purpose of the surfactant, and how is it produced? Surfactant acts to break up surface tension in the pulmonary (lung) fluid. Surfactant is secreted by the great alveolar cells of the lungs and is a mixture of phospholipids. Chapter 26 1. You must know what happens to carbs, proteins, dairy and fat when eaten, digested, and relieved from the anus. You must know what enzymes are used and at which location. You must know the structures involved with food digestion from the mouth to the anus. 2. Pay close attention to the function of the liver, spleen, thymus, pancreas, gallbladder, the parts of the small and large intestines. Liver: - Secretion of bile - Absorption of bilirubins after destruction of old red blood cells (RBC) - Detoxification of blood (removal of toxins or poisons) - Storage of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) - Formation of vitamin A and some nonessential amino acids: storage of vitamin B complex and iron - Formation of plasma proteins (albumin, prothrombin, globulins) - Synthesis of urea a waste product from protein anabolism - Storage of glucose as glycogen (helps regulate glucose levels) - Synthesis of clotting factors (fibrinogen, prothrombin, factors, V, VII, IX, X) - Formation of triglycerides and cholesterol - Secretion of heparin (anticoagulant) - Synthesis of immunoglobulins - Breaking down of fats (lipids) - Metabolism of carbohydrates: storage of fats and carbohydrates - Regulation of amino acids - Production of body heat - Storage of minerals - Production of lymph Spleen - It produces antibodies and filters out damaged red blood cells Thymus - - - 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Pancreas It secretes the hormones insulin, glucagon and somatostatin into the bloodstream, to help regulate blood sugar levels. Gallbladder Major function are storage and release of bile, as needed in the small intestine for fat emulsification Parts of the small Intestines Duodenum, jejunum and ileum Parts of the large intestine Cecum, colon, rectum and anus Where is the appendix? Located in the right lower quadrant of the abdominal cavity. Name all the valves affiliated with the G.I systems and their locations. What is the function of the different types of teeth? The sharp, flat incisors, front teeth, cut and tear food The pointed canines (cuspids), side teeth, hold, pierce, and tear food The bicuspids (premolars) and tricuspids (molars) crush and grind food The last permanent teeth, the third molars (wisdom teeth) located far back in the mouth, sometimes do not appear before adulthood. If jaw space is limited, wisdom teeth may become impacted in the bone or tissue and require surgical removal. What is food called as it is digested, and name the different phases in the G.I tract. What is the importance of CCK and somatostatin, and where are they secreted? CCK (Cholecystokinin) activates the gallbladder to release bile, Also stimulates the pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice, stimulates secretion of bicarbonate ions from pancreas, and breaks fats into tiny droplets. CCK is located in the small intestine Duodenum and jejunum. Somatostatin helps control release of glucagon and insulin which are located in the pancreas. Name the types of saliva and their purpose. - Sublinguals, the smallest located under the tongue, secrete only mucus-type saliva, their ducts open onto the floor of the mouth. - Parotids, the largest, are located in the cheek; they secrete serous saliva containing enzymes but no mucus - Submandibularis, under the lower jaw are compound glands, secreting a combination of serous and mucus-containing saliva. Define the term mechanism, list the different types, and define them. Chapter 27 1. What is the functional section of the kidney? Nephrons 2. How is urine created? 3. What are tubular secretion and reabsorption? Tubular secretion is blood to urine. Tubular reabsorption is urine to blood. 4. What is the significance of renin, aldosterone, and ADH, and erythropoietin? Renin is important in blood pressure regulation. Aldosterone promotes sodium and water retention, increasing blood volume, again elevating blood pressure. ADH increases reabsorption of water by kidney tubules, thereby decreasing the amount and increasing the concentration of urine. Erythropoietin stimulates the stem cells in red bone marrow to increase formation of red blood cells. 5. Bowman capsule plus the glomerulus creates what? Renal corpuscle 6. What is the blood system within the kidney? Renal Artery 7. What controls the blood pressure in the kidneys, and where is it explicitly located? Aldosterone and it is explicitly located in the adrenal cortex. 8. What is the specific gravity of urine? 1.010-1.025 9. How much urine can the bladder hold, and how much is in the bladder gives you the urge to urinate. The bladder can hold 1000mL. 200-400mL is how it can be in the bladder when it gives you the urge to urinate. 10. What are the components of urine? 11. Define GFR and state its purpose. GFR is the Glomerular filtration rate. This is the amount of filtrate formed in all glomeruli of both kidneys per minute. 12. Know that the kidney makes 0.5ml-1ml per kg per hour (0.5-1 ml/kg/hr) 13. What controls the release of urine from the bladder. 14. Know tables 27-1 and 27-2 15. Make sure you understand figures 27-5, 27-6 Chapter 28 & 29 1. You must know the male ductal system and explain where sperm is created and stored and how it's released from the body. The male reproductive system organs have an extensive system of ducts that store and transport sperm from the testicles to the urethra, including the paired epididymides, ductus deferens and ejaculatory ducts. The epididymis is a long comma-shaped organ attached to the posterior surface of the testes that stores sperm cells. Within the epididymis millions of sperm cells are in final stages of maturation. Here they also develop a tail and gain motility (ability to move). The Ductus Deferens sperms is transported by peristaltic waves from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct through the paired vas deferens. The ejaculatory ducts receive secretions from the prostate gland, to make up semen and empty into the urethra. Sperm is created in testes. Sperm is stored in ductus deferens and seminal vesicles. Sperm is released from the body through the ejaculatory duct. 2. Look at special considerations. Undescended testes (cryptorchidism), failure of the testes to move down into the scrotal sac, can occur in infants. This occurs more often in premature infants, but may also occur in some full-term infants. Cryptorchidism increases the temperature within the testes, resulting in decreased sperm production. Therefore, documentation of the location of the testes is important for all male infants. Immediate corrective surgery may be required. 3. Know the significance of body temperatures to a male. The temp. Of the testes (35 C or 95 F) is lower than internal body temp. 4. Know where eggs are created, stored, and released. Eggs are created, stored, and released in the ovaries. 5. Know the cycle of menses. Read pg 341 6. Define menopause. Between 40-55 years of age, the ovaries become less active because they no longer respond to FSH. The eggs no longer mature, and the ovaries stop producing estrogen. This decrease in ovarian function occurs gradually. The result is the lack of ability to become pregnant and the onset of menopause. 7. Know the similarities between the male and female reproductive structures. The female reproductive system consists of paired ovaries and oviducts and the uterus, vagina, and external genital structures. The internal organs, the uterus, vagina, and ovaries are located within the pelvis between the urinary bladder and rectum and are held in place by a group of ligaments. The external structures make up the vulva. The mammary glands are considered female reproductive organs. The male reproductive system consists of the testes (produce sperm), ductal system and seminal vesicles (transport and store sperm), Scrotum (hold testes and regulates their temperature), penis (deposits sperm in females), and accessory glands (produce male hormones and other secretions). The area between the scrotum and anus is the perineum. 8. Know the parts of a sperm. Read pg 335 9. Know how much sperm a man is required to have to determine fertility. Semen with a sperm count of less than 10-20 million per milliliter may have difficulty fertilizing an ovum. 10. Know how many eggs a female has from the fetal state to after being born. About 5-7 million being as oogonia in the female fetus fourth to fifth gestational month. A newborn girl has about two million primary oocytes. Then between birth and puberty, the number of primary oocytes decrease to 300000-400000 of these only 300-400 eventually develop into mature egg cells. 11. How long can the sperm survive? Up to 3 days. 12. What are the characteristics of the male and female after puberty? In male their voice deepens, and the “Adam's apple” develops in the anterior throat. Unique musculature develops; the shoulders become broader and the hips remain narrow. Males typically start to have a beard, pubic, and axillary hair, as well as increased body hair. In females Progesterone is produced. The female has a smaller stature, higher percentage of body fat, pubic, and axillary hair and development of breast. The female pubic arch of the pelvis and hip structure is wider than that of the family. Sweat glands become active, The voice deepens and mature in tone and quality, menstruation occurs. 13. Know the significance of ages for males and females. 40-55 Menopause (female) 12-16 puberty occurs (male) 20 years puberty is reached (male) 14. Explain the changes that occur with the female breast during puberty. Read pg 340 15. What hormone is dominant in a male and a female? Androgen (males hormone), Estrogens (female hormone) 16. What structure could cause a female to lose her life if not present in the cultural sense?