ENG 2013 Environmental Science and Engineering M1 - Nature and Ecology (Part 1) PDF

ENG 2013 Environmental Science and Engineering M1 – Nature and Ecology (Part 1) Definitions of Ecology ❑From the Greek root οικος (oikos), “at home”, and ολιγο (oligo), “the study of” ❑“By ecology we mean the body of knowledge concerning the economy of Nature – th...

ENG 2013 Environmental Science and Engineering M1 – Nature and Ecology (Part 1) Definitions of Ecology ❑From the Greek root οικος (oikos), “at home”, and ολιγο (oligo), “the study of” ❑“By ecology we mean the body of knowledge concerning the economy of Nature – the investigation of the total relations of the animal to its inorganic and organic environment.” (Haeckle, 1870) ❑In the 1890s, Burdon-Sanderson elevated Ecology to one of the three natural divisions of Biology: Physiology, Morphology, Ecology ❑“Scientific natural history” (Elton, 1927) ❑“The scientific study of the distribution and abundance of organisms” (Andrewartha, 1961) ❑“The structure and function of Nature” (Odum, 1963) M1 - Nature and Ecogloy (Part 1) Our Definition of Ecology ❑“Ecology is the scientific study of the processes regulating the distribution and abundance of organisms and the interactions among them, and the study of how these organisms in turn mediate the transport and transformation of energy and matter in the biosphere (i.e. the study of the design of ecosystem structure and function).” M1 - Nature and Ecogloy (Part 1) Beyond Fundamental Ecology ❑ Applied Ecology ❑Using ecological principles to maintain conditions necessary for the continuation of present-day life on earth. M1 - Nature and Ecogloy (Part 1) Beyond Fundamental Ecology ❑Industrial Ecology ❑The design of the industrial infrastructure such that it consists of a series of interlocking "technological ecosystems" interfacing with global natural ecosystems. ❑Industrial ecology takes the pattern and processes of natural ecosystems as a design for sustainability. It represents a shift in paradigm from conquering nature to becoming nature. M1 - Nature and Ecogloy (Part 1) Beyond Fundamental Ecology ❑Ecological Engineering ❑Unlike industrial ecology, the focus of Ecological Engineering is on the manipulation of natural ecosystems by humans for our purposes, using small amounts of supplemental energy to control systems in which the main energy drives are still coming from non- human sources. ❑It is the design of new ecosystems for human purposes, using the self-organizing principles of natural ecosystems. M1 - Nature and Ecogloy (Part 1) Beyond Fundamental Ecology ❑Ecological Engineering ❑A popular definition of ecological engineering is: “the design of human society with its natural environment for the benefit of both.” What is the logical flaw in this definition? M1 - Nature and Ecogloy (Part 1) Beyond Fundamental Ecology ❑Ecological Economics ❑Integrating ecology and economics in such a way that economic and environmental policies are reinforcing rather than mutually destructive. ECONOMICS Supply Demand CONTROL Environmental Nature Policies Man M1 - Nature and Ecogloy (Part 1) Beyond Fundamental Ecology ❑Urban ecology ❑For ecologists, urban ecology is the study of ecology in urban areas, specifically the relationships, interactions, types and numbers of species found in urban habitats. ❑Also, the design of sustainable cities, urban design programs that incorporate political, infrastructure and economic considerations. M1 - Nature and Ecogloy (Part 1) Beyond Fundamental Ecology ❑Conservation Biology ❑The application of diverse fields and disciplines to the conservation of biological diversity. ❑Restoration Biology ❑Application of ecosystem ecology to the restoration of deteriorated landscapes in an attempt to bring it back to its original state as much as possible. Example: prarie grass. M1 - Nature and Ecogloy (Part 1) Beyond Fundamental Ecology ❑Landscape Ecology ❑Landscape ecology is concerned with spatial patterns in the landscape and how they develop, with an emphasis on the role of disturbance, including human The Paraguay-Parana River before and after the construction of the Yacyreta Dam in 1985 impacts” (Smith and Smith) ❑It is a relatively new branch of ecology, that employs Global Information Systems. The goal is to predict the responses of different organisms to changes in landscape, to ultimately facilitate ecosystem Migration pattern of the Monarch butterfly flying south management. to Mexico in autumn to breed in warmer climate. M1 - Nature and Ecogloy (Part 1) Beyond Fundamental Ecology ❑All these disciplines require an understanding of the "organizing principles" of ecosystems, i.e., their ecology. ❑This involves the detailed study of the structure and function of ecosystems in their undisturbed state, and using their designs to: ❑determine the resilience of ecosystem functions to human activities ❑ design ecosystems which function in the service of human beings with minimal fossil energy input (ideally none) and minimal waste ❑design the industrial infrastructure ❑integrate the value of "goods and services" of natural ecosystems into the global economic system. M1 - Nature and Ecogloy (Part 1)  ENG 2013 Environmental Science and Engineering M1 – Nature and Ecology (Part 2) What is “Sustainability”? Sustainability is a property of a human society in which ecosystems (including humans) are managed such that the conditions supporting present day life on Earth can continue. M1 - Nature and Ecology (Part 2) Levels of Studying Ecology ❑Biosphere ❑The Earth’s ecosystem interacting with the physical environment as a whole to maintain a steady state system intermediate in the flow of energy between the high energy input of the Sun and the thermal sink of space (merges with atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere…). ❑Biome ❑Large scale areas of similar vegetation and climatic characteristics. ❑Ecosystem ❑Set of organisms and abiotic components connected by the exchange of matter and energy (forest, lake, coastal ocean). Or, “the smallest units that can sustain life in isolation from all but atmospheric surroundings.” ❑Community ❑Interacting populations which significantly affect each other’s distributions and abundance (intertidal, hot spring, wetland). ❑Population ❑Group of interacting and interbreeding organisms ❑Cell/Organism ❑Organelle → Molecule → Atom M1 - Nature and Ecology (Part 2) M1 - Nature and Ecology (Part 2) M1 - Nature and Ecology (Part 2) Biosphere ❑The biosphere is made up of parts of the Earth where life exists. ❑Scientists describe the Earth in terms of “spheres” ❑Lithosphere: The solid surface of the Earth ❑Atmosphere: The layer of air that stretches above the lithosphere ❑Hydrosphere: Earth’s water – on the surface, in the ground, and in the air ❑The biosphere overlaps all these spheres. M1 - Nature and Ecology (Part 2) Origin of the Biosphere ❑The biosphere has existed for about 3.5 billion years ❑Prokaryotes ❑The biosphere’s earliest lifeforms ❑Single-celled organisms (e.g. bacteria, archaea) ❑Survived without oxygen ❑Some prokaryotes developed a unique chemical process called photosynthesis. ❑Photosynthesis: Using sunlight to make simple sugars and oxygen out of water and carbon dioxide. ❑The photosynthetic organisms multiplied and thrived. Over a long period of time, they changed the biosphere – changing the atmosphere into a mix of oxygen and other gases that could sustain new forms of life. M1 - Nature and Ecology (Part 2) Origin of the Biosphere ❑More complex lifeforms evolved ❑Plants and other photosynthetic species developed ❑Animals which consume plants (and other animals) evolved ❑Bacteria and other organisms evolved to decompose (break down) dead plants and animals ❑The biosphere benefits from this food web. ❑The remains of dead plants and animals release nutrients into the soil and ocean. These nutrients are reabsorbed by growing plants. ❑This exchange of food and energy makes the biosphere a self-supporting and self-regulating system. M1 - Nature and Ecology (Part 2) Origin of the Biosphere ❑The biosphere is sometimes thought of as one large ecosystem. More often, it the biosphere is described as having many ecosystems. M1 - Nature and Ecology (Part 2) Man and the Biosphere ❑People play an important part in maintaining the flow of energy in the biosphere. Sometimes, however, people disrupt the flow. ❑Oxygen level decrease and carbon dioxide increase in the atmosphere when people clear forests and burn fossil fuels such as coal and oil. ❑Oil spills and industrial wastes threaten life in the hydrosphere. M1 - Nature and Ecology (Part 2) Man and the Biosphere ❑In the early 1970s, the United Nations established a project called Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB), which promotes sustainable development. ❑A network of biosphere reserves exists to establish a working, balanced relationship between people and the natural world. ❑Currently, there are 563 biosphere reserves all over the world. M1 - Nature and Ecology (Part 2) Man and the Biosphere ❑The first biosphere reserve was established in Yangambi, Democratic Republic of Congo. ❑Yangambi, in the fertile Congo River Basin, has 32,000 species of trees and such endemic species as forest elephants and red river hogs. ❑The biosphere reserve at Yangambi supports activities such as sustainable agriculture, hunting, and mining. M1 - Nature and Ecology (Part 2)  ENG 2013 Environmental Science and Engineering M1 – Nature and Ecology (Part 3) Environmental Science ❑Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that draws on ecology, geology, meteorology, biology, chemistry, engineering, and physics to study environmental problems and human impacts on the environment. ❑Environmental science in its broadest sense encompasses all the fields of natural science. ❑Natural science is the study of nature and the physical world. M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3) Environmental Engineering ❑Environmental engineering is a profession that applies mathematics and science to utilize the properties of matter and sources of energy in the solution of problems of environmental sanitation. ❑Environmental engineers need to be aware of the lessons of the past—how problems came about and how scientists, engineers, policy makers, and others worked together to solve them. ❑We then need to apply those lessons as appropriate to solve current problems and prevent similar mistakes in the future. M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3) Historical Perspective ❑In the beginning of a civilization, providing clean water and managing wastes became necessary. ❑For ancient cities, the availability of a dependable water source often meant the difference between survival and destruction. ❑Wells and aqueducts ❑Facilities for civilians (mid-1700s) ❑Public health and sanitation (water and waste management) ❑Diseases from contaminated air and water ❑Acute concerns: Pollutions (air, water, land, noise, etc.) M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3) Historical Perspective ❑Complex and chronic problems ❑Climate change ❑Depleting aquifers (groundwaters) ❑Indoor air pollution ❑Global transport and usage of toxic chemicals ❑Combined impacts of complex mixtures of human-made chemicals in wastewater effluents, rivers and streams ❑Lack of information on the effect on human and environmental health and safety of rapidly emerging new materials M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3) Historical Perspective ❑In the 21st century it is apparent that ecosystems and the natural sources on Earth are not abundant. ❑Preserving and maintaining the health, economic, and social well- being of people depends on preserving and maintaining the integrity of ecosystems and the ecosystem services they provide. ❑The solution is the well-being of both economy and the environment. M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3) Ecosystems ❑Ecosystems are communities of organisms that interact with one another and with their physical and chemical environment, including sunlight, rainfall, and soil nutrients. ❑Within each ecosystem are habitats, which are defined as the place where a population of organisms live. ❑Although ecosystems change naturally, human activity can speed up natural processes by several orders of magnitude (in terms of time). ❑Examples: ❑Large-scale agricultural operations, although producing inexpensive food to feed millions, can result in the release of pesticides, fertilizers, and carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases to the environment. ❑Hydroelectric power is seen as a clean, renewable energy source. However, dam construction can have detrimental effects on river ecosystems, drastically reducing fish populations as well as causing erosion of soil and vegetation during powerful water surges. M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3) Introduction to the Principles of Environmental Science and Engineering ❑As the problems faced by environmental engineers continue to grow more complex, there is a growing need for principles and frameworks to guide the development of solutions. ❑In 2003, approximately 65 engineers and scientists convened in Sandestin, Florida to develop a set of principles for (green) sustainable engineering. ❑Sustainable engineering transforms existing engineering disciplines and practices into those that promote sustainability. M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3) Sandestin Principles for Sustainable Engineering 1. Engineer processes and products holistically, use systems analysis, and integrate environmental impact assessment tools. 2. Conserve and improve natural ecosystems while protecting human health and well-being. 3. Use life-cycle thinking in all engineering activities. 4. Ensure that all material and energy inputs and outputs are as inherently safe and benign as possible. 5. Minimize depletion of natural resources. 6. Strive to prevent waste. 7. Develop and apply engineering solutions, while being cognizant of local geography, aspirations, and cultures. 8. Create engineering solutions beyond current or dominant technologies; improve, innovate, and invent (technologies) to achieve sustainability. 9. Actively engage communities and stakeholders in development of engineering solutions. M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3) Sustainability ❑A common goal has emerged throughout the world: sustainable development (also referred as sustainability) ❑Defined by a United Nations commission in the Brundtland Report as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3) WCED and UNCED ❑In 1983, the United Nations created the World Commission on Environment and Development (later known as the Brundtland Commission), which defined sustainable development. ❑In 1992, the first United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) or Earth Summit was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, where the first agenda for Environment and Development, also known as Agenda 21, was developed wherein 178 governments voted to adopt the program. M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3) Agenda 21 ❑A 351-page document divided into 40 chapters grouped into 4 sections: 1. Social and Economic Dimensions 2. Conservation and Management of Resources for Development 3. Strengthening the Role of Major Groups 4. Means of Implementation M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3) Agenda 21 ❑Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions is directed toward combating poverty, especially in developing countries, changing consumption patterns, promoting health, achieving a more sustainable population, and sustainable settlement in decision making. ❑Section II: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development includes atmospheric protection, combating deforestation, protecting fragile environments, conservation of biological diversity (biodiversity), control of pollution and the management of biotechnology, and radioactive wastes. ❑Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups includes the roles of children and youth, women, NGOs, local authorities, business and industry, and workers; and strengthening the role of indigenous peoples, their communities, and farmers. ❑Section IV: Means of Implementation includes science, technology transfer, education, international institutions, and financial mechanisms. M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3) Agenda 21 ❑The "21" in Agenda 21 refers to the original target of the 21st century to achieve their development goals by then. ❑It has been stated and modified at subsequent UN conferences (1997, 2002, 2012, 2015). M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3) Agenda Timeline ❑Rio +5 (1997) ❑In Rio, it was agreed that a five-year review of Earth Summit progress would be made by the United Nations General Assembly. ❑They took stock of how well countries, international organizations and sectors of civil society have responded to the challenge of the Earth Summit. ❑Millennium Summit (2000) ❑Established the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which were eight international development goals for the year 2015. M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3) Agenda Timeline ❑Rio +10 (2002) ❑Organized 10 years after Rio to develop consensus on the sustainable development by the United Nations. ❑The alarming deterioration in the earth's ecosystems compelled the global leaders to organize the summit to pursue new initiatives on the implementation of sustainable development and the building of a prosperous and secure future for their citizens. ❑Rio +20 (2012) ❑Resulted in a focused political outcome document which contains clear and practical measures for implementing sustainable development. M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3) Agenda 2030 ❑It was realized that 2000 was an overly optimistic date, its new timeline targets year 2030. ❑Agenda 2030, also known as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), was a set of goals decided upon at the UN Sustainable Development Summit (January 2015). ❑On September 25, 2015, 193 countries of the UN General Assembly adopted Agenda 2030. M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3) M1 - Nature and Ecolgoy (Part 3)  ENG 2013 Environmental Science and Engineering M2 – Natural Systems and Resources (Part 1) Ecosystem ❑An ecosystem is a community of interacting organisms and the physical environment in which they live. ❑Living thing such as animals, insects, plants, humans ❑Inorganic matter such as rocks and metals ❑Natural forces such as the flow of water, photosynthesis ❑All these link together and interact to form a complex web of life. ❑It is easy to forget that humans are part of this natural system ❑People have the ability to change (and to a limited extent) control their physical environment to suit their needs ❑Man-made systems and technologies utilize natural resources to uphold our way of life ❑Our actions impact how these natural systems work M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 1) Natural Systems ❑Water system ❑Includes streams, lakes, wetlands, groundwater, stormwater runoff, and shorelines ❑Land system ❑Involves soils, rocks, plants, as well as the underlying geology and topography ❑Air system ❑Involves air quality, climate and energy (e.g. global warming, wind, and storms) ❑All three systems are interdependent. An impact to an element within one system affects the resources in the other two systems. M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 1) Natural Resource ❑A natural resource is any material or substance that exist in nature and is valued by people to serve and enhance the community. ❑Natural resources directly contribute to the development of the physical health and well-being of species; and are essential for its continual survival. ❑On the basis of origin, natural resources can be divided into two types: ❑Biotic: Obtained from the biosphere (living and organic material), and the materials that can be obtained from them. ❑Abiotic: Resources that come from non-living, non-organic material. ❑On the basis of recovery rate, resources can be categorized as: ❑Renewable: Resources that can be replenished naturally. ❑Non-renewable: Resources that form slowly, or those that do not form in the environment. M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 1)  ENG 2013 Environmental Science and Engineering M2 – Natural Systems and Resources (Part 2) Water Resources ❑Water resources are natural sources of water that are potentially useful. ❑All living things require water to grow and reproduce. ❑Water is used in agricultural, industrial, household, recreational, and environmental activities. ❑Of all the water on Earth, 97% is salt water and only 3% is fresh water. ❑About two-thirds of the fresh water is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. ❑The remainder is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air. M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 2) Sources of Fresh Water ❑Surface water ❑Water that is in a river, lake, or fresh water wetland. ❑Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation, and lost through discharge to the oceans, evaporation, and groundwater recharge (see water cycle). ❑Groundwater ❑Water that is located in the subsurface pore space of soil and rocks. ❑It is also water flowing in aquifers below the water table ❑Groundwater input comes from seepage from surface water. M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 2) Sources of Fresh Water ❑Frozen water ❑It has been proposed to make use of icebergs as a water source. ❑The ice and snow in the Himalayas supply fresh water to ten of Asia’s largest rivers. ❑Desalination ❑Desalination is an artificial process by which sea water is converted into fresh water. ❑The most common processes in use are distillation and reverse osmosis. ❑Not usually economically viable as a fresh water source. M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 2) The Water Cycle ❑Water on Earth is continually lost and replenished through the water cycle (or hydrological cycle). ❑The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from a river to the ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere via the processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. ❑The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. These heat exchanges influence climate. M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 2) M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 2) Uses of Water ❑Agriculture ❑It is estimated that 70% of worldwide water is used for irrigation. ❑It takes about 2,000 – 3,000 liters of water to produce food to satisfy one person’s daily dietary needs. M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 2) Uses of Water ❑Industrial ❑It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water is used in industry. ❑Major industrial uses include power generation (hydroelectric), chemical processing, and in manufacturing as a solvent. M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 2) Uses of Water ❑Domestic (Household) ❑It is estimated that 8% of worldwide water is used for domestic purposes. ❑These include drinking, bathing, cooking, toilet flushing, cleaning, laundry, and gardening. ❑Recreation ❑Recreational water is usually non- consumptive. ❑The use of water in recreational activities may reduce the availability of water for use in agricultural and domestic purposes. M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 2) Water Stress ❑The supply of water may not be enough for all its uses. ❑Scarcity of water hampers economic development, and human health and well-being. ❑Several factors affect the availability of water: ❑Population growth ❑The world’s population in 2000 was already 6.2 billion. ❑Water demand will increase and will be one of the main challenges in decades to come. ❑Expansion of business activity ❑Rapid urbanization ❑Urbanization requires a water infrastructure to deliver water to individuals and handle wastewater. ❑Pollution ❑Climate change M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 2)  ENG 2013 Environmental Science and Engineering M2 – Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Land Resources ❑Land is the most important valuable resource for mankind ❑It is composed of organic and inorganic materials ❑Provides food, fibres, medicine ❑Source of construction of materials (wood, sand, cement, etc.) ❑Source of mineral deposits ❑Acts as a trash bin for solid wastes produced by society M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Land Use in the Philippines ❑15 million hectares (52.21%) is forest land ❑14 million hectares (47.79%) is alienable and disposable (public domain) land Land Use A&D land, Forest land, 47.79% 52.21% M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Ecosystem and Ecosystem Services ❑An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, microorganism communities and the non-living environment interacting as a functional unit. ❑Ecosystem services are the benefits that people obtain from these communities. They include: ❑Provisioning services such as food and fibre ❑Regulating services such as water and nutrient cycling ❑Cultural services such as recreation and spiritual benefits ❑Biodiversity forms an integral component of the ecosystem and ecosystem services. ❑Rural land plays an essential role in delivering a wide range of ecosystem services, such as the production of food, fibre, forest products, and energy, as well as a range of regulating and cultural services demanded by society. M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Land Use Types ❑Wilderness ❑Uncultivated, uninhabited land; inhospitable region ❑National Parks / Wildlife Reserves ❑A scenic or historically important area by the government for the enjoyment of the general public or the preservation of wildlife. ❑Forests ❑A large area covered chiefly with trees and undergrowth. ❑Wetlands ❑Land consisting of marshes or swamps; saturated land. ❑Agricultural Lands ❑Land used for the production of crops and livestsock ❑Urban Lands ❑Population areas M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Land Degradation ❑The growth of the population and developmental activities have not only brought about degradation of land but have also aggravated the pace of natural forces that cause damage to land. ❑Effects of land degradation: ❑Soil texture and soil structure is destroyed ❑Loss of soil fertility ❑Loss of valuable nutrients ❑Increase in waterlogging, salinity, alkalinity and acidity ❑Loss of biodiversity ❑Loss of economic and social benefit M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Causes of Land Degradation ❑Population ❑More land is needed for producing food, fibre, and fuel wood. ❑Land is degraded due to exploitation. ❑Urbanization ❑Urbanization reduces the land used for agriculture. ❑Urbanization leads to deforestation, which affects habitats of plants and animals. ❑Fertilizers and Pesticides ❑Affects soil fertility ❑Causes land pollution ❑Topsoil Damage ❑Increase in food production generally leads to topsoil damage through nutrient depletion ❑Waterlogging, soil erosion, salination, mineral contamination M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Mineral Resources ❑The land is also the source of mineral resources. ❑The Philippines has an abundance of mineral resources. ❑We are the 3rd largest producer of nickel M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Classification of Mineral Resources Minerals Non- Metallic Energy Metallic Mica, Non- Coal and Ferrous Precious Potash, Ferrous Fossil Fuels Sulfur salts Copper, Silver, Ferrous Lead, Gold, Bauxite Platinum M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Exploitation of Mineral Wealth ❑ Minerals require quite a lot of processing ❑The exploitation of natural resources started to emerge in the 19th century as natural resource extraction developed. ❑During the 20th century, energy consumption rapidly increased. ❑Today, about 80% of the world’s energy consumption is sustained by the extraction of fossil fuels, which consists of oil, coal and gas. ❑Another non-renewable resource that is exploited by humans are subsoil minerals such as precious metals that are mainly used in the production of industrial commodities. M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Mining ❑Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth from an ore body, lode, vein, seam, or reef, which forms the mineralized package of economic interest to the miner. ❑Ores recovered by mining include metals, coal and oil shale, gemstones, limestone, and dimension stone, rock salt and potash, gravel, and clay. ❑Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or created artificially in a laboratory or factory. ❑Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water. M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Mining ❑Mining of stone and metal has been done since pre-historic times. ❑Modern mining processes involve prospecting for ore bodies, analysis of the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials, and final reclamation of the land after the mine is closed. ❑The nature of mining processes creates a potential negative impact on the environment both during the mining operations and for years after the mine is closed. ❑This impact has led to most of the world's nations adopting regulations to moderate the negative effects of mining operations. ❑Safety has long been a concern as well, and modern practices have improved safety in mines significantly. M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Effects of Mining ❑Land degradation and deforestation ❑Loss of flora and fauna ❑Overexploitation of earth ❑Water, air, and noise pollution ❑Lowering of ground water table ❑Release of greenhouse gases ❑Production of excess of waste ❑Migration of tribal people ❑Risking of human life M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3)  ENG 2013 Environmental Science and Engineering M2 – Natural Systems and Resources (Part 4) Air as a Natural Resource ❑Air is one of the main natural resources that help sustain all life on Earth. ❑The Earth’s atmosphere is composed of 78.09% Nitrogen, 20.94% Oxygen, 0.03% Argon, 0.03% Carbon Dioxide, water vapor, and other trace gases. ❑The oxygen in the air we breathe in keeps us alive, and it also performs many other functions as well. ❑The carbon dioxide we breathe out as a waste product is used by plants to produce oxygen through photosynthesis. M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) The Atmosphere ❑The atmosphere is the layer of 700 – 10,000 km Exosphere gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the Earth. ❑The atmosphere protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing 80 – 700 km liquid water to exist on the Earth’s Thermosphere surface, absorbing UV radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night. 50 – 80 km Mesosphere 12 – 50 km Stratosphere 0 – 12 km Troposphere M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) The Atmosphere ❑Exosphere 700 – 10,000 km Exosphere ❑Highest layer. Air is leaking out of the Earth and into space. ❑Thermosphere ❑Second-highest layer. This is where the aurora borealis / australis occur. 80 – 700 km ❑Mesosphere Thermosphere ❑Third-highest layer. This is where most meteors that enter the Earth burn up. ❑Stratosphere ❑Second-lowest layer. This is where the ozone layer can be found. ❑Troposphere 50 – 80 km Mesosphere ❑This is where 99% of the water vapor can be found and where weather 12 – 50 km Stratosphere phenomena occur. 0 – 12 km Troposphere M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Wind ❑Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the Earth’s atmosphere by the Sun. ❑During the daytime, the air above the land heats up faster than the air over water. Warm air expands and rises, and the heavier, cooler air over the water rushes in to take its place. This produces a daytime convection current. ❑In the evening, the air current moves in the opposite direction. The heat absorbed by the water during the day warms the air above it causing the air Sea breeze Land breeze to rise. Air from over the land which Wind Cycle has cooled then takes its place. M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Wind Energy ❑We can use the wind to produce energy. ❑It is a clean energy source, producing no greenhouse gases. ❑Wind energy is a form of solar energy as winds are produced by the heat of the sun. ❑Wind energy is a renewable and sustainable energy source. M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Air Pollution ❑Air pollution is the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living organisms, and cause damage to the climate. ❑Types of air pollutants: Air Pollution from a cooking oven ❑Gases (e.g. ammonia, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, CFCs) ❑Particulates, both organic and inorganic (e.g. dust, pollen) ❑Biological molecules Beijing air in 2005 after rain (left) and a smoggy day (right) M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Effects of Air Pollution ❑Humans ❑Respiratory and renal problems ❑High blood pressure ❑Problems with the nervous system ❑Eye irritation ❑Cancer M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Effects of Air Pollution ❑Plants ❑Reduced growth ❑Degeneration of chlorophyll ❑Ozone damage M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3) Effects of Air Pollution ❑Environment ❑Acid rain ❑Global warming ❑Ozone depletion M2 - Natural Systems and Resources (Part 3)  UST ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT EXPERIMENT LABORATORY GUIDE EXPERIMENT NO. 5 RLC CIRCUITS I. OBJECTIVES 1. To apply Ohm’s Law in AC circuits 2. To study the behavior of series and parallel RLC circuit. II. INSTRUMENTS AND COMPONENTS AC Power Supply Lamp, 220 V, 50 W 1 H Inductor 10 μF Capacitor Connecting Wires III. PROCEDURE SERIES RLC CIRCUIT 1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 5.1. Energize the circuit using 220 V, 60 Hz supply. Figure 5.1 2. Measure and record the current, IT, the total voltage, VT, the voltage across the series combination of the lamp and inductor and the series combination of the capacitor and the inductor, and the voltages across each element. IT = __________ A VT = __________ V VR+L = __________ A VL+C = __________ V VR = __________ V VL = __________ V VC = __________ V 3. Using Ohms’ Law, compute for the equivalent impedance, resistance of the resistor, reactance of the capacitor, the impedance of the inductor and the impedance of the series combination of the capacitor and the inductor. |Zeq| = __________ Ω |ZR+L| = __________ Ω |ZL+C| = __________ Ω RLAMP = __________ Ω |ZL| = __________ Ω |XC| = __________ Ω 4. Compute the phase angle, θ, of the circuit. where θ = cos–1[(|ZL+C|2 – RLAMP2 – |Zeq|2)/(–2RLAMP|Zeq|)], θL = 180° – cos–1[(|ZR+L|2 – RLAMP2 – |ZL|2)/(–2RLAMP|ZL|)] and|XL| = |ZL|sinθL θ = __________ ° θL = __________ ° |XL| = __________ Ω 5. Compute for the reactances, and the magnitude and the phase angle of the impedance using the equation |Zeq|∠θ = RLAMP + RL + j|XL| – j|XC|. Use the measured value of the RLAMP. where: |XL| = 2πfL, |XC| = 1/(2πfC) |XL| = __________ Ω |XC| = __________ Ω |Zeq| = __________ Ω θ = __________ ° Experiment 5 – RLC Circuits Page 1 of 2  UST ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT EXPERIMENT LABORATORY GUIDE 6. Compute the percent difference between the measured and computed values of the impedance and the phase angle. % diff. of Zeq = __________ % diff. of θ = __________ PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT 7. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 5.2. Energize the circuit using 220 V, 60 Hz supply. Figure 5.2 8. Measure and record the total voltage, VT, current, IT, the current through the parallel combination of the resistor and inductor and the current through the parallel combination of the capacitor and the inductor. VT = __________ V IT = __________ A IR+L = __________ A IL+C = __________ A IR = __________ A IL = __________ A IC = __________ A 9. Using Ohms’ Law, compute for the equivalent impedance, resistance of the resistor, reactance of the capacitor, the impedance of the inductor and the impedance of the series combination of the capacitor and the inductor. |Zeq| = __________ Ω |ZR+L| = __________ Ω |ZL+C| = __________ Ω RLAMP = __________ Ω |ZL| = __________ Ω |XC| = __________ Ω 10. Compute the phase angle, θ, of the circuit. where θ = cos–1[(|ZL+C|–2 – RLAMP–2 – |Zeq|–2)RLAMP|Zeq|/–2] , 180° – cos–1[(|ZR+L|–2 – RLAMP–2 – |ZL|–2)RLAMP|ZL|/(–2)] and|XL| = |ZL|sinθL θ = __________ ° θL = __________ ° |XL| = __________ Ω 11. Compute for the reactances, and the magnitude and the phase angle of the impedance using the equation |Zeq|∠θ = RLAMP || (RL + j|XL|) || – j|XC|. Use the measured value of the RLAMP. where: |XL| = 2πfL, |XC| = 1/(2πfC) |XL| = __________ Ω |XC| = __________ Ω |Zeq| = __________ Ω θ = __________ ° 12. Compute the percent difference between the measured and computed values of the impedance and the phase angle. % diff. of Zeq = __________ % diff. of θ = __________ END OF EXPERIMENT Experiment 5 – RLC Circuits Page 2 of 2