Edward Albert- History of English Literature- OUP- 2000.pdf

History of English Literature by EDWARD ALBERT Revised by J. A. STONE Fifth Edition OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS [Page Blank] OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Plot Al-5, Block-GP, Sector-V, Salt Lake Electronics Complex, Calcutta 700 091 Oxford University Press is a department of...

History of English Literature by EDWARD ALBERT Revised by J. A. STONE Fifth Edition OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS [Page Blank] OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Plot Al-5, Block-GP, Sector-V, Salt Lake Electronics Complex, Calcutta 700 091 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogota Buenos Aires Calcutta Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Florence Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Paris Sao Paulo Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw with associated companies in Berlin Ibadan Oxford is a trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) © This edition George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd. 1979 Copyright, All rights reserved First published in Great Britain 1923 by George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd. 182-184 High Holborn, London W.C.IV 7AX Fourth edition, revised and enlarged, 1971 First printed in India by Oxford University Press by arrangement with the original publishers 1975 Fifth edition, revised and enlarged 1979 Twenty-sixth impression, 2000 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press. or as expressly permitted by law. or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer ISBN 0-19-561224-8 Printed in India by Nepro Offset, 156A Lenin Sarani, Calcutta 700 013 and published by Manzar Khan, Oxford University Press, Plot Al-5. Block-GP, Sector-V, Salt Lake Electronics Complex, Calcutta 700 091 PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION Albert's History of English Literature has won for itself a secure place as a study of literary history and criticism. Its continued popularity suggests that the value of its judgments remains for the most part unimpaired. In places, however, the last twenty years have inevitably seen changes of perspective and revaluations; these the present edition seeks to incorporate, while yet preserving of its predecessor all that is in line with modern thought. The chapter on post-Victorian writers, which has felt most strongly the impact of fresh evaluations, has been completely rewritten, and, difficult though it is to view things so close at hand in any true perspective, the attempt has been made to bring the story of our literature up to date. The entirely new bibliography will, it is hoped, enable those who wish to pursue their studies further to acquaint themselves not only with the standard authorities, but with more recent research, and thus gain some impression of the changing trends of critical opinion. The method and layout of the original work have been preserved as far as possible, except that considerations of length have necessitated the omission of the exercises at the end of each chapter and at the end of the book as a whole. For the revision of the first two chapters I am indebted to Dr Kenneth Cameron, Lecturer in English in Nottingham University. J. A. S. PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION It is a truism to say that in literary history, as in all else, nothing stands still; and it is therefore not surprising that in our time of vigorous literary activity further material on current trends should again be required. In view of this, considerable amendments have been made to statements in Chapter XIII, while Chapter XIV, on 6 the contemporary literary scene, has been completely rewritten. The Bibliography for Chapter XIII has been updated, and a bibliographical section supplied for Chapter XIV. For this work of revision I am indebted to Dr G. G. Urwin. J. A. S. PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION Once again, the whirligig of time brings in his revenges, and in a relatively short time new notes and evaluations are once again called for. These are in fact more extensive than were undertaken for the fourth edition, and have resulted in some increase in length. Chapter XII, The Birth of Modern Literature, has suffered a few changes; Chapter XIII has again been extensively overhauled; Chapter XIV is once more rewritten. But the main point to emphasize is that the Bibliography has been entirely re-compiled to take into account more recent scholarship. This considerable task has produced a book-list that cannot but add immeasurably to the value of the work. For all these labours I am indebted once more to Dr G. G. Urwin. J.A.S. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For permission to use copyright extracts the publishers offer their grateful thanks to the following: The Clarendon Press, Oxford, for Cheddar Pinks, from New Verse, and an extract from The Testament of Beauty, by Robert Bridges. Messrs Faber and Faber, Ltd, for an extract from The Waste Land, by T. S. Eliot. The Oxford University Press, for Carrion Comfort, from Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins. Messrs George Allen and Unwin, Ltd, for extracts from Riders to the Sea and The Well of the Saints, by John Millington Synge. Mrs W. B. Yeats and Messrs Macmillan and Co., Ltd, for The Lake Isle of lnnisfree, from Collected Poems of W. B. Yeats. 7 CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. The Old English Period 9 II. The Middle English Period 20 III. The Age of Chaucer 32 IV From Chaucer to Spenser 49 V The Age of Elizabeth 70 VI The Age of Milton 131 VII The Age of Dryden 155 VIII The Age of Pope 185 IX The Age of Transition 222 X The Return to Nature 288 XI The Victorian Age 366 XII The Birth of Modern 432 Literature XIII. The Inter-War Years 507 XIV The Mid-Twentieth Century 563 Suggestions for Further Reading 601 Index 613 8 Let us now praise famous men,... Such as found out musical tunes, And recited verses in writing,... Their bodies are buried in peace; But their name liveth for evermore. The Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach or Ecclesiasticus 9 CHAPTER 1 THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD THE BEGINNINGS Little indeed is known of the origin of English Literature, though it is reasonable to assume that verse of an extemporary kind was composed long before the period of the earliest written records and that we can be certain that poetry made its appearance long before the first prose was written down. It is important from the outset to remember that the extant remains of Old English Literature have come down to us (for the most part) in late copies, some of which were made three hundred years after the composition of the poems themselves. So far as poets are concerned, again little or nothing is known beyond the names of two of them, but this has not prevented some scholars from writing their' lives,' from hints in the texts themselves, fortified by scanty contemporary references (in the case of Caedmon) but mainly from a mass of conjecture, most of which cannot be described as intelligent. Indeed, the lengths to which critics will at times go is clearly indicated by the fact that one Old English poet has been provided with a wife on no valid evidence whatsoever. Notwithstanding the mists which shroud the beginnings and our lack of knowledge of the poets themselves Old English Literature has a richness which amazes the reader who overcomes the initial difficulty of the language, and it is hoped that this richness will be seen even in the meagre summary which appears in the following pages. THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The period is a long one, for it opens in the fifth century and does not conclude, as is often supposed, with the Norman Conquest in 1066, but rather continues in prose at least till c. 1150. The events, however, must be dismissed briefly. The departure of the Romans in 410 left the British population open to the inroads of the invaders from the north. According to British traditions the English from the 10 Continent came first as mercenaries to help in the defence against the Picts and Scots; but soon they began to settle in the country, and archaeological evidence shows that certainly permanent settlements had been made in the last quarter of the fifth century if not before. In the course of time they gained possession of all the land from the English Channel to the Firth of Forth to a greater or lesser degree. Then followed the Christianization of the pagan English tribes, beginning in Northumbria with the work of Irish missionaries, though the influence from Rome begins in Kent (597). In succession followed the inroads of the Danes in the ninth century; the rise of Wessex among the early English kingdoms with the important contribution of Alfred the Great; the establishment of the Danelaw in England with the permanent settlement of Danes in the country; the accession of a Danish king (1017); and the Norman influence on the English court which began before the Conquest in 1066. All these events had their effect on the literature of the period. LITERARY FEATURES OF THE PERIOD 1.Pagan Origins. Many of the poems of the period appear to have in them features which are associated with the pagan past, in particular Widsith and Beowulf, though the Christian elements in the latter are no longer looked upon, as was the case among the earlier scholars, as 'clumsy additions.' It appears likely, therefore, that the earliest poems or themes have their origin in the Continental home of the English peoples. Such themes were the common property of the gleemen or 'scops,' who sang them at the feasts of the nobles. As time went on Christian ideas influenced the earlier pagan, and, though the phraseology remains, it is impossible to refer to any of the extant poetry as 'pagan.' Indeed this is only what is to be expected when it is remembered that the manuscripts themselves were written down in the monasteries. 2.Anonymous Origins. Of all the Old English poets we have direct mention of only one Caedmon, though not one of the extant poems can definitely be ascribed to him. The name of another poet, Cyne-wulf, is known because of the fact that he signed his poems in runic letters at the end of four poems. Of the rest we do not even know their names. Prose, as we have noticed, came later, and as it was used for practical purposes its authorship in many cases is established. 3.The Imitative Quality. Much of the prose and some of the poetry is translated or adapted from the Latin, though the debt to 11 the original varies greatly. The favourite works for translation were the books of the Bible, the lives of the saints, and various works of a practical nature. In some cases the translations are close and without much individuality, but in others the material is reshaped with expansions and comments and has considerable literary importance. 4. The Manuscripts. It is certain that only a portion of Old English poetry has survived, though it would appear likely that the surviving portion is representative. The manuscripts in which the poetry is preserved are late in date, are unique, and are four in number. They are (a) the Beowulf MS. (Cotton Vitellius A. XV in the British Museum), containing Beowulf and Judith and is to be dated c. 1000; (b) the Junius MS. (MS. Junius XI in the Bodleian Library, Oxford), so called since it belonged to Junius, librarian to Lord Arundel, and was first printed by him in 1655. It contains the so-called Caedmonian poems; (c) the Exeter Book (in the Chapter Library of Exeter Cathedral), known to have been donated to that Cathedral by Bishop Leofric c. 1050, containing two of the signed poems of Cynewulf; and (d) the Vercelli Book (in the Cathedral Library at Vercelli near Milan), containing also two of the signed poems of Cynewulf (including Elene) and Andreas and The Dream of the Rood. THE LANGUAGE The difficulty encountered in reading Old English Literature lies in the fact that the language is very different from that of to-day. Its vocabulay is for the most part native, though already there has been some borrowing from Latin. Its grammar shows declinable nouns, pronouns, and adjectives and a more elaborate verbal system than that of to-day. There were four main dialects: Northumbrian, which was the first to produce a literature; Mercian, the language of the Midlands; Kentish, the language of the south- east spoken in an area larger than that of the modern county of Kent; and West Saxon, the language of Alfred, which--due to the political supremacy of Wes-sex--became a 'standard' and in which almost all the extant texts are preserved. OLD ENGLISH POETRY BEOWULF 1. Origin of the Poem. The theme of the poem is Continental Germanic, and it is likely that it was the subject of lays long before 12 its present version was composed. There is, it may be noted, no mention of England, and Beowulf himself is king of the 'Geatas.' Though there is much in the poem which can be considered 'pagan' and which suggests that the poem in origin may be considered as such, the extant version was clearly written by a Christian for the 'christianization' is no mere veneer. Of its actual authorship there is no evidence. Modern scholars in the main now look upon it as a reworking of older material by a Christian and not simply as a collection of tales strung together by one hand. The dialect of the text is West Saxon though there is clear evidence that it was written in some Anglian dialect, but whether Mercian or Northumbrian is uncertain. 2.The Story. There are so many episodes and digressions in the story of Beowulf that it is almost impossible briefly to give an adequate synopsis of the narrative. In outline it may be said that Beowulf, son of Ecgtheow, sails to Denmark with a band of warriors and rids the Danish King Hrothgar of a terrible mere-monster called Grendel. The mother of Grendel, seeking vengeance for the death of her son, meets the same fate, and Beowulf, fittingly feasted and rewarded, returns to his native land. He becomes king of the Geatas and after a prosperous reign of some forty years slays a dragon which had ravaged his land, but in the fight he himself receives a mortal wound. The poem concludes with the funeral ceremonies in honour of the dead hero. 3.Style. A short extract is printed below, with a literal translation, to illustrate the style. The extract describes the funeral rites of the hero, and occurs near the end of the poem (lines 3137-49). Him oa gegiredan Geata leode For him then the people of the Geats made ready ad on eordan unwaclicne, a splendid funeral pyre on the earth, helmum behongen, hildebordum, hung around with helmets, with battle-shields, beorhtum byrnum, swa he bena waes; with shining corslets, as he requested; alegdon oa tomiddes maerne peoden then they laid in the midst of it the illustrious prince, haeleo hiofende, hlaford leofne. the weeping warriors, the beloved lord. Ongunnon pa on beorge baelfyra maest Then the warriors began to kindle on the cliff wigend weccan: wudurec astah the greatest of funeral fires: the wood-smoke rose up sweart ofer swiooole, swSgende leg, 13 dark above the fire, the roaring flames, wope bewunden --windblond gelaeg-- surrounded by lamentation--the tumult of the winds subsided-- oopaet he he banhus gebrocen haefde, till it had completely crushed the body, hat on hreore. Higum unrote hot in his breast. Sad in mind modceare maendon, mondryhtnes cwealm. they complained of the sorrow of their hearts, the death of their liege-lord It will be observed that the language is forceful and expressive, conveying with an economy of words the picture of the funeral pyre on the cliff top and the lamentation of the warriors for their dead king. The use of compound words should be noted especially, together with that of the kenning, which skilfully handled "took on the form of a compressed vivid statement of a highly original image." The best example in this passage is banhus--literally 'bone house,' i.e., 'body.' A further stylistic characteristic which should be noted is the use of repetition and variation. The same idea is expressed more than once by the use of different Words which were more or less synonymous. Such parallel phrasing can be seen in lines 5 and 6 above: malrne peoden and hlaford leofne ('illustrious prince' and 'beloved lord') and elsewhere as the translation will suggest. The verse is strongly rhythmical, based on a stress system with four stresses to the full line, two in each of the half-lines; it is also alliterative, there being two alliterating syllables in the first half-line and one (usually the first) in the second. The stressed syllables are the ones which bear the alliteration. OTHER POETRY 1. The Pagan Poems. Most Old English poetry can be said to be 'Christian,' but a few pieces are distinctly secular. It would be better in many respects to refer to them as 'national' rather than pagan, for some included for convenience in this group are of tenth-century composition. a)Widsith (i.e., 'the far traveller'), usually considered to be the oldest poem in the language. It consists of nearly 150 lines of verse, in which a traveller, more imaginary than real, recounts the places and illustrious people he has visited. The poem is of especial importance from a historical point of view, but poetically it is of little merit. b)Waldere consists of two fragments, some sixty-three lines in all, 14 telling of some of the exploits of Walter of Aquitaine. The work has vigour and power, and it is to be greatly regretted that so little is preserved. It might well have been one of the finest of narrative pieces. (c) The Fight at Finnsburh is a fragment of some forty-eight lines with a finely told description of the fighting at Finnsburh, allusion to which is made in the Finn Episode in Beowulf. d)The Battle of Brunanburh is a spirited piece on the famous battle which took place in 937. e)The Battle of Maldon describes the battle which took place in 993, with emphasis on individual deeds of valour and on the feelings of the warriors. It is particularly outstanding for the sentiments expressed by the warriors, especially those of the aged Byrhtwold. 2. The Elegies. These poems, among which are The Wanderer, The Seafarer, Wife's Lament, and Husband's Message, appear in the Exeter Book. There is no connexion between the individual pieces, but they each display similar qualities, being meditative in character, and can perhaps be called monologues. The first two named are the finer artistic compositions, reaching real heights of personal feeling. In Old English literature they come nearest to the lyric, a type which is not represented among the extant corpus. 3. The so-called Caedmon Group. In his Ecclesiastical History Bede tells the story of the lay brother Caedmon, who by divine inspiration was transformed from a state of tongue-tied ineffective ness into that of poetical ecstasy. He was summoned into the presence of the abbess Hilda of Whitby (658-80), became a monk, and afterwards sang of many Biblical events. Bede quotes in his story the Hymn said to have been composed by Caedmon, nine lines in length, displaying to a remarkable degree the qualities of repetition and parallel phrasing noted above. This is all that is actually known of the life and work of Caedmon, but the four poems of the Junius MS. correspond in subject matter so closely to Bede's statement of the themes on which Casdmon wrote that they were long associated with his name. The Genesis, Exodus, Daniel, and three shorter poems often considered as one under the title Christ and Satan are of unequal merit. At best they are strong and spirited with some gift for descriptive writing and choice of incident; at worst they are tedious paraphrases of Biblical stories. They are certainly not all by one hand, and little if any is early enough to be ascribed to Caedmon himself. In all probability in spite of their long ascription to his name they have nothing to do with the Northumbrian poet himself. 15 4. The Cynewulf Group. Four poems contain the signature of Cynewulf in runic characters, Juliana, Elene, Christ, and The Fates of the Apostles (in the two last named spelt Cynwulf). This is all that is known of the poet, though unfortunately it has not prevented critics from 'deducing' additional facts about his life. Likewise other poems have on little or no authority been ascribed to him, the most important being The Dream of the Rood--undoubtedly the finest of all Old English religious poems in its intensity of feeling, brilliance of conception, and certainty of execution. It is the work of a real artist and poet. The signed poems are much more scholarly compositions than the Caedmon poems. There is a greater power of expression, surer technique, and real descriptive powers. The ideas are broader and deeper, and a certain lyrical quality is found at times. Their date is probably ninth century. PROSE 1. Alfred. Though there were some prose writings of an official nature (such as laws) before the time of Alfred, there can be little objection to the claim frequently made for him, that he is 'the father of English prose.' As he himself tells us in the preface to the Pastoral Care he began his series of translations due to the lamentable state. of English learning, largely the result of the depredations of the Danes. Even the knowledge of Latin was declining, so the king, in order to encourage learning among the clergy, translated some popular books into his own tongue. These works are his contribution to our literature. Sometimes he translated word for word, at others more freely, but those passages which have greatest value both for an understanding of the character of the king and also for their literary qualities are originals freely introduced by way of explanation or expansion. The five important translations are the Pastoral Care of Pope Gregory, the History of the World of Orosius, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy, and the Soliloquies of St Augustine, though it should be noted that Alfred's claim to the translation of Bede is disputed. There is in addition a Handbook or commonplace-book, the existence of which we know from Asser, the king's biographer, but which is no longer extant. The chronological order of the translations cannot be determined with any certainty, though it is clear that the Pastoral Care was the first and the Soliloquies the last of the series. A brief extract is given below to illustrate his prose style, but it 16 should be remembered that this is from his earliest work and comparison should be made with the Preface of the Soliloquies to see the development. It is not a polished style, but that cannot be expected in view of the stage of development of prose as a literary form. For the most part it is a simple, straightforward style, and though Alfred never completely masters it, there is always the feeling that he was an artist of considerable natural ability--though it is idle to speculate what he would have produced had he lived at a later period when a more highly developed prose-style had been evolved. Swa claene hio waes oofeallen on Angelcynne oaette swi&e feawe waeron behionan Humbre pe hiora oenunga cuoen understandan on Englisc oaee furoum an srendgewrit of Laedene on Englisc areccan, ond ic wene oaestte noht monige begeondan Humbre naeren; swa feawe hiora waeron oastte ic anne anlepne ne maeg geoencean besuoan Temese oaoa ic to rice feng. Gode aelmihtegum sie onc oaestte we nu aesnigne onstal habbao lareowa. Foroam ic oe bebeode oaet ou do swa ic gelife oaet ou wille.... So completely has it [learning] decayed in England that there were very few on this side of the Humber who could understand their mass-books in English and could even translate a letter from Latin into English, and I believe there were not many beyond the Humber either; so few of them were there that I cannot remember a single one south of the Thames when I became king. To God Almighty be the thanks that we have now any supply of teachers. Therefore I command you that you do as I believe you will.... (Preface to Pastoral Care) 2.AElfric, probably best known for his Grammar, was a churchman who became abbot of Eynsham in 1005. Several of his works are extant: the Catholic Homilies, two series of sermons suitable for delivery by priests, a third series--the Lives of the Saints (written before 998), and translations from the Scriptures. AElfric's flowing and vigorous style shows remarkable skill in the art of putting complicated thought into narrative form. It is natural and easy and is often alliterative. His Colloquy is of great interest as a dialogue between master and pupils not only from the literary but also from the historical point of view. 3.Wulfstan was Bishop of Worcester and Archbishop of York. Several of his signed homilies survive, and there are many more which are believed on good evidence to be by him. His most famous piece is the Sermo Lupi ad Anglos, which is typical for its sheer force and vigour, its repetition of ideas, and the alliterative nature of its style. It is fluent and powerful; indeed Wulfstan must have been a most brilliant preacher. 17 4. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was in all probability inspired by Alfred, who himself may well have dictated some of the entries, more particularly those dealing with his own campaigns. It is extant in several manuscripts, the most important being the A or Parker and the E or Laud MSS. To the year 915 much of the material is common to most of the manuscripts, though the relations of each individual one to the others present serious difficulties. Local events and miscellaneous items are introduced into the various versions and they also show clearly yarying points of view in their attitude to events. They all end at different dates, the latest being 1154(E). As is to be expected the style varies greatly from simple notices to long passages of narrative and description. Most interesting are certain character studies, particularly that of the Conqueror himself, while the well-known descriptions of the horrors of Stephen's reign are worthy of note. A brief extract from the description of William the Conqueror written in the annal for 1086 indicates fairly clearly certain of the stylistic features of the later part of the Chronicle: Se cyng Willelm be we embe sprecao waes swioe wis man and swioe rice and wurofulre and strengere ponne aenig his foregenga waere. He waes milde pam godum mannum pe God lufedon and ofer eall gemett stearc pam mannum pe wiocwaedon his willan. On 5am ilcan steode be God him geuoe paet he moste Engleland gegan he arerde maere mynster and munecas paer gesaette and hit waell gegodade. On his dagan waes paet maere mynster on Cant-warbyrig getymbrad and eac swioe manig ooer ofer eall. Engleland. King William, of whom we have spoken, was a very wise man and very powerful and more glorious and stronger than were any of his predecessors. He was mild to the good men who loved God and beyond measure stern to those men who opposed his will. At the same place where God granted him that he should conquer England, he established a glorious monastery and there established monks and endowed it well. In his days the illustrious monastery was built in Canterbury and also very many others over all England. THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY FORMS During the period Old English Literature undergoes a noticeable development, though it is well to remember that it is the result of hundreds of years of slow growth, and it is impossible to divide the types of verse, for example, into definite water-tight compartments. 1. Poetry. Poetry appears earlier than prose, and the heroic type of Beowulf, Waldere, and The Fight at Finnsburh persists throughout 18 the period, for similar qualities are found in a poem as late as The Battle of Maldon. a)The epic exists in one of its forms in Beowulf, which lacks the 'finer' qualities of the classical epic, the strict unity, the high dignity, and the broad motive, though it possesses a vigour and a majesty which have obvious appeal. The so-called Christian epics have little claim to the title and should not be considered here. b)The lyric has no real example in Old English, though there are certain poems which have some of the expressive melancholy and personal emotion associated with the lyric, e.g., The Wanderer and The Seafarer. 2. Prose. Although much of Old English prose consists of translation from Latin and is clearly influenced by the originals, it is by no means correct to consider the prose of the period as lacking in originality or personal qualities. The homilies of AElfric and Wulfstan are at the beginning of the true line of development to the prose of the Authorized Version. The beginnings of historical writings are to be seen in the Anglo- Saxon Chronicle, and the development is clear by a comparison between the Cynewulf and Cyneheard episode in the annal for 755 and the later annals in the E'MS. THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY STYLE 1.Poetry. A comparison between the so-called Caedmonian and Cynewulfian poems shows clearly a development in technique. There is an easier flow to the later poetry in general, a greater sureness in handling material, greater individuality of approach and feeling, less reliance on stock phrases, more subtle use of alliteration, and a greater desire for stylistic effect. This is the natural development of a literature, and though the alliterative type of poetry was apparently to receive the death-knoll with the Conquest, the flowering of a similar type in the fourteenth century shows that this is more apparent than real. 2.Prose. In spite of its limited scope as the vehicle in the main of the homily and historical writing a great advance in style is readily seen. From the earlier simple, halting prose of the Chronicle and Alfred, where the writers tend to become obscure and elliptical when presented with more abstruse thoughts, from the period where sentence structure is fairly Ibose and lacking the finer touches of rhythm and cadence, the later prose is noteworthy for its fluency, its animation, and indeed, as is to be expected, its confidence. There is 19 in some, especially in the prose of AElfric and Wulfstan, an excellent use of alliteration and of rhetorical figures. The personality of the author becomes truly apparent. The effects of the Conquest on both poetry and prose have doubtlessly in the past been exaggerated. Rhyme was to take the place of alliteration, but already before the end of the period there are signs that this would have been a natural development due to the influence of Latin. The Conquest certainly removed from power the audience for which the older type was composed, and the impetus was lost; but, as will be noted, the later flowering of the alliterative type, with a looser structure it is true, shows clearly that the composition of the older type was never completely lost. The inflexional system was already becoming looser before the effects of the Conquest could make themselves felt, and while,this process was undoubtedly hastened by the events following ] 066, it cannot be maintained that there was in any real sense a decay of the prose style of, say, Wulfstan. The development in the Middle English period of the homiletic prose style has clearly been demonstrated to be in the true line from that of the Old English period. In other words, in spite of the Conquest the continuity is clear. 20 CHAPTER II THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The extensive period covered by this chapter saw many developments in the history of England: the establishment of Norman and Angevin dynasties; the internal struggles between king, nobles, clergy, and people; and the numerous wars both at home and abroad. From the literary point of view, however, more important than definite events were the general movements of the times: the rise of the religious orders', their early enthusiasm, and their subsequent decline; the blossoming of chivalry and the spirit of romance, bringing new sympathy for women and the poor; the Crusades and the widening of the European outlook which was gradually to expand into the rebirth of the intellect known as the Renaissance. All these were symptoms of a growing intelligence that was strongly reflected in the literature of the period. STATE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE The period sees the development of Middle English with the gradual weakening of the inflexional system of the older period. The texts written down at the end of the Old English period are in the West Saxon dialect, but when texts reappear in the twelfth century they are written in the particular dialect of the author or scribe. Scandinavian and French loan-words are found, the latter in increasing numbers. The dialects which were noted in the Old English period continue to develop, and it is usual to distinguish five main dialect areas: Northern, which can be sub-divided into Lowland Scots and Northern English, corresponding to the old Northumbrian dialect; East"Midlands and West Midlands, corresponding to Mercian; South-eastern, corresponding to Kentish;and South-western, corresponding to West Saxon. Gradually a standard is developed, which was to become the Received Standard English of to-day, from the East Midland dialect; this was due in part to the importance of that area in the period and to the importance of the capital, London. 21 LITERARY FEATURES OF THE AGE The period under review provides a large amount of interesting, important, and often delightful works. The general features are somewhat difficult to give in brief outline, and emphasis will be placed later on individual works of outstanding importance. 1.The Transition. In many ways the period is one of transition and of experiment. The poets, for example, appear in part to be feeling for new media. The influence of French and Latin works is undoubtedly great, but at the same time there are some poets who are following in the line of development from the Old English period. The contrast is obvious and in the fourteenth century is clear with the work of the alliterative poets of the west, but in the earlier part too there are outstanding examples of this tendency, particularly La3amon's Brut. It is clear that oral tradition preserved the poetic models of the past, though apart from obvious examples it is not till the fourteenth century that they appear in extant texts. 2.The anonymous nature of the writing is still strongly evidenced. A large proportion of the works are entirely without known authors, and most of the authors whose names appear are, indeed, names only. 3.The Domination of Poetry. Much of the surviving work of the period is poetry which is used for such fields as history, divinity, and science. Many of the authors are clerics, but at the same time some of the romances must be of a popular kind. Because of the use of poetry for subjects which one would expect to be written in prose, the amount of the latter seems small by comparison. But it must be remembered that Latin was the language of official documents and, indeed, of learning. Much of the extant prose is homiletic in character, though none the less important for that. The Katherine Group and Ancrene Riwle are quite outstanding in their own way, though for most modern readers they lack interest and are mainly known to the general reader from certain 'purple patches.' Yet they are individual in style and, though many are translations, they are by no means slavish. POETRY For the sake of convenience this may be classified into three main groups, according to the nature of the subject: 1. Chronicles. During this period there is an unusual number of verse chronicles. They are distinguished by their use of stories which 22 appear incredible, by their inventiveness, and in many cases by their vivacity of style. It should be remembered that in spite of the use of incredible adventures and the like the individual poets looked upon their work as history, though to the present day they appear rather to fit into the category of romance. (a) La3amon's Brut. This was written about 1205 by La3amon, a monk of Arley Kings, in Worcestershire, and tells in some 16,000 long alliterative lines the history of Britain from the landing of Brutus to the death of Cadwallader. The chief source is the Roman de Brut of Wace, itself a translation into Norman-French of the Historia Regum Britannia of Geoffrey of Monmouth. The vocabulary is archaic and tends to preserve the poetic traditions of Old English poetry. Characteristic of La3amon's style is his use of epic formulas, often in summing up a situation, and his use of similes. The alliterative metre is used, though with a good deal of licence and with the added presence of assonance and rhyme. Sometimes, indeed, alliteration and rhyme appear together. The following passage will serve as an example of the poem: penne sizep to segges under beorzen, mid hornen, mid hunden mid haezere stefnen: hunten per taliep, hundes per gahep, pane fox driuep zeond dales and zeond dunes. He flihp to pan holme and his hol isechep, i pan firste ende, i pan hole wendep. penne is pe balde fox blissen al bidaeled; and mon him to deluep on aelchere haluen. penne bip per forcupest deoren alre pruttest. Then men come towards him at the foot of the hills with horns, with hounds, and with loud voices: huntsmen shout there, hounds, yelp there, they drive the fox over hill and dale. He flees to the hill and seeks his hole, in the nearest place he goes to earth. Then the bold fox is deprived of all joy; and men dig' to him on each side. Then there is, there, most unhappy the proudest of all animals. (b) Robert of Gloucester is known from his rhyming chronicle. From internal evidence it is possible that there is more than one author to this work, but certainly one was Robert, a monk of Gloucester, who wrote some time towards the end of the thirteenth century. He drew largely on the work of Geoffrey of Monmouth, William of Malmesbury, and other chroniclers. He is no poet, and not particularly learned, though he attempts always to show impartiality 23. in his approach to history. Above all, he shows a true love of his country and, as has been often pointed out, for him Arthur is the hero of his work. It is often lively enough, thoroughly sincere, but by no means outstanding in any way. (c) Robert Manning of Br urine came from Bourne in Lincolnshire and though not himself in full orders was connected with the priory at Sempringham and later with Sixhill. His rhymed Story of England was completed, as he himself tells us, between three and four o'clock on the afternoon of Friday, May 25, 1338. It begins with Noah and the Deluge and ends with the death of Edward I. The first part translates closely Wace's Brut, while the second is based upon the Chronicle of Pierre de Langtoft, an Anglo-Norman work. There is little originality, and the work is designed for the unlearned, but is none the less entertaining. Written in alexandrine couplets, the metre, unfortunately, at times is marred by both internal and tail rhyme. His other work Handlyng Synne was commenced in 1303, based upon the Manuel des Pechiez of William of Wadington and intended for the common people. It is written in four-stress lines in couplets. It is a series of stories, "an epitome of the various sins," with tales and anecdotes as illustrations. The work is enlivened by these anecdotes and undoubtedly shows a keen sense of observation, being in many ways more impartial in attitude than Piers Plowman and many of the political verse pieces. 2. Religious and Didactic Poetry. (a) The Ormulum, written by a certain Orm, is dated c. 1200. Of enormous length (some 10,000 lines and even then incomplete), it is preserved in what is probably the author's own autograph copy. The dialect is north-east Midlands. It consists of a large number of religious homilies addressed to a fellow canon-regular Walter. The work claims no literary quality and has none. The metre is based on the Latin septenarius, with fifteen syllables, and there is little to vary the sheer monotony of the rhythm. It has been neatly said "he is a merciless syllable-counter." The work is unique for its complicated system of spelling, with its frequent doubling of consonants, but scholars are not all satisfied as to the exact interpretation of this feature. No extract is necessary to illustrate the monotony of the metre; it is clearly indicated in the single line which tells us simply, "this book is called Ormulum because Orm wrote it." piss boc iss nemmnedd Orrmulum, forpi patt Orrm itt wrohhte. (b) The Owl and the Nightingale, the authorship of which is still 24 doubtful, was probably written in the early part of the thirteenth century. It consists of a long argument between the nightingale, representing the lighter joys of life, and the owl, standing for wisdom and sobriety. The poem is among the most lively of its kind, and the argument at times is, to say the least, heated. In metre it is in short rhyming couplets handled with considerable skill. "Scholars have united in praise of the narrative skill of the author, his characterization and sense of form." (c) The Orison to Our Lady, Genesis and Exodus, the Bestiary, the Moral Ode, the Proverbs of Alfred, and the Proverbs of Hendyng are to be dated in the first half of the thirteenth century, with the exception of the Moral Ode and the Proverbs of Alfred, which may be as early as 1150. They are all important from a metrical point of view, and the Moral Ode is one of the most important of the early poems. There may be little originality, but it is simple and dignified, remark able for the steadiness and maturity of its lines. (d) The Cursor Mundi was composed in the north in the first quarter of the fourteenth century. It is a religious work of an encyclopaedic nature, treating almost all the Old and New Testament stories and much from later religious history also. It displays considerable ability in the handling of so much material and was immensely popular in its age and later, having influenced to some extent some of the plays in the miracle cycles. The metre, which is in the main the short couplet, shows considerable variety, and the author, who displays a 'wide humanity,' handles his form well. (e) Richard Rolle of Hampole, who died in 1349, is one of the few.literary figures about whom definite personal facts are recorded. He was born near Pickering in Yorkshire about 1300, educated at Oxford, and left home to become a hermit. Later he went to Ham- pole near Doncaster, where he is assumed to have written his Pricke of Conscience and where he died in 1349. He wrote various prose pieces, and while some are accepted as being definitely by him there are others which from time to time have been ascribed to him. His most important work was the long poem mentioned above, though it should be noted that its traditional ascription to him depends on a statement by Lydgate and that there are serious doubts as to whether it is indeed the work of Rolle. The work, which is based on the writings of the early Fathers, describes the joys and sorrows of a map's life as he is affected in turn by good and evil. The matter is abstract but is handled in a simple way, with several striking passages, and in spite of its lack of appeal to-day must have been 25 Tremendously popular judging from the number of manuscripts which are still preserved. The metre is four-stressed but by no means regular, for there are irregular numbers of unstressed syllables. The popularity of Rolle's work is clearly indicated by the fect that so many pieces have been attributed to him and also because due to his popularity his influence is traced to a whole 'school' of writers. (f) The Alliterative Poems. In a unique manuscript, preserved in the British Museum, there are four remarkably fine poems written in a West Midland dialect: Pearl, Purity, Patience, and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. There is no indication of authorship, but on various grounds it is considered likely that they are by the same poet. The date of the poems is uncertain, but it is possible they should be dated in the third quarter of the fourteenth century. The first three poems are religious in theme, and of them Pearl is undoubtedly the finest. This poem is allegorical and tells of a vision in which the poet seeks his precious pearl which he let slip into the grass. In his vision he sees his pearl which appears perhaps to be the vision of a dead maiden, and he obtains a glimpse of the New Jerusalem. The poem, which contains a long discussion between the poet and the pearl, has passages of real, moving beauty, of deep sincerity, and of passion. It is artistically a finished production, and its complicated metre is exceptionally well handled. Purity and Patience, more didactic in theme, are of less interest and beauty, but they are spirited and realistic and their exaltation makes them conspicuous among the poems of the period. Each is written in the long alliterative line showing a similar mastery of handling. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is without doubt the finest of all the Middle English romances, for its mastery of plot handling, its realism, characterization, descriptive powers, and use of the alliterative long line. At times the poet achieves real heights in his poetry which can stand comparison with that of any period. 3. The Romances. The very great number of romances in this period can be classified according to subject, though it should be noted that they are both alliterative and rhyming in metre: a)The romances dealing with English history and its heroes are numerous. Of these the lively King Horn and Havelock the Dane and the popular Guy of Warwick and Bevis of Hampton are among the best. Sometimes contemporary history was drawn upon as in the well- known Richard Coeur de Lion. This group is often known as "The Matter of England." b)There are numerous romances connected closely or loosely 26 with King Arthur. Some are of high merit, others worthless. Sir Tristrem, in spite of its shortcomings, is by no means one of the worst, while Arthur and Merlin, Ywain and Gawain, and the Morte d'Arthure have each various claims for consideration. As noted above, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is the finest example of all Middle English romance. This group is often called "The Matter of Britain." c)Among the romances of "The Matter of Rome the Great" is a large number with classical themes, such as the exploits of Alexander the Great and the Siege of Troy. King Alisaunder, though long, is of more than average merit, as is also The Destruction of Troy. d)The group dealing with the Charlemagne legends is smaller and in general the quality is lower, though the late alliterative Rau, Coilzear, a popular romance, had considerable merit. Also noteworthy is Sir Ferumbras. This group is sometimes called "The Matter of France." (J) There is also a class of miscellaneous romances on various themes and of equally varying quality. Amis and Amiloun is a touching love story; William of Palerne has the familiar 'missing heir' theme; while Floris and Blauchefleur, telling of the love of a king's son for a captive maid, is one of the most charming of all romances. It would take a volume to comment in detail upon the romances. The variety of their metre and style is very great; but in general terms we may say that the prevailing subject is of a martial and amatory nature; mere is the additional interest of the supernatural, which enters freely into the story; and one of the most attractive features to the modern reader of this type of literature is the frequent glimpses obtained into the habits of the times. PROSE 1. The Ancrene Riwle is the most important of the early prose texts of this period and, as has been frequently pointed out, the most influential. Its date is difficult to decide but is to be ascribed to the twelfth century. It was written for three noble ladies who had become anchoresses, and was revised soon after for a larger community. It is a manual designed to guide them in the life they had chosen. The guiding principle in this 'rule' is doubtlessly 'moderation in everything,' and the most characteristic feature of the author as it appears in the work is his broad humanity. The homely elements in the work are such as attract the modern reader. The 27 continuity of English prose style is now a commonplace in literary criticism, and here in the Ancrene Riwle the connection with the prose of Wulfstan and with that of the Authorized Version is clear. The following description of backbiters is given as an example of the text: Bacbitares, pebiteoopremen bihinden, beoo of two maneres; auhpe latere beo wurse. Pe uorme cumeo al openliche, and seio vuel bi anoyer, and speouweo ut his atter, so muchel so him euer to muoe cumeo, and gulcheo al ut somed pet pe attri heorte sent up to pe tunge. Ac pe latere cumeo foro al an oper wise, and is wurse ueond fen pe yer, auh under ureondes huckel, weorpeo adun pet heaued, and for on uor te siken er he owiht sigge, and make drupie chere; bisaumpleo longe abuten uor te beon betere ileued. And hwon hit alles cume8 ford peonne is hit zeoluh atter. Backbiters, who bite other men behind their backs, are of two kinds;. but the latter are the worse. The first comes all openly, and speaks evilly about another, and spews up his poison, as much as ever comes to his mouth, and vomits all out together that the poisonous heart sent up to the tongue. But the latter kind comes forth in a completely different way, and is a worse fiend than the other, and in the guise of a friend casts down the head and begins to sigh before he says anything and puts on a dismal appearance; moralizes for a long time to be the better believed. But when it all comes forth then it is yellow poison. What was true in the twelfth century is still apparently true to-day! 2.The Azenbite of Inwyt was written by Dan Michel of North-gate in 1340 and comes from Canterbury. It is a translation of a French work and a bad one at that. From the literary point of view it is of little importance and is well summed up by the word 'dull.' From the linguistic point of view, however, it has considerable importance, since the author's own autograph copy is preserved, and it is the most important text in the South- eastern and more particularly the Kentish dialect. THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY FORMS 1. Poetry. (a) Metre. One of the main features in this period is the development of rhymed metres, which in general displaced the alliterative line of Old English poetry, though the poems of the so-called alliterative revival in the fourteenth century are a clear warning (if any were needed) that it is foolish to dogmatize. It is clear, in fact, though written records do not show it, that the two types develop side by side, even though from the literary history point of view the alliterative is confined to the west and more particularly to the north-west. In extant texts the gap between the end of the Old 28 English and the Middle English period proper is covered by so few pieces that no clear indication can be seen of what was actually taking place. Certainly from the twelfth century, if not earlier, is the song supposed to have composed by King Canute about the monks of Ely: Merie sungen oe Munekes binnen Ely oa Cnut ching reu oer by. Roweo cnites noer the land and here we paes Muneches saeng. Merrily sang the monks in Ely when king Canute rowed by there. "Row men near the land and let us hear the song of the monks." In this example there are two couplets. The first rhymes and the second is a fair example of assonance. A definite advance is to be seen in the fragments of Godric, a hermit who died at Finchal c. 1170, the metre of which is based on that of St Anselm's hymns. Noticeable is a strict syllabic pattern with a consistent attempt at end-rhyme. The following four- line stanza is in honour of his patron, St Nicholas: Sainte Nicholaes godes dru8 tymbre us fairs scone hus. At pi burth at pi bare Sainte nicholaes, bring vs wel pare. Lazamon, writing in an alliterative metre, shows clearly how false it is simply to look at the period from the point of view of metre as a steady development towards rhymed verse, while Orm, using neither rhyme nor alliteration, is remarkable for the regularity of his metre. Some of the verse in the thirteenth century (for example King Horn, the earliest of the romances) is in couplet form--the result, as has been shown, of the short French couplet on the long alliterative line. A further example is the popular Havelock the Dane, and while the poet often uses tags, he nevertheless handles his metre competently enough. It was a king bi aredawes, pat in his time were gode lawes, He dede maken an ful wel holden; Hym loved yung, him lovede holde, Erl and barun, dreng and tayn, Knict, bondeman and swain, Wydues, maydnes, prestes and clerkes, And al for hise gode werkes. Experiments with metre are often to be found in the period and perhaps more especially in the fourteenth century, when under 29 French influence the stanza form was used. There is, for example, among the romances the twelve-line tail-rhyme stanzas of Amis and Amiloun and The King of Tars, the intricate eleven-line stanzas with the bob or short line, as the tenth, of Sir Tristrem, the sixteen-line tail-rhyme stanza form of Sir Percyvelle of Galles, the thirteen- line rhyming stanzas with nine long alliterative lines and four short lines of The Awntyers of Arthure, and the six-line tail-rhyme stanzas of The Turke and Gowen. These examples will suffice to show the variety of the stanzaic forms attempted, though the excellent metre ' of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, with its stanzas of varying length each concluding with five short lines rhyming ababa (the first with one stress, the others with three), should be noted as an example of the use of the alliterative long line at the same time as other poets are composing in the rhymed form. It is impossible to do justice briefly to the varying metrical forms of the period, but the examples quoted will serve as an indication of what was happening in this field in the Middle English period. c)The Lyric. Probably the form which has greatest appeal in this period for the modern reader is the lyric. It has been noted that there is no example of the true lyric from the Old English period, and it is impossible to say when they were first written in this country. Only a very few fragments have been preserved from the twelfth century, and it is not till the next that we have any in large numbers. No doubt they have been influenced considerably by French and Latin lyrics, but it is impossible to say whether they were inspired by these or had a native origin. Many of the early lyrics were devoutly religious in theme and tone, especially noteworthy being those addressed to the Virgin Mary. On the other hand the secular lyric is well represented too, both by what we should look upon as love-lyrics and those which have subjects from nature. However, it is difficult to separate the religious and the secular lyric, for it is clear that there is much mutual influence between them. Of the earlier examples perhaps the Cuckoo Song is as well known as any: Sumer is icumen in, Summer is coming in Lhude sing cuccu! Sing loud, cuckoo! Growep sed and blowep med Seed grows, meadow bursts into flower And springp pe wude nu. And the wood now sprouts. Sing cuccu! Sing cuckoo! Awe bletep after lomb, The ewe bleats for the lamb, Lhoup after calue cu, The cow lows for its calf, Bulluc stertep, bucke uertep. Bullock leaps, buck breaks wind. Murie sing cuccu! Merry sing cuckoo I 30 Cuccu, cuccu, Cuckoo, cuckoo, Weil singes pu cuccu. Well do you sing, cuckoo. Ne swik pu nauer nu! Never cease now! The regularity is particularly noteworthy. (c) The Romances. It is important to note that the modern use of the word 'romance' can lead the reader astray when approaching medieval Romance, for, as has been pointed out by several scholars, it is highly doubtful that the contemporary audience would consider romance to be romanti" its virtue seems to have been its 'modernity,' for its setting was always medieval, even if it was an idealized setting. The influence was French, but romance was thoroughly acclimatized, and, as the period progresses, examples appear in greater numbers. Attention has already been drawn to the varied metre of this type, and something must be said of the other chief features. The story is usually long, with many intricacies of plot; above all the emphasis is on incident; martial exploits play a large part and are often made ridiculous (for the modern reader) by heaping battle on battle, exploit on exploit, so that the hero becomes a superman; the element of the supernatural is often introduced, again sometimes with ridiculous effect; characters are often of a type, though in the best examples characterization is excellent; the style is often simple and direct but with a lack of artistic finish, though again the best examples must be absolved from such strictures. The spirited approach makes the best good adventure Stories. In spite of the exaggerations, extravagances, and ridiculous elements of the worst, the best of the romances provide a rich treasure-house of wonderful tales. 2. Prose. The prose for the main part is strictly practical in purpose, but the thread of a definite development has so often been demonstrated that the doctrine of the ' Continuity of English Prose' has become firmly rooted in English literary criticism to-day. The prose of the Ancrene Riwle and of the Katherine Group has at last been accepted for its true value. THE DEVELOPMENT OF STYLE IN POETRY That the poetry of the period under review has developed greatly from the stylistic point of view is clear from a comparison between, say, Lazamon's Brut and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, but it is difficult to describe in a few words, precisely, this development. It is not too much of an exaggeration to say that from being ' artleas' the poet becomes the consciout artist. Often enough the 31 poets when faced with more difficult material tend to become obscure, and again in handling some of the difficult metres which they attempted the same result is achieved. Though humour is often enough lacking, there are touches here and there, sometimes of a grim kind. Pathos, too, of a solemn and elevated kind is to be found as well as that of a more simple genre. In the best the style is lucid, firm, controlled, and superb; in the worst it has every possible fault. NOTE. For the quotations, some general conclusions, and for further reading, see R. M. Wilson, Early Middle English Literature (Methuen, 1935). CHAPTER III THE AGE OF CHAUCER THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND (1350-1450) Compared with the periods covered by the last two chapters, the period now under review is quite short. It includes the greater part of the reign of Edward III and the long French wars associated with his name; the accession of his grandson Richard II (1377); and the revolution of 1399, the deposition of Richard, and the foundation of the Lancastrian dynasty. From the literary point of view, of greater importance are the social and intellectual movements of the period: the terrible plague called the Black Death, bringing poverty, unrest, and revolt among the peasants, and the growth of the spirit of inquiry, which was strongly critical of the ways of the Church, and found expression in the teachings of Wyclif and the Lollards, and in the stem denunciations of Langland. LITERARY FEATURES OF THE AGE 1.The Standardizing of English. The period of transition is now nearly over. The English language has shaken down to a kind of average--to the standard of the East Midland speech, the language of the capital city and of the universities. The other dialects, with the exception of the Scottish branch, rapidly melt away from literature, till they become quite exiguous. French and English have amalgamated to form the standard English tongue, which attains to its first full expression in the works of Chaucer. 2.A curious 'modern' note begins to be apparent at this period-There is a sharper spirit of criticism, a more searching interest in man's affairs, and a less childlike faith in, and a less complacent acceptance of, the established order. The vogue of the romance, though it has by no means gone, is passing, and in Chaucer it is derided. The freshness of the romantic ideal is being superseded by the more acute spirit of the drama, which even at this early time is faintly foreshadowed. Another more modem feature that at once 33 strikes the observer is that the age of anonymity is passing away. Though many of the texts still lack named authors, the greater number of the books can be definitely ascribed. Moreover, we have for the first time a figure of outstanding literary importance, who gives to the age the form and pressure of his genius. 3.Prose. This era sees the foundation of an English prose style. Earlier specimens have been experimental or purely imitative; now, in the works of Mandeville and Malory, we have prose that is both original and individual.The English tongue is now ripe for a prose style. The language is settling to a standard; Latin.and French are losing grip as popular prose mediums and the growing desire for an English Bible exercises a steady pressure in favour of a standard English prose. 4.Scottish Literature. For the first time in our literature, in the person of Barbour (1316 (?)-9 95), Scotland supplies a writer worthy of note. This is only the beginning; for the tradition is handed on to the powerful group of poets who are mentioned in the next chapter. GEOFFREY CHAUCER (c. 1340-c. 1400) 1. His Life. In many of the documents of the time Chaucer's name is mentioned with some frequency; and these references, in addition to some remarks he makes regarding himself in the course of his poems, are the sum of what we know about his life. The date of his birth is uncertain, but it is now generally accepted as being 1340. He was born in London, entered the household of the wife of the Duke of Clarence (1357), and saw military service abroad, where he was captured. Next he seems to have entered the royal household, for he is frequently mentioned as the recipient of royal pensions and bounties. When Richard II succeeded to the crown (1377) Chaucer was confirmed in his offices and pensions, and shortly afterwards (1378) he was sent to Italy on one of his several diplomatic missions. More pecuniary blessings followed; then ensued a period of depression, due probably to the departure to Spain (1386) of his patron John of Gaunt; but his life closed with a revival of his prosperity. He was the first poet to be buried in what is now known as Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey. 2. His Poems. The order of Chaucer's poems cannot be ascertained with certitude, but from internal evidence they can as a rule be approximately dated. It is now customary to divide the Chaucerian poems into three stages: the French, the Italian, and the English, of which the last is a 3 34 development of the first two. In none of these divisions, of course, is the one influence felt to the exclusion of the others. It is merely that one predominates. a)The poems of the earliest or French group are closely modelled upon French originals, and the style is clumsy and immature. Of such poems the longest is The Romaunt of the Rose, a lengthy allegorical poem, written in octosyllabic couplets and based upon Le Romaunt de la Rose of Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meung. This poem, only a fragment, though of 8000 lines, was once entirely ascribed to Chaucer, but recent research, based upon a scrutiny of Chaucerian style, has suggested that only the first part is his work. Other poems of this period include The Book of the Duchesse, probably his earliest and written in 1369, the year when John of Gaunt's wife died, The Compleynt unto Pite, An A.B.C., and The Compleynt of Mars. b)The second or Italian stage shows a decided advance upon the first. In the handling of the metres the technical ability is greater, and there is a growing keenness of perception and a greater stretch of originality. To this period belong Anelida and Arcite and The Parlement of Foules. The latter has a fine opening, and, in the characterization of the birds, shows Chaucer's true comic spirit. Troilus and Criseyde is a long poem adapted from Boccaccio, but in its emphasis on character it is original, and indicative of the line of Chaucer's development. Reality and a passionate intensity underlie its conventions of courtly love and the tedious descriptions which this code demanded. The complex characters of Criseyde and Pan-darus reveal a new subtlety of psychological development, and indicate Chaucer's growing insight into human motives. Troilus and Criseyde is held to be Chaucer's best narrative work. The rhyme royal stanzas are of much dexterity and beauty, and the pathos of the story is touched upon with deep feeling. If no love is, O God, what fele I so? And if love is, what thing and which is he? If love be good, from whennes com'th my wo? If it be wikke, a wonder thinketh me, When every torment and adversite That com'th of him, may to me savory thinke; For ay thurste I the more that ich it drinke. The Hous of Fame, a poem in octosyllabic couplets, is of the dream-allegory type. In his dream Chaucer is carried by an eagle to the House of Fame and watches candidates for fame approach the 35 throne, some being granted their requests and others refused. Though the story is rather drawn-out, and the allegorical significance obscure, it is of special interest because, in the verve and raci-ness of the Eagle, it shows gleams of the genuine Chaucerian humour. In this group is also included The Legend of Good Women, in which Chaucer, starting with the intention of telling nineteen affecting tales of virtuous women of antiquity, finishes with eight accomplished and the ninth only begun. After a charming introduction on the daisy, there is some masterly narrative, particularly in the portion dealing with Cleopatra. The poem is the first known attempt in English to use the heroic couplet, which is, none the less, handled with great skill and freedom. (c) The third or English group contains work of the greatest individual accomplishment. The achievement of this period is The Canterbury Tales, though one or two of the separate tales may be of slightly earlier composition. For the general idea of the tales Chaucer may be indebted to Boccaccio, but in nearly every important feature the work is essentially English. For the purposes of his poem Chaucer draws together twenty-nine pilgrims, including himself. They meet at the Tabard Inn, in Southwark in order to go on a pilgrimage to the tomb of Thomas a Becket at Canterbury. The twenty-nine are carefully chosen types, of both sexes, and of all ranks, from a knight to a humble ploughman; their occupations and personal peculiarities are many and diverse; and, as they are depicted in the masterly Prologue to the main work, they are interesting, alive, and thoroughly human. At the suggestion of the host of the Tabard, and to relieve the tedium of the journey, each of the pilgrims is to tell two tales on the outward journey, and two on the return. In its entirety the scheme would have resulted in an immense collection of over a hundred tales. But as it happens Chaucer finished only twenty, and left four partly complete. The separate tales are linked with their individual prologues, and with dialogues and scraps of narrative. Even in its incomplete state the work is a small literature in itself, an almost unmeasured abundance and variety of humour and pathos, of narrative and description, and of dialogue and digression. There are two prose tales, Chaucer's own Tale of Melibeus and The Parson's Tale; and nearly all the others are composed in a powerful and versatile species of the decasyllabic or heroic couplet. To this last stage of Chaucer's work several short poems are ascribed, including The Lak of Stedfastnesse and the serio-comic Compleynte of Chaucer to his Empty Purse. 36 There is also mention of a few short early poems, such as Origines upon the Maudeleyne, which have been lost. During his lifetime Chaucer built up such a reputation as a poet that many works were at a later date ascribed to him without sufficient evidence. Of this group the best examples are The Flower and the Leaf, quite an excellent example of the dream-allegory type, and The Court of Love. It has now been settled that these poems are not truly his. 3. His prose. The two prose tales may be apposite, but are not among Chaucer's successful efforts. Both--that is, The Tale of Melibeus and The Parson's Tale on penitence--are lifeless in style and full of tedious moralizings. Compared with earlier prose works they nevertheless mark an advance. They have a stronger grasp of sentence-construction, and in vocabulary they are copious and accurate. The other prose works of Chaucer are an early translation of Boethius, and a treatise, composed for the instruction of his little son Lewis, on the astrolabe, then a popular astronomical instrument. The following extract is a fair example of his prose: "Now, sirs," saith dame Prudence, "sith ye vouche saufe to be gouerned by my counceyll, I will enforme yow how ye shal gouerne yow in chesing of your counceyll. First tofore alle workes ye shall beseche the hyghe God, that he be your counceyll; and shape yow to suche entente that he yeue you counceyll and comforte asThobye taught his sone. 'At alle tymes thou shall plese and praye him to dresse thy weyes; and loke that alle thy counceylls be in hym for euermore.' Saynt James eke saith: ' Yf ony of yow haue nede of sapience, axe it of God.' And after that than shall ye take counceyll in yourself, and examyne well your thoughtys of suche thynges as ye thynke that ben beste for your profyt. And than shall ye dryue away from your hertes the thynges that ben contraryous to good counceyl: this is to saye--ire, couetyse, and hastynes." The Tale of Melibeus 4. Features of his Poetry. (a) The first thing that strikes the eye is the unique position that Chaucer's work occupies in the literature of the age. He is first, with no competitor for hundreds of years to challenge his position. He is, moreover, the forerunner in the race of great literary figures that henceforth, in fairly regular succession, dominate the ages they live in. (b) His Observation. Among Chaucer's literary virtues his acute faculty of observation is very prominent. He was a man of the world, mixing freely with all types of mankind; and he used his opportunities to observe the little peculiarities of human nature. He had the seeing eye, the retentive memory, the judgment to select, and 37 ho capacity to expound; hence the brilliance of his descriptions, which we shall note in the next paragraph. c)His Descriptions. Success in descriptive passages depends on ivacity and skill in presentation, as well as on the judgment shown n the selection of details. Chaucer's best descriptions, of men, nanners, and places, are of the first rank in their beauty, impressive- less, and humour. Even when he follows the common example of the time, as when giving details of conventional spring mornings and dowery gardens, he has a vivacity that makes his poetry unique. Many poets before him had described the break of day, but never with the real inspiration that appears in the following lines: The bisy larke, messager of day, Salueth in her song the morwe gay, And firy Phoebus riseth up so brighte That all the orient laugheth with the lighte. The Knight's Tale The Prologue contains ample material to illustrate Chaucer's power in describing his fellow-men. We shall add an extract to show him in another vein. Observe the selection of detail, the terseness and adequacy of epithet, and the masterly handling of the couplet. First on the wal was peynted a forest, In which ther dwelleth neither man nor best, With knotty, knarry, barreyne trees olde Of stubbes sharpe and hidouse to biholde, In which ther ran a rumbel and a swough, As though a storm sholde bresten every bough; And dounward from an hille, under a bente, Ther'stood the temple of Mars armypotente, Wroght al of burned steel, of which the entrée Was long and streit, and gastly for to see. The northern light in at the dores shoon, For wyndowe on the wal ne was ther noon Thurgh which men myghten any light discern, The dores were al of adament eterne, Y-clenched overthwart and endelong With iren tough, and for to make it strong, Every pyler, the temple to sustene, Was tonne greet, of iren bright and shene. The Knight's Tate (d) His Humour and Pathos. In the literature of his time, when so few poets seem to have any perception of the fun in life, the humour of Chaucer is invigorating and delightful. The humour, which steeps nearly all his poetry, has great variety: kindly and patronizing, as in the case of the Clerk of Oxenford; broad and semi-farcical, as 38 in the Wife of Bath; pointedly satirical, as in the Pardoner and the Summoner; or coarse, as happens in the tales of the Miller, the Reeve, and the Cook. It is seldom that the satirical intent is wholly lacking, as it is in the case of the Good Parson, but, except in rare cases, the satire is good-humoured and well-meant. The prevailing feature of Chaucer's humour is its urbanity: the man of the world's kindly tolerance of the weaknesses of his erring fellow-mortals. Chaucer lays less emphasis on pathos, but it is not overlooked. In the poetry of Chaucer the sentiment is humane and unforced. We have excellent examples of pathos in the tale of the Prioress and in The Legend of Good Women. We give a short extract from the long conversation between Chaucer and the eagle ("with fethres all of gold") which carried him off to the House of Fame. The bird, with its cool acceptance of things, is an appropriate symbol of Chaucer himself in his attitude toward the world. Thus I longe in his clawes lay, Til at the laste he to me spak In mannes vois, and seyde, "Awak! And be not so agast, for shame!" And called me tho by my name. And, for I sholde the bet abreyde-- Me mette--"Awak," to me he seyde, Right in the same vois and stevene That useth oon I coude nevene; And with that vois, soth for to sayn, My minde cam to me agayn; For hit was goodly seyd to me, So nas hit never wont to be.... And sayde twyes "Seynte Marie! Thou art noyous for to carie."... "O god," thoughte I, "that madest kinde, Shal I non other weyes dye? Wher loves wol me stellifye, Or what thing may this signifye? I neither am Enok, nor Elye, Ne Romulus, ne Ganymede That was y-bore up, as men rede, To hevene with dan Iupiter, And maad the goddes boteler." (e) His Narrative Power. As a story-teller Chaucer employs somewhat tortuous methods, but his narrative possesses a curious stealthy speed. His stories, viewed strictly as stories, have most of the weakness of his generation: a fondness for long speeches, for 39 pedantic digressions on such subjects as dreams and ethical problems, and for long explanations when none are necessary. Troilus and Criseyde, heavy with long speeches, is an example of his prolixity, and The Knight's Tale, of baffling complexity and over- abundant in detail, reveals his haphazard and dawdling methods; yet both contain many admirable narrative passages. But when he rises above the weaknesses common to the time he is terse, direct, and vivacious. The extract given below will illustrate the briskness with which his story can move. This sely widwe, and eek hir doghtres two, Herden thise hennes crie and maken wo, And out at dores stirten they anon, And syen the fox toward the grove gon, And bar upon his bak the cok away, And cryden, "Out! Harrow! And weylaway! Ha! Ha! The fox!" And after hym they ran, And eek with staves many another man; Ran Colle, oure dogge, and Talbot, and Gerland And Malkyn, with a dystaf in hir hand; Ran cow and calf, and eek the verray hogges, So were they fered for berkynge of the dogges, And shoutyng of the men and wommen eek; They ronne so hem thoughte hir herte breek. They yolleden, as feendes doon in helle; The dokes cryden, as men wolde hem quelle; The gees, for feere, flowen over the trees; Out of the hyve cam the swarm of bees; So hidous was the noys, a benedicitee! Certes, he Jakke Straw, and his meynee, Ne made never shoutes half so shrille, Whan that they wolden any Flemyng kille, As thilke day was rnaade upon the fox. The Nun's Priest's Tale (f) His Metrical Skill. In the matter of poetical technique English literature owes much to Chaucer. He virtually imported the decasyl labic line from France--it had been employed hardly at all in England previously--and he used it in both stanzaic and couplet forms. The seven-lined stanza a b a b b c c has become known as theChaucerian or rime royale. Chaucer is no great lyrical poet but in some of his shorter poems--roundels and ballades--he shows a skill that is as good as the very best apparent in the contemporary poems. (g) Summary. We may summarize Chaucer's achievement by saying that he is the earliest of the great moderns. In comparison 40 with the poets of his own time, and with those of the succeeding century, the advance he makes is almost startling. For example, Manning, Hampole, and the romancers are of another age and of another way of thinking from ours; but, apart from the superficial archaisms of spelling, the modern reader finds in Chaucer something closely akin. All the Chaucerian features help to create this modern atmosphere: the shrewd and placidly humorous observation, the wide humanity, the quick aptness of phrase, the dexterous touch upon the metre, and, above all, the fresh and formative spirit--the genius turning dross into gold. Chaucer is indeed a genius; he stands alone, and for nearly two hundred years none dare claim equality with him. OTHER POETS 1. William Langland, or Langley (1332 (?)-140© (7)), is one of the early writers with whom modem research has dealt adversely. AD we know about him appears on the manuscripts of his poem, or is based upon the remarks he makes regarding himself in the course of the poem. This poem, the full title of which is The Vision of William concerning Piers the Plowman, appears in its many manuscripts in three forms, called respectively the A, B, and C texts. The A text is the shortest, being about 2500 lines long; the B is more than 7200 lines; and the C, which is clearly based upon B, is more than 7300 lines. Until quite recently it has always been assumed that the three forms were all the work of Langland; but the latest theory is that the A form is the genuine composition of Langland, whereas both B and C have been composed by a later and inferior poet. From the personal passages in the poem it appears that the author was born in Shropshire about 1332. The vision in which he saw Piers the Plowman probably took place in 1362. The poem itself tells of the poet's vision on the Malvern Hills. In this trance he beholds a fair "feld ful of folk." The first vision, by subtle and baffling.changes, merges into a series of dissolving scenes which deal with the adventures of allegorical beings, human like Do-wel, Do-bet, and Do-betst, or of abstract significance like the Lady Meed, Wit, Study, and Faith. During the many incidents of the poem the virtuous powers generally suffer most, till the advent of Piers the Plowman--the Messianic deliverer--restores the balance to the right side. The underlying motive of the work is to expose the sloth and vice of the Church, and to set on record the struggles and virtues of common folks. Langland's frequent sketches of homely 41 life are done with sympathy and knowledge, and, unlike Chaucer, he portrays vividly the terrible hardships of the poor peasant. The style has a sombre energy, an intense but crabbed seriousness, and an austere simplicity of treatment. The form of the poem is curious. It is a revival of the Old English rhymeless measure, having alliteration as the basis of the line. The lines themselves are fairly uniform in length, and there is the middle pause, with (as a rule) two alliterations in the first half-line and one in the second. Yet in spite of the Old English metre the vocabulary draws freely upon the French, to an extent equal to that of Chaucer himself. The following lines illustrate the predominant tone of the poem. The fiery and direct denunciation of the vices of the times makes an interesting comparison with Chaucer's portrayal of the ecclesiastics in the Prologue to The Canterbury Tales. The reader should note the strong rhythm, and the regular system of alliteration. Heremites on an heep. With hoked staves, Wenten to Walsyngham. and here wenches after; Grete lobyes1 and longe. that loth were to swynke, Clotheden hem in copis. to ben knowen fram othere, And shopen hem heremites. here ese to have. I fonde there Freris. alle the foure ordres, Preched the peple. for profit to hem-selven, Preched the gospel. as hem good lyked, For coveitise of copis. construed it as thei wolde. 2. John Gower, the date of whose birth is uncertain, died in 1408. He was a man of means, and a member of a good Kentish family; he took a fairly active part in the politics and literary activity of the time, and was buried in London. The three chief works of Gower are noteworthy, for they illustrate the unstable state of contemporary English literature. His first poem, Speculum Meditantis, is written in French, and for a long time was lost, being discovered as late as 1895; the second, Vox Clamantis, is composed in Latin; and the third, Confessio Amantis, is written in English, at the King's command according to Gower himself. In this last poem we have the conventional allegorical setting, with a disquisition on the seven deadly sins, illustrated by many anecdotes. These anecdotes reveal Gower's capacity as a story-teller. He has a diffuse and watery style of narrative, but occasionally he is brisk and competent. The metre is the octosyllabic couplet, of great smoothness and fluency. 1 Lubbers. 42 3.John Barbour (1316 (?)-95) is the first of the Scottish poets to claim our attention. He was born in Aberdeenshire, and studied both at Oxford and Paris. His great work is his Bruce (1375), a lengthy poem of twenty books and thirteen thousand lines. The work is really a history of Scotland's struggle for freedom from the year 1286 till the death of Bruce and the burial of his heart (1332). The heroic theme is the rise of Bruce, and the central incident of the poem is the battle of Bannockburn. The poem, often rudely but pithily expressed, contains much absurd legend and a good deal of inaccuracy, but it is no mean beginning to the long series of Scottish heroic poems. This spirited passage from the first book is often quoted: A! fredome is a nobill thing! Fredome mayss' man to haiff liking! Fredome all solace to man giffis; He levys at ess that frely levys! A noble hart may haiff nane ess, Na ellys nocht that may him pless Gyffe fredome failzhe: for fre liking Is zharnyt2 our all othir thing. Na he, that ay hass levyt fre May nocht knaw weill the propyrte, The angyr, na the wrechyt dome, That is couplyt to foule thyrldome. PROSE-WRITERS 1. Sir John Mandeville is the English form of the name of Jehan de Mandeville, who compiled and published a French book of travels between 1357 and 1371. This French work was very popular, and it was translated into several languages, including English.The English version has a preface, in which it is stated that the author was a Sir John Mandeville, a knight, bom at St Albans, who crossed the sea in 1322 and travelled in many strange regions. Much of the personal narrative is invention; nowadays the very existence of Sir John is denied. The real author of the book is said to be Jehan de Bourgogne, who died at Liege in 1372. It has now been demonstrated that the so-called 'Travels' is a compilation from several popular books of voyages, including those of a Friar Odoric, of an Armenian called Hetoum, and (to a very small extent) of the famous traveller Marco Polo. These, with a few grains of original matter, are ingeniously welded into one of the most charming books of its kind. The travels are full of incredible 1 makes. 2yearned for. 43 descriptions and anecdotes, which are set down with delightful faith and eagerness. The style is sweet and clear, with some colloquial touches; and the short narrations freely dispersed through the text, tersely phrased and accurately gauged in length, are rendered with great skill. We add an example to illustrate this admirable prose style. Observe the brief sentences, many of which begin with 'and,' the simple but effective diction, and the straightforward style of narrative. And zee schull undirstonde that whan men comen to Jerusalem her first pilgrymage is to the chirche of the Holy Sepulcr wher oure Lord was buryed, that is withoute the cytee on the north syde. But it is now enclosed in with the ton wall. And there is a full fair chirche all rownd, and open above, and covered with leed. And on the west syde is a fair tour and an high for belles strongly made. And in the myddes of the chirche is a tabernacle as it wer a lytyll hows, made with a low lityll dore; and that tabernacle is made in maner of a half a compas right curiousely and richely made of gold and azure and othere riche coloures, full nobelyche made. And in the ryght side of that tabernacle is the sepulcre of oure Lord. And the tabernacle is viij fote long and v fote wide, and xj fote in heghte. And it is not longe sithe the sepulcre was all open, that men myghte kisse it and touche it. But for pilgrymes that comen thider peyned hem to breke the ston in peces, or in poudr; therefore the Soudan1 hath do make a wall aboute the sepulcr that no man may towche it. But in the left syde of the wall of the tabernacle is well the heighte of a man, is a gret ston, to the quantytee of a mannes hed, that was of the holy sepulcr, and that ston kissen the pilgrymes that comen thider. In that tabernacle ben no wyndowes, but it is all made light with lampes that hangen befor the sepulcr. 2. John Wyclif, or Wycliffe (1320-84), was born in Yorkshire about the year 1320. He was educated at Oxford, took holy orders, received the living of Lutterworth in Leicestershire (1374), and took a prominent part in the ecclesiastical feuds of the day. He was strong in his denunciation of the abuses then rampant, and only the influence of his powerful friends saved him from the fate of a heretic. He died peacefully in 1384. An active controversialist, he wrote many Latin books in support of his revolutionary opinions. In addition, he issued a large number of tracts and pamphlets in English. An English translation of the Bible made at the end of his life has been popularly attributed to him, but, while it undoubtedly reflects his influence, its authorship remains uncertain. His English style is not polished,, but it is 1 Sultan. 44 vigorous and pointed, with a homely simplicity that makes its appeal both wide and powerful. 3. Sir Thomas Malory (died 1471 (?)) is included here, though bis famous work, the Morte d'Arthur, was composed as late as the "ix yere of the reygne of Kyng Edward the furth" (1469). Nearly all we know about Malory is contained in the preface of Caxton, the first printer of the book. Caxton says that the book was written by Sir Thomas Malory "oute of certeyn bookes of frensshe." The Morte d'Arthur, like the travels of Mandeville, is a compilation. The French Arthurian romances are drawn upon to create a prose romance of great length and detail. However diverse its sources, the book is written with a uniform dignity and fervour that express the very essence of romance and chivalry. It is a skilful blend of dialogue and narrative and is full of colour and life, while the style has a transparent clarity and a poetic sensitivity which make Malory our first great, individual, prose stylist. Remote in spirit from the everyday concerns of its age, the Morte d'Arthur stands outside the main stream of the development of English prose. And on the morn the damsel and he took their leave and thanked the knight, and so departed, and rode on their way until they came to a great forest. And there was a great river and but one passage, and there were ready two knights on the further side to let them the passage. "What sayest thou," said the damsel, "wilt thou match yonder knights, or turn again?" "Nay," said Sir Beaumains, "I will not turn again and they were six more." And therewithal he rushed into the water, and in the midst of the water, either brake their spears upon other to their hands, and then they drew their swords and smote eagerly at other. And at the last Sir Beaumains smote the other upon the helm that his head stonied, and therewithal he fell down in the water, and there was he drowned. And then he spurred his horse upon the land, where the other knight fell upon him and brake his spear, and so they drew their swords and fought long together. At the last Sir Beaumains clave his helm and his head down to the shoulders: and so he rode unto the damsel, and bade her ride forth on her way. THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY FORMS The Chaucerian age saw a great and significant advance in poetical forms of literature, and noteworthy ones in the domain of prose. 1. Poetry. With regard to poetry, we can observe the various forms separating themselves and straightening out into form and coherence, (a) The lyric, chiefly the religious and love-lyric, continues to be written and developed. Chaucer himself contributes very little 45 toward it, but a number of anonymous bards add to the common stock. It is seldom that we can give precise dates to the lyrics of this period; but about this time were composed such exquisite pieces as The Nut-brown Maid, a curious hybrid between the lyric and the ballad, and the lovely carols of the Church. b)The Rise of the Ballad. By the late fourteenth century, the traditional ballad, of the type of Chevy Chace, Sir Patrick Spens, and the Robin Hood poems, had become an important source of popular entertainment, especially in the North. The origins of this form are much disputed, but, whether the ballad was composed by minstrels, or was the result of communal activity, it is essentially simple and popular. Mainly about love, local legends, the feats of local heroes, supernatural happenings, or religious stories, the ballad deals with man's elemental passions in frank and uninhibited terms, while its situations are such as affect the individual or family rather than the larger social unit of clan or nation. Its tone is impersonal and detached, and there is little or none of the composer's personality to be felt. The verse form (most commonly abcb, with alternating lines of four and three iambic feet) was subject to considerable variation, but was always simple and easily memo- rized. Frequent use of a refrain and of repetition are, similarly, products of this necessity to memorize the ballad, which also led to a concentration of emphasis (usually on a single incident), a complete lack of ornamental detail, and a rapidity of movement which made each stanza a definite step in the development of the story. It will be seen that the ballad is completely different from the romance, which is aristocratic in tone and theme, and cumulative in form, so that it could deal with any number of adventures. Collections of ballads were not made until the eighteenth century, so that we find many varying forms of the same ballad, and it seems likely that the versions we now possess differ considerably from the original. c)The Rise of the Allegory. This is perhaps the suitable place to note the rise of allegory, which in the age of Chaucer began to affect all the branches of poetry. Even at its best the allegorical method is crude and artificial, but it is a concrete and effective literary device for expounding moral and religious lessons. It appeals with the greatest force to minds which are still unused to abstract thinking; and about the period now under discussion it exactly suited the lay and ecclesiastical mind. Hence we have a flood of poems dealing with Courts of Love, Houses of Fame, Dances of the Seven Deadly 46 Sins, and other symbolical subjects. Especially in the earlier stages of his career, Chaucer himself did not escape the prevailing habit. We shall see that the craze for the allegory was to increase during the next century and later, till it reached its climax in The Faerie Queene. d)Descriptive and Narrative Poems. In this form of poetry The Canterbury Tales is the outstanding example, but in many passages of Langland and Gower we have specimens of the same class. We have already mentioned some of the weaknesses that are common to the narrative poetry of the day, and which were due partly to lack of practice and partly to reliance upon inferior models: the tantalizing rigmaroles of long speeches and irrelevant episodes, the habit of dragging into the story scientific and religious discussions, and an imperfect sense of proportion in the arrangement of the plot. In the best examples, such as those of Chaucer, there is powerful grip upon the central interest, a shrewd observation and humour, and quite often a brilliant rapidity of narration. e)The metrical romance is still a popular form, but the great vogue of the last century is on the wane. Among the lower classes it is being supplanted by the ballad; and the growing favour that is being shown to the fabliau--that is, the short French tale, realistic in subject and humorous-satirical in style--is leading to tales of the coarser Chaucer type. 3.Prose. The field for English prose is rapidly extending. The Travels of Mandeville presents an interesting departure as a prose work written for amusement rather than instruction. We have the translation of the Bible usually associated with Wyclif, and a prose version of Higden's Polychronicon by John of Trevisa (1326-1412). But the most significant development is to be found in the clarity and vigour of the homely English used in civic records, and by letter-writers such as the Pastons, Celys, and Stonors. Simple, straightforward, and free from the stylistic ornamentation of the consciously literary prose, these everyday writings illustrate vividly the growing command of the native idiom in many sections of the community. THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY STYLE 1. Poetry. We have already stated that the time of transition and experiment is nearly over. English poetical style has established itself, and the main lines of development have been laid down. For this we are indebted almost entirely to Chaucer. 47 a)With regard to metre, it is curious to observe that with increasing practice the tendency is toward simplicity. The extremely complicated stanzas are becoming less common, and rhyme royal and other shorter verses are coming into favour. Along with simplification is a greater suppleness and dexterity. There is less rigidity in the position of the pause, and a greater freedom in the substitution of three-syllabled feet for two-syllabled feet. These features are most strongly developed in the couplet forms. It is this union of simplicity and freedom that is to remain the dominating characteristic of English verse, thus contrasting with the quantitative system of the classical measures and the syllabic nature of the French. b)There is an interesting revival in alliteration. In the true alliterative poem the basis of the line is a system of repeating sounds, such as was the custom in Old English verse. One of the earliest examples of this type which occurs after the Norman Conquest is Wynnere and Wastour (1352), an anonymous poem of ho great merit. The tradition is continued in the alliterative romances of the type of Cleannesse; and it attains its climax in Piers Plowman, Though this last poem gained a great popularity it left no important literary descendants. Hence the revival of the ancient system of alliteration remains as an interesting curiosity. In a very short time after Langland alliteration becomes simply an ornament to metre --sometimes a device of great beauty, but not vital to the metrical scheme. As regards the actual poetic diction of the period, there is a considerable liking shown for ornate French and classical terms. This can be observed in the earlier poems of Chaucer and in the Confessio Amantis of Gower. We have not yet attained to the aureate diction of the succeeding generation, but the temptation to use French terms was too strong to be resisted. Langland, though he draws upon the French element, writes with much greater simplicity; and the ballads also are composed in a manner quite plain and unadorned. 2. Prose, The state of prose is still immature, but the everyday writings of the age show a vigour and clarity which are a great advance on the mingled French and English writing of the beginning of the period, when English was still struggling to shake off the dominance of French. Wyclif's prose is unpolished, though it can be pointed and vigorous. Mandeville's prose style, though it is devoid of artifices, attains to a certain distinction by reason of its 48 straightforward methods, its short and workmanlike sentences, and a brevity rare in his day. In the case of Malory, who comes some time after the others, we have quite an individual style. It is still unadorned; but it has a distinction of phrase and a decided romantic flavour that make Malory a prose stylist of a high class. His prose is, indeed, quite distinct from that of his predecessors, and exerts little influence on the writers who follow. 49 CHAPTER IV FROM CHAUCER TO SPENSER THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND (1450-1550) The dates that appear at the head of this section are only approximate, but the general features of the time are well defined. In England the period begins with wars, unrest, and almost chaos; it concludes with a settled dynasty, a reformed religion, and a people united and progressive. Abroad, as well as in England, there is apparent the broad intellectual flood known as the Renaissance, running deep and strong: the renewed desire for knowledge, changes in religious ideals, the discovery of new worlds, both geographical and literary, and the enormous quickening of heart and mind. In England the scene is being prepared for the great age to follow. LITERARY FEATURES OF THE AGE 1.Poverty of Material. Considering the length of the period, the poverty of the output is hard to explain. There is no English poet of any consequence; the prose writing is thin in quality and quantity; and if it were not for the activities of the Scottish poets the age would be poor indeed. 2.Scottish Poetry. Scottish poetry comes late into notice, but it