ELS LESSON 1-3 (2).pdf

The Universe and the Solar system Theories on the Origin of the Universe Big Bang Theory Proposed by : George Lemaitre – everything in the universe started from an infinitely small, dense, and hot entity – referred as singularity. Evidences : galaxies moving away, presence of cosmic microwave ba...

The Universe and the Solar system Theories on the Origin of the Universe Big Bang Theory Proposed by : George Lemaitre – everything in the universe started from an infinitely small, dense, and hot entity – referred as singularity. Evidences : galaxies moving away, presence of cosmic microwave background, and abundance of light elements. Steady State theory Proposed by: Herman Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle – though the universe is expanding, matter and density remains Evidences : Discovery of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) debunked this theory (universe is not constant in composition) M - Theory Proposed by : Stephen Hawking and Leonard Mlodinow – one or both ends of strings are attached to a sheet or branes. In the M-Theory, the origin of the universe occurs because of the contact of two hyperdimensional branes. Evidences : Supports String Theory as it provided the concepts of sheets/branes needed. String Theory Proposed by : Gabriele Veneziano – the universe is constructed by tiny vibrating strings, smaller than the smalled subatomic particles. Evidences : combining the principles of general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. Theories on the origin of the Solar System Descartes’ Vortex Theory Proposed by Rene Descartes – in this model, the solar system was formed into bodies with nearly circular orbits because of the whirlpool-like motion of pre-solar materials. *Planets = primary whirlpool motion * Satellites = secondary whirlpool motion Buffon’s Collision Theory Proposed by : George-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon – Planets were formed by the collision between the sun and a giant comet *Debris formed into planets *Failed to explain the peculiar position of planets around the sun Kant-Laplace Nebular Theory Proposed by : Immanuel Kant and Pierre-Simon Laplace – in this model,the solar system was formed from a nebula cloud made from a collection of dust and gas *Claim : Sun, planets, moons, and asteroids were formed around 4.5 BYA. Jeans-Jeffreys Tidal Theory Proposed by : Sir James Hopwood Jeans and Harold Jeffreys – a dualistic theory in which the planets were formed from the substances that were torn out of the sun. *Claim: massive star traveled near enough the sun and tear out some of its surface through gravitational attraction. Solar Nebular Theory (The most convincing theory) Proposed by : Emanuel Swedenborg – the solar system was formed as a result of the condensation of hydrogen gas anf dust referred to as interstellar gas and dust cloud. An explosion of a star might have caused the gas and dust cloud to collapse, forming the sun and planets. *Protostar - result of the center being compressed enough, leaving the outer materials suspended around it. *Solar nebulae - remaining gas and dust cloud from disk-shaped bodies. Asteroids – small, rocky, heavenly bodies found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter in a region called the asteroid belt. – Ceres – first known asteroid but became a dwarf planet on 2006 – Near-Earth Asteroids – those can be perturbed out of the main belt and may especially come close to Earth. Comets – composed mainly of ice (frozen water and gas) – they become active when their orbits take them near the sun which causes frozen gasses to sublimate, forming vaporous jets of streams. – Kuiper belt – short-period comets like Haley’s comet came from – Oort Cloud – located farther than the Kuiper belt and has remained unexplored. Meteoroids — debris and remnants of dust from comets and asteroid – these small bodies are found throughout the solar system – they glow brightly when their movement causes friction with the atmosphere as they are heated up. –Meteor or shooting star - trail formed by the burning meteoroid in the atmosphere Dwarf Planets – International Astronomical Union (IAU) made a new classification of other celestial bodies in 2006 – the dwarf planets. – Objects that orbit the sun and have enough gravity to maintain a spherical shape but not capable of clearing smaller objects in its own orbit and is not a satellite. – Makemake, Haumea, Ceres, Eris, and Pluto Earth Subsystems Earth consists of different layers: the core (inner, and outer), mantle (lower, and upper), and crust. These layers have boundaries in them called discontinuities. The inner core is solid, while the outer core is liquid and consists of iron and nickel. The mantle is the thickest layer of the Earth comprising of the lower, and upper mantle. The lower mantle exhibits plasticity. The upper mantle and the Earth’s crust form the lithosphere. The crust makes up the surface of the lithosphere. It consists of continental and oceanic crusts. The Earth consists of four subsystems: lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. The lithosphere is divided into plates that move in relation to one another. The movement of Earth’s plates is called plate tectonics. Lithosphere / Geosphere – all the rocks and minerals of the Earth The atmosphere has layers based on temperature: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. Atmosphere – all the gasses of the Earth.  The hydrosphere has different forms: saltwater, freshwater, and groundwater. Hydrosphere – all water of the Earth in all forms. The biosphere is the zone of life. Biosphere – all regions of Earth where life is possible. Energy and matter flow in the biosphere. Minerals & rocks The Earth is made of rocks while rocks are made of minerals. To become a mineral, a material has to satisfy all the following properties: ○ Naturally-occurring ○ Has a definite chemical composition ○ Has a highly ordered atomic structure ○ Has specific physical properties ​ ​ ​ A rock is simply an aggregate of minerals. They do not have a definite chemical composition. ​ Since minerals have specific properties, we shall enumerate them here: ​ PROPERTIES OF MINERALS ○ Color – It is the perceived wavelength of light that bounces off from the material and is detected by our eyes. ○ Streak – the color of a mineral in powdered form ○ Luster – how the mineral “shines” ○ Hardness – the resistance of a mineral from being scratched. This scale goes from 1 to 10 with 10 being the hardest mineral (diamond). ○ Cleavage – the site where a mineral can be cut to form flat surfaces  ○ Specific gravity – how many times the mineral weighs compared to an equal amount of water. OTHER PROPERTIES Magnetism – tendency of mineral to be attracted to a magnet Ex. nickel, iron Fluorescence – tendency of minerals to glow in certain wavelengths of light. Reaction to chemical – due to different compositions minerals react chemicals differently. Taste – minerals can have different taste such as salty, sweet, or bitter. Odor – some gives off distinct smell. Mineral Groups Silicates – contains silicon and oxygen. When linked together they form orthosilicate. Ex. feldspar, quartz, olivine Oxides – composed of oxygen anion; combined with one or more metal ions. Ex. uranite, ilmenite, hematite Sulfates – contains sulfur and oxygen in the form of anion - Used in cosmetics, detergents since they have the ability to breakdown oils - Mabango din daw Ex. Gypsum, Anhydrite, celestite Sulfides – composed of sulfur and a metal Ex. pyrite, cinnabar, arsenopyrite Carbonates – Minerals containing carbonite anion | combined with other elements. Ex. dolomite, calcite, aragonite Halides – minerals that contains halogens combined with one more metals Halogens elements – fluorine, iodine, chlorine(?) Ex. halite, fluorite, cryolite Mineral groups Native elements – minerals that form from individual elements. Ex. gold Metals & Intermetals – minerals with high thermal & electric conductivity Ex. copper Semi-metals – more fragile than metals and have lower conductivity Ex. arsenic Non-metals – non-conductive elements Ex. sulfur Rocks Definition can be composed of a single mineral or an aggregate of minerals. A mineral can be used as a rocks name. ​ Rocks, on the other hand, are classified according to how they were formed. There are three primary types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. ​ ​ Igneous rock – formed from magma (molten rock). They can either solidify on the surface (extrusive igneous) or beneath the ground (intrusive igneous). ​ Ex. granite, basalt ​  ​ Sedimentary rock – formed from weathering, erosion, and deposition of smaller rock materials called sediments. ​ Clastic – formed from fragments of other rocks. Example is sandstone. ​ Chemical – formed from minerals. Example is iron ore ​ Coal – formed from the accumulation of organic materials. Example is coal. ​ ​ Metamorphic rock – rock formed due to intense pressure and heating. They may be regional metamorphic or contact metamorphic rocks. Ex. marble, serpentinite, shale How to get minerals Open pit mining – removal of large quantities of soil and rock to reach mineral deposits beneath.