Child and Adolescent Learning Principles PDF

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNER AND Developmental Tasks in the stage of Early Adulthood LEARNING PRINCIPLES (19-30 years old) include: Finding a partner (an...

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNER AND Developmental Tasks in the stage of Early Adulthood LEARNING PRINCIPLES (19-30 years old) include: Finding a partner (and learning to cohabitate According to the Havighurst's Developmental Task with them) Theory, (Havighurst was an American psychologist Achieving a preferred masculine or feminine who developed his theory on Developmental Tasks social role between 1948 and 1953. He is also known for Managing a home and starting a family popularizing the phrase “teachable moments” in his 1952 book Human Development and Education). Human Development Human Development is the quantitative and qualitative According to his book “A developmental task is a task ways by which people change over which is learned at a specific point and which makes time. achievement of succeeding tasks possible. When the timing is right, the ability to learn a particular task will Developmental psychology is one area of psychology be possible.” that explains the course of physical, social, emotional, moral and intellectual development over a person’s life This is referred to as a 'teachable moment.' It is important span. to keep in mind that unless the time is right, learning will Development refers to progressive series of change that not occur. results from maturation and experience. Development refers to qualitative changes that includes The stages in Havighurst's Theory include: increase in skills and complexity of function resulting in Infancy and early childhood (0-6 years increased specialization. It is a gradual and orderly old) unfolding of the characteristics of the successive stages Later childhood (6–13 years old) of growth. Adolescence (13–18 years old) Early Adulthood (19–30 years old) There are two process of development that Middle Age (30–60 years old) simultaneously take place throughout life span Later maturity (60 years old and over) Growth or evolution Atrophy or involution (wasting away of Havighurst also defined a list of what influences the tasks potentials due to insufficient nutrition) an individual strives to complete at each stage of development: Maturation generally refers to a natural process of growing up ascribe to heredity. Social Influences (Pressures of Society) A biological process that account for age related changes in growth and development Biological Influences (Physical Maturation) and requires favorable amount of support Psychological Influences (Personal Values) from the environment to occur. Learning is the aspect of development that connotes Developmental Tasks in the stage of Infancy and Early modification of behavior that results from practice and Childhood (0-6 years old) include: experience. Learning to walk Developmental Task refers to expectation that arise Learning to talk during a definite period of life. The successful Toilet training performance of these tasks indicates a forward thrust in Developmental Tasks in the stage of Middle Childhood growth and development. (6-12 years old) include: Learning physical skills necessary for Aspects of development ordinary games Physical - changes in the body, brain, Learning to get along and play with children sensory, capacities and motor skills are all of the same age part of physical development and they exert Achieving personal independence a major influence on both intellect and Recognizing what society deems as personality. masculine or feminine social roles Intellectual - changes in a wide variety of mental abilities such as learning, memory, Developmental Tasks in the stage of Adolescence (13- reasoning, thinking and facility of the 18 years old) include: language. Accepting one’s physical body as it goes Personality and social – pertains to unique through changes way of a person to deal with other people and Preparing for partnership and family life the world. Includes how one express its Preparing for an economic career emotions and gets along with others. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical Moral - this refers to the gradual awareness system as a guide to behavior; developing an of the distinction between right or wrong. ideology  Emotional – refers to the recognition of one’s some learn by seeing, some by hearing, feelings and that of others and developing some by reading some by doing. ways of managing them. 10. play is an important vehicle for developing self- regulation and promoting language, cognition and social Principles of Child Development and Learning competence. 1. all areas of development and learning are important. Giving the child chances to play with other Physical, social, emotional, communication children is a great way for them to and language development development the skills he needs to get on with others. 2. learning and development follow a sequence Different aspect and areas of development Stages of Human Development take place at a certain order even though Prenatal – from conception to birth speed varies form one individual to another. Infancy- 0-2 weeks Cephalo-caudal follows from head to foot Babyhood- 2 weeks to 2 years old Proximodistal law spreads outward from the Early childhood – 2 to 6 central axis of the body to the extremities Late childhood – 6-12 Adolescence 12-19 3. development and learning proceed at varying rates Early adulthood – 20-40 Neither all parts of the body grow at the same Middle adulthood -40-60 rate, nor do all the aspects of mental growth Old age – 60 onwards proceed equally. They reach maturity at different time. Perspectives and Approaches in Human 4. development and learning result form an interaction of Development maturation and experience. Maturation- natural process of growing up 1. Assumptions in Human Development ascribed to heredity Experience – knowledge or mastery of an 1. Original Sin: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) portrayed event or subject gained through involvement children as inherently selfish and bad believing that it was or exposure to it. society’s task to control their selfish and aggressive 5. early experiences have profound effects on impulses and to teach them to behave in positive ways. development and learning. Children spend earliest years in nurturing 2. Inherently Good: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712- surroundings that promote optimal brain 1778) argued that children were inherently good that thy development and provide young children were born with an intuitive understanding of right and with a solid foundation on which their later wrong, and that they would develop in positive directions skills and abilities will be built. as long as society did not interfere with their natural Conversely, when a child grow-up in an tendencies. environment characterized by toxic stress, chaos and uncertainty, their ability to develop 3. Tabula Rasa: John Locke (1623-1704) maintained to their full potential is hampered. that an infant is a tabula rasa, or a blank slate waiting to 6. development proceeds toward greater complexity and be written on by his or her own experiences. Locke self-regulation believed that children were inherently good nor bad; they E.q makes random kicking before learning to develop in any number of directions depending on their coordinate leg muscle well enough to crawl or own experiences. to walk 7. children develop best when they have secure 2. Nature and Nature relationships Nature refers to the behavior and Forming secure and trusting relationships characteristics manifested because of the can help promote all aspect of a children’s influence of biological forces (heredity and development. biologically-based dispositions) 8. development and learning occur and are influenced by Nurture refers to influences brought about by multiple social and cultural contexts. the exposure to the environment (includes Children learn what is important within the learning experience, child rearing methods cultures of the communities in which they societal changes and culture. operate through interactions with more Nurture refers to the day-to-day interactions experienced members of those cultures or children encounter in their environment. community (Bruner, 1986) Bowlby, 1996 believes that when an infant 9. children learn in variety of ways forms attachment it Since individual are different no two shows the bond between the mother and the individuals can be expected to react in the child as being an innate process that ensures same manner, they learn in many ways, survival. Accordingly, Chomsky (1965)  believes that language comes from the use of father which makes a 46 pairs of an innate language acquisition device. chromosomes. Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory From each of the 23 one is carrier of sex states that aggression is learned from the chromosomes and 22 autosomes. Which environment through observation and carry all the traits and quality of the parent. imitation. Many animals, including humans, have two Skinner (1957) believed that language is types of chromosomes: autosomes and sex learned from other people via behavior chromosomes. shaping techniques. Sex chromosomes are those that are 3. Activity and Passivity needed for determining sex or gender of an Some theorist believe that children are individual. curious, active creatures who in a very real Autosome are all the rest of the sense orchestrate their own development by chromosomes that are not needed for sex exploring the world around them or by determination. shaping their own environment. Other In humans, females have 2 so-called X theorist view humans as passive beings who chromosomes and are largely products of forces beyond their males have one X chromosome and one Y control-usually environmental influences (but chromosome. possibly strong biological forces) 4. Continuity and Discontinuity Sex Determination Discontinuity theorist picture the course of Chromosomes contains several thousand of development as more like a series of stair genes which are string or thread-like steps, each of which elevates the individual molecules that carry hereditary information to a new (and presumably more advance) for everything from height to eye color. level of functioning. They are made of protein and one molecule Continuity theorist view human of DNA, which contains an organism’s development as a process that occurs in genetic instructions. It programs the changes small steps, without sudden changes. about the newly created organism. Such 5. Universality and Context Specificity program will manifest in maturation The extent to which developmental changes are common to everyone (universal) or Pre-Natal Stage different from person to person (context Prenatal stage begins with fertilization and ends specific). during birth approximately 9 months after. It has the average of 266 days or 38 weeks period of gestation. BIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 70% vary from 36 to 40 weeks or 252 to 280 days. Prenatal development proceeds according to a The BIOLOGICAL BEGININNGS genetic blueprint that directs the construction of 400,00 immature ova in both ovaries an extremely complex being. Ovum is a size of a period Prenatal development which is also called (found at the end of these sentence) and the gestation is divided into 3 stages; largest cell of the female human body. 1. germinal/zygote- fertilization or 0 to 14 days Generally, every menstrual cycle the ovary 2. embryonic- 2 weeks to 8 -12 weeks expels one mature ovum to the fallopian tube Ectoderm - nervous system during ovulation. Mesoderm - skeletal system Endoderm - respiratory tracts and glands The sperm is an elongated cell that is shaped like a 3. fetal - 8 weeks to 40 weeks tadpole. It is the smallest cell in the human body. The male gonad or testes produces 200 million of sperm a day and Fetal Stage are expelled in the semen during sexual activity. During the long period until birth, the finishing Life starts from the moment of fertilization where touches are put on the various parts, body changes in conception begins. form and grows about 20 times in length. Fetus kicks, Fertilization is the meeting of the ripe female sex cell, turns, flexes its body, makes a fist, hiccups, sucks its called ovum from ovary, and the male sex cell, called thumb. Respond to both sounds and vibrations spermatozoa from the testes, in the fallopian tube. indicating it can hear and feel. Prenatal development begins with fertilization It is the union of the egg and sperm cell Factors that may influence unborn child The fertilized egg (Zygote) consists of 23 1. German measles (Rubella) when contacted by pairs of chromosomes, the other pair is from mother for the first 3 months of life, the virus is the mother and the other pair is from the transmitted to the placenta which results to deafness,  cataracts, mental deficiency or heart disease in a During this stage, overall growth is clearly in height and baby weight measures. 2. syphillis, malaria, chicken pox and mumps – Growth is manifested at the earliest stage, usually infectious diseases that can result to congenital following a cephalocaudal trend and a proximodistal deformities depending upon the prenatal stage and pattern. the degree of toxicity in the mother. 3. maternal nutrition and anoxia (lack of oxygen)- Patterns of growth and development affects development of fetus. Prematurity and still Cephalocaudal Law of Development proceeds from; birth. a) Center to outer part of the body 4. alcohol and smoking increases fetal heartbeat b) Head to Center 5. effect of x-rays and other form of radiation c) Head to Tail may affect mentality of child d) Torso to the Limbs 6. emotional states of mother during pregnancy is related to postnatal care and development Cephalocaudal Development is the direction of 7. endocrine irregularities-thyroid gland irregularities development from (top) head to (bottom) toes. cretinism may developed (a type of retardation Gain control of heads then arms, torso and finally characterized by physical and mental deformities) legs. 8. use of drugs, pills or medicine may cause Head larger relative to rest of body, lower parts of deformities and possible brain damage body must do more growing to reach adult size. Chromosomal abnormalities Proximodistal Development proceeds from the; Mutation - is applied to changes of a single gene a) Brain to outward behavior and now broadly applied to changes of the b) Legs to the arms chromosomes resulting in either death of the c) Head toward the tail embryo or characteristic of syndrome. d) Center of the body to the limbs They are departures from parent’s types caused by either gene or chromosomal aberrations. Proximodistal direction is the growth proceeds from the center, or midline or the body to the periphery or in the Congenital abnormalities proximodistal direction. In some cases, abnormalities may arise during prenatal development that cause physical Genetics and physical traits malformations or developmental delays or affect (Tanner, 1990) genetic factors strongly influence various parts of the body after the child is born. physical The cause may be a small mutation in or damage characteristics. to the genetic material of cells, or a major However, growth is not seen as influenced only by chromosomal abnormality. genetic factors alone but also by nutrition, physical and Sometimes the abnormality is inherited from one psychological disorders and even climate. or both parents; in other cases, the defect occurs because of an error in prenatal development. Motor skills development (motor skill is simply an action that involves baby using muscles) Common chromosomal Aberrations Large motor skills develop rapidly during the 1. mongolism or down syndrome - Characterized by early childhood years. severe mental retardation and peculiarity of the folds in Large motor skills concern the development the eyelids. 2x22+1+ xx or xy =47 of larger muscle movements that are 2. turner’s – characterized by retarded growth and responsible for running, jumping, and sexual development. Individuals with 2x22+x0=45 throwing. chromosomes. Mentally retarded and can’t bear offspring Gross motor development 3. klinefelter’s - occurs in males and characterized by In infancy, crawling, lifting one’s head, rolling consistently small testes hence sterility, female breast over, and sitting up are examples of gross like, mental retardation (XYY) motor development. By the time typically developing children are Physical Development of children 3 to 5 years old, examples of gross motor Physical important development area development that of development include being able to run, hop, is an child includes children's physical growth, as well as balance on one foot, throw and kick a ball, their increasing ability to control the muscles of their climb-up stairs or playground equipment -- bodies. and ride a bicycle. Physical development Small motor skills Childcare programs can support children's physical Small motor skills or fine motor skills concern development by providing safe surroundings, good the development of smaller muscle nutrition and plenty of time for active play and exploration. movements, mostly in the hands and fingers.  Small or fine motor skill development also Middle childhood seems to be a great time to involves hand-eye coordination. introduce children to organized sports. Fine motor skills Boys typically outperform girls in gross motor Small or fine motor skills are necessary to skills (involving large muscles), while with fine string beads, cut with scissors or tie motor skills (small muscles), girls outperform shoelaces. boys. Before young children master these tasks, These improvements in motor skills are they need to build their hand and finger related to brain growth and experience during strength and control through play. this developmental period. Coordinating Large and Small Motor Skills Overweight and Brain Functioning Even though larger muscles usually develop The decreased participation in school before smaller muscles, more advanced physical education and youth sports is just motor abilities require children to coordinate one of many factors that have led to an large motor skills with small motor skills. increase in children being overweight or Climbing up playground equipment requires obese. them to use the large muscles of the arms Being overweight has also been linked to and legs to propel them upward and forward. impaired brain functioning, which includes deficits in executive functioning, working Hand-eye coordination memory, mental flexibility, and decision- At the same time, children must use fine motor skills to making (Liang et al., 2014). coordinate eye and hand movements and to adjust their grip on the playground equipment. Late childhood Late Childhood refers to the developmental Physical development of Late Childhood stages that typically ranges from around 6-12 years of age. During this time, children It is the time period from the age of 6 until the undergo significant physical, cognitive, and age of 12 years. It is in late childhood that the socio-emotional changes. first signs of puberty usually begin to appear. This period is marked by steady growth, the A lot of growth is experienced by both boys refinement of motor skills, increased and girls during late childhood. independence, and the emergence of more Puberty is made up of a clear sequence of complex social interaction. stages, affecting the skeletal, muscular, reproductive, and nearly all other bodily Late childhood skills systems. Physical changes during puberty Self-help skills – ability to eat, dress, bathe tend to be more gradual and steady. and groom themselves with almost as much speed and adeptness as an adult. Changes in Body Composition & Height Social-Help skills – ability to relate to and Most children have a slimmer appearance help others. At home, they can help do shores during middle childhood than they did during such as sweeping, dusting, making beds. the preschool years. School skills – they develop skills needed in As a child's entire body size increases, the writing, drawing, clay modeling, sewing, amount of body fat stays relatively stable, woodworking. giving her a thinner look. Play skills – developed the ability needed in Also during this stage of life, a child's legs are play activity such as throwing and catching longer in pro portion to the body than they balls, riding bicycle and others in connection were before. with play. Handedness – by the time they reach late Growth spurts childhood, most children are predominantly The beginning of the growth spurt, which right handed or left handed. occurs before puberty, begins two years earlier for females than males. Physical development in adolescent The mean age for the onset of the growth Adolescence is often characterized as a spurt for girls is nine, while for boys, it is period of transformation, primarily, in terms of eleven. physical, cognitive, and social-relational Children of this age tend to sharpen their change. abilities to perform gross motor skills, such as Adolescence is a developmental stage that riding a bike, and fine motor skills, such as has been defined as starting with puberty and cutting their fingernails. ending with the transition to adulthood (approximately ages 10–20) Middle Childhood Puberty  Puberty today begins, on average, at age 10– decision-making, become more 11 years for girls and 11–12 years for boys. sophisticated. Adolescence begins with puberty. While the Stage Five: 8-25 Years sequence of physical changes in puberty is The final stage of brain development involves predictable, the onset and pace of puberty maturation and stabilization of the prefrontal vary widely. cortex. during this time, primary and secondary A child’s executive functions, such as sexual characteristics develop and mature. planning, organizing, and thinking abstractly, Primary sexual characteristics are organs become fully developed. specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in females and testes in Brain development males. At birth the brain has already grown 25% of Secondary sexual characteristics are the adult size. physical signs of sexual maturation that do At the age of 3 the brain has already reached not directly involve sex organs, such as 80% of its adult size development of breasts and hips in girls, and By the time they’re six, their brains are development of facial hair and a deepened already about 90 95% of adult size. voice in boys. Brain development of children and adolescent Girls experience menarche, the beginning Brain development in early childhood refers of menstrual periods, usually around 12–13 to the growth of the brain from birth through years old, and boys experience the age of six. spermarche/semenarche, or the onset of This period is critical in shaping a child’s sperm production, around 13–14 years old. physical, cognitive, and emotional During puberty, both sexes experience a development. rapid increase in height (i.e., growth spurt). During this time, the brain makes billions of new connections between neurons, creating Brain Development in Children and Adolescent the network that will support learning, memory, emotional regulation, and other Brain essential skills. The brain is the command center of the Early Childhood Brain Development human body. Upon birth the child has already have 100M Brain connections enable us to move, think, neuron present communicate and do just about everything. A child’s brain produces up to 1,000 trillion new neural connections during the first few The Five Stages of Brain Development years of life. Stage One: 0-10 Months The quality of a child’s early education can The brain grows at a rapid pace, developing have a significant impact on future academic the essential structures and systems that and career success. support survival and physical growth. Trauma and adversity in early childhood can The cerebral cortex, which is responsible for cause changes in the brain’s architecture that complex thinking, planning, and sensory can affect long-term physical and mental perception, begins to form health Stage Two: 10 Months-2 Years Caring, Responsive Relationships the brain continues to grow, and new neurons A child’s relationships with the adults in their and synapses are formed at an incredible life are the most important influences on their rate. brain development. The prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for Loving relationships with responsive, decision-making, self-control, and social dependable adults are essential to a child’s behavior, also begins to develop. healthy development. Stage Three: 2-6 Years Adolescent brain development During this stage, the growth rate of the brain Adolescence is rather a time of significant slows down, and the focus shifts to refining growth and development inside the teenage existing neural connections and networks. brain. The development of the prefrontal cortex This is the brain’s way of becoming more continues, and language and social skills efficient. flourish. 2 processes that afford fine-tuning of neural Stage Four: 6-8 Years development At this stage, the brain undergoes pruning, Cell proliferation happens in the first several where weak or unused neural connections years of life, consist of over production of are eliminated to increase efficiency. A child’s neurons and interconnections. cognitive skills, such as problem solving and Cell pruning – a continuous process in childhood phase, involves the selective  elimination of excess cells and the cutting altering existing schemas owing to the new back of connection. information provided or learned. Developing brain The balance between assimilation and Because the prefrontal cortex is still accommodation is achieved through a developing, teenagers might rely on a part of mechanism, called equilibrium the brain called the amygdala to make decisions and solve problems more than adults do. The Sensorimotor Stage The amygdala is associated with emotions, During this earliest stage of cognitive impulses, aggression and instinctive development, infants and toddlers acquire behavior. knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. FACTORS AFFECTING PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Object permanence or Object constancy 1. Nutrition Piaget believed that developing object 2. genetics permanence or object constancy, the 3. Chronic disease understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT element at this point of development. Jean William Fritz Piaget children also demonstrate goal-directed actions Jean Piaget, (born August 9, 1896, Neuchâtel, – Piaget believed that as children grow, they Switzerland—died September 16, 1980, Geneva), Swiss begin to think about what they need to psychologist who was the first to make a systematic study accomplish, how to do it, then act on of the acquisition of understanding in children. The Preoperational Stage Ages: 2 to 7 Years Children begin to think symbolically and learn to Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory use words and pictures to represent objects. Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and the 1920s, where his job was to develop struggle to see things from the perspective of French versions of questions on English others. intelligence tests. He became intrigued with At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but the reasons children gave for their wrong still struggle with logic and taking the point of view answers to the questions that required logical of other people (egocentricism). thinking. Semiotic Function He believed that these incorrect answers Another ability is the semiotic function. Ability to revealed important differences between the form and use symbols to represent physical thinking of adults and children. action or reality. In his theory of cognitive development, Jean A child’s ability to identify from a book the picture Piaget argued that children’s cognitive of a bird illustrate this skill. development is influenced by biological maturation and their interaction with the The Concrete Operational Stage Ages: 7 to 11 Years environment. During this stage, children begin to thinking Children undergo a similar order and stages logically about concrete events of development. They begin to understand the concept of conservation; process of determining that the Schema (Piaget, 1952) amount or quantity of something remains as it is. a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are Reversibility, decentration, & conservation tightly interconnected and governed by a core Characterized by reversible thinking, thinking meaning. backward. Form the end to beginning. It is the person’s way of organizing Involves conservation and decentration – the knowledge. child’s ability to focus on more than one dimension of an object at a time. Schema/Schemata Conservation refers to the logical thinking ability Schemata guides the person’s way of that allows the person to determine that a certain responding to new experience. quantity will remain the same despite adjustment Adaptation refers to the ability to adjust to a of the container, shape or size. piece of new information or experience, Classification -It involves the ability to group making it possible for the person to cope with similar objects in terms of color, shape, use, etc. the change. Seriation is the ability to arrange objects according to size, like small to smallest, far to Assimilation, the process of taking new farthest. etc. information into existing schema. Accommodation, involves changing or The Formal Operational Stage Ages: 12 and Up at this stage, adolescent can engage in mental processes involving abstract thinking and coordination of variables (Woolfolk, 2016). At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems. Abstract thinking The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage. Qualitative change Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four stages. Teaching implications of Piaget’s cognitive development (Berk, 2013) A focus on the process of children’s thinking, not just its products. Recognize the crucial role of children’s self- initiative, active involvement in learning activities. A de-emphasis on practices aimed at making children adult-like thinking. Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress