Fundamentals of Guidance & Counseling PDF

ED221 Fundamentals of Guidance & Counseling by Lara Ç. What’s the purpose of education? 1. Knowledge acquisition and cognitive development ○ Students are tried to be provided with foundational knowledge, critical thinking and a desire fo...

ED221 Fundamentals of Guidance & Counseling by Lara Ç. What’s the purpose of education? 1. Knowledge acquisition and cognitive development ○ Students are tried to be provided with foundational knowledge, critical thinking and a desire for lifelong learning 2. Personal development ○ Helping them gain self awareness/identity, emotional /social skills and build character 3. Career preparation ○ Providing skills for employment and adaptability to changing job markets (yeni teknolojik gelişmelere adapte olabilme hali vs.) Chapter 1 The Emergence of Developmental Guidance and Counseling The percentage of foreign students increased over the years. However, it still is less likely for them to succeed in school because of the disparity of resources. ○ Rich kids have more school supplies than poor ones. All students have special needs, problems, interests that affect the way they learn and most of them are associated with the developmental stages of life. To help students cope with the issues of growing up and to enhance personal/social/academic/career growth, organized guidance and counseling programs are designed. Students learn about interpersonal skills and relationships, how to take an active part in school, setting goals, developing study skills, making responsible decisions and solving problems.  To be systematic and effective, a developmental guidance and counseling program requires the understanding and cooperative efforts of counselors, teachers, administrators, parents and students. Guidance: a directive process that offers advice and information to help individuals make decisions, focuses primarily on educational and career-related decisions, and is often proactive (helping to prevent problems before they arise) ○ Professional educators (teachers, counselors) commonly offer this process. ○ Guidance implies personal assistance to students, teachers, parents and administrators. It’s a helping process. ○ It also can be described as an instructional process in which a student is given information and told how to move progressively toward a personal goal. (Students might be given suggestions to reach their set goals.) ○ Can also be identified as structured learning activities/group lessons that guide students to reach better understanding of themselves and others. Counseling: a more therapeutic and interactive process, which aims to address personal, emotional and psychological problems ○ involves deep listening, empathy and helping individuals understand their thoughts and feelings ○ Not only school counselors but also lawyers, social workers, teachers counsel people. ○ It’s a special type of helping process in which the focus is on the personal meaning of events and experiences. It focuses more on personal awareness, interests, attitudes, and goals. A school counselor may give some occupational information, characteristics of a job field as a part of guidance, and if any of these students are frustrated and worried about their s then a more personal and intense intervention such as counseling might be appropriate. The most common distinction between counseling and psychotherapy is counseling is for students or clients who are within the normal range of functioning. The problems may still be as serious as those might find in psychotherapy, but counseling dwells more on current situations and related feelings/behaviors. There’s not as much effort to explore hidden meanings, deep-rooted sources, etc. Psychotherapy is typically more intense, longer in duration, and attempts to gain insight through detailed explorations of the past. School counselors are concerned first with helping students develop their positive attributes and to be better learners. Both teaching and guidance and counseling help students learn but guidance and counseling concentrate more on personal interests, problems, meanings, experiences, goals, and behaviors. Counselors may teach students skills that might be applied to help  resolve a problem or reduce anxiety. Teaching, on the other hand, is more instructional and directive than exploratory and facilitative of personal interests and goals because teachers are in charge of teaching an academic curriculum to a whole class, which makes it hard for them to focus on personal growth and needs. The History of School Guidance and Counseling 1. School counseling began as vocational guidance in the U.S. (Late 1800s- Early 1900s) a. influenced by the industrial revolution and the need to prepare students for the workforce b. Frank Parsons, who found the Vocational Bureau of Boston, is known as the ‘father of vocational guidance’. 2. Jesse B. Davis introduced vocational guidance programs in schools in 1914 to provide occupational info, vocational assessments, and job placements. Schools are now a broader place than just learning and writing. 3. Intellectual and personality traits were started in the 1920s to be measured to assign everyone a job considering their capacity. With the Great Depression (1930s) and its economic challenges a need for career guidance increased. Counseling expanded to include emotional and psychological support. 4. During WW2 a need for psychological counseling in schools had occurred. ASCA was founded during the 1950s to standardize these services. 5. The launch of Sputnik, the world’s first artificial satellite, by the Soviet Union in 1957 played a crucial role in shaping the history of school counseling because it created fears in the U.S. about falling behind in science, technology, and engineering, prompting a national push to improve education in these areas (National Defense Education Act (NDEA) was passed by congress in response to Sputnik which focused on improving math, science, and foreign languages to ensure U.S. could compete globally). NDEA also funded school counseling programs. The role of counselors was to promote these subjects and guide students towards STEM careers. 6. Counselor education departments in universities across the nation began to develop graduate programs to train counselors. However, the scope of counseling was still not clear. In fact, most of the school counselors were doing administrative jobs such as making schedules, coordinating tests, keeping records, etc.But with the help of leaders in ASCA, a vision of what school counseling could be began to take form. 7. Gilbert Wrenn was appointed to chair the Commission on Guidance in theAmerican Schools. They studied the role and function of school counselors. Wrenn wrote a significant report in 1962, called The Counselor in a Changing World and this solidified the goals of the profession.  a. The report highlighted how rapidly changing social, political, and technological needs of students and argued counselors must adapt to these shifts to remain effective. b. Wrenn promoted a humanistic approach to counseling, emphasizing empathy, understanding, and the counselor’s role in helping students develop fully as individuals, which helped broaden the role of school counseling to include emotional and psychological support. c. Wren put emphasis upon counselors being informed about student developmental needs and on the importance of understanding social context. Counselors now play a pivotal role in addressing issues like mental health, cultural diversity, and inclusivity. d. Wrenn’s work also pioneered the ASCA model by focusing on developmental counseling. e. Sputnik and the NDEA led to the expansion of academic counseling, while Wrenn’s work emphasized the need to support students holistically. 8. School counseling has been developing ever since, shifting toward more holistic models, addressing academic, social, emotional needs. Four Approaches to Guidance and Counseling The Crisis Approach ○ When people reach a point where their welfare is threatened, lose self control, or need quick attention, a counselor could provide a crisis intervention, in which they help the student to find a reasonable and responsible next step. The Remedial Approach ○ It focuses on identifiable deficiencies. A remedy is suggested or applied in hope a student will be able to make normal progress and avoid a crisis situation (Teaching a student social courtesies by counselor-led group activities when they don’t know about them) The Preventive Approach ○ It tries to anticipate problems and then stop them from happening. We must know and identify what we want to prevent first. Counseling strategies are then developed for each one. The Developmental Approach ○ An attempt to identify certain skills and experiences students need to have as part of their going to school and being successful. Learning behaviors and tasks are identified and clarified for students. Life skills are also identified and emphasized as part of preparing students for adulthood. ○ Students can solve their own problems with the insights they get from this approach.  ○ This approach incorporates the other 3 approaches. Students face specific tasks, challenges and needs at every stage of life. Guidance interventions should be age appropriate and match the developmental level of students. ○ Elementary school: Focus on building self-esteem, basic social skills, and learning behaviors ○ Middleschool: Emphasis on identity formation, social relationships, and decision making ○ Highschool: Preparing for life after school with a focus on career exploration The developmental approach, however, has become the most accepted approach for all school levels. Chapter 2 Developmental Guidance: A Comprehensive Approach The developmental guidance theory is rooted in the idea that guidance and counseling should align with the natural developmental stages of children and adolescents. ○ The theory doesn’t view guidance as a reaction to problems, but as a proactive, structured process that addresses the evolving needs of students throughout their growth, helping them navigate academic, personal, and social challenges. ○ Developmental guidance is grounded on theories of human development (Erikson, Piaget, Kohlberg…) and emphasizes that students progress through identifiable stages. At each stage they face specific tasks: Glasser’s Theory argues that the only person whose behavior we can control is ourselves. We’re driven by 5 genetic needs: love and belonging, power, fun, survival, and freedom. Behavior is an attempt to satisfy these needs. (Her yaptığımızı bu ihtiyaçları gerçekleştirmek için yapıyoruz.) We all have pictures in our minds where we think we will be most happy. They are called quality world pictures and they make us behave in a certain way if we think the reality doesn’t live up to these pictures. (Örn. Arkadaşlarıyla konuşan sevgilinin bizi artık sevmediğini düşünüp üzülmek, kitlenmek, başka bir işle uğraşamamak, anksiyete yaşamak. (Bunları yaşamamızın sebebi, sevgilimizin bu davranışının bizim ‘love and belonging’ ihtiyacımız için kafamızda kurduğumuz mükemmel resimle çelişmesi)) Every behavior is a combination of acting, thinking, feeling, and physiology. This combination is called the total behavior. All behavior is chosen but we have direct control over only our acting and thinking components. We can however control our feelings and physiology indirectly through how we choose to act and think. (Örn. Eğer bu düşüncemizi sevgilimize olan güven düşünceleriyle değiştirebilirsek, başka bir yere gidip başka insanlarla konuşarak dikkatimizi dağıtabilirsek hislerimiz ve bedensel tepkilerimiz de değişecek, sakinleşeceğiz, eğlenebileceğiz.) All we can get from other people is information and how we deal with that information is our. This theory is for us to live a happier life. Some behaviors are helpful (caring habits) and some aren’t (deadly habits) on this path:  The holistic development approach views the child as a whole person, whose academic, emotional, social, and physical development are interconnected. ○ Programs, aiming a holistic approach, address not only academic success but also personal and social issues. They are balanced and support students in all areas of development, ensuring that they grow as well-rounded individuals. A preventive and proactive focus suggests that guidance shouldn’t only address problems after they arise but should actively prevent them by fostering skills such as decision-making, communication, conflict resolution, and resilience. ○ Programs, aiming this focus, implement activities and lessons that equip students with tools to avoid future difficulties, emphasizing self-awareness, healthy relationships, and coping strategies. Developmental guidance is rooted in the idea that guidance is a continuous process that prepares students for lifelong learning and adaptation to change. It’s not just about addressing immediate concerns but about helping students build skills for life. ○ The program promotes the development of critical life skills such as self regulation, goal setting, and problem solving that can be adapted as students grow older and face new challenges. The developmental guidance theory recognizes that students grow at their own pace and have unique needs, learning styles, and personal experiences. So it’s students centered and applies individualized support. ○ Programs should be flexible and responsive to individual differences. While certain developmental tasks apply broadly, counselors must tailor their approaches based on each student's particular context. Developmental guidance emphasizes the importance of collaboration and community in the learning process. Guidance isn’t delivered in isolation, it requires the active involvement of teachers, parents, peers, and community members (coming from social learning theories such as Vygotsky’s ). ○ Counselors often work with teachers, administrators, families, and community organizations to provide comprehensive support. Developmental guidance theory suggests that guidance services should be offered in a planned, sequential manner that builds on previous acquired skills. The idea is to systematically address students’ developmental needs over time. ○ Guidance programs should follow a structured curriculum/framework that moves progressively, introducing new challenges and resources appropriate to the developmental stages of students. This progression supports students’ readiness to face the challenges of each stage of life. Equitable access and inclusivity principles reflect developmental psychological theories, which stress the importance of the environment in development  (Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory). Guidance must be inclusive, recognizing diverse needs based on socioeconomic background, race, gender, ability, and other factors. ○ Guidance programs should ensure that all students, regardless of background, have access to the resources and supplies they need. Counselors must be sensitive to cultural, linguistic, and social diversity and provide interventions that are equitable and culturally competent. Developmental guidance supports career and life planning as an evolving process that begins in early childhood and continues throughout life. ○ Guidance programs incorporate career exploration at every stage, helping students understand their interests and strengths and linking them to future educational/career pathways. The theory of developmental guidance draws from several educational and psychological theories: ○ Erickson’s Psychosocial Development Theory- highlights the different stages of personal and social development, each involving specific tasks and challenges ○ Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory- emphasizes how children’s thinking evolves over time, impacting how they approach learning/problem solving ○ Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory- stresses the importance of social interaction and collaborative learning ○ Super’s Career Development Theory- focuses on the lifelong nature of career development, beginning in childhood with self-awareness and continuing through adulthood with career decision-making ○ Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Development Theory- recognizes that a student’s development is influenced by their environment, including family, school, peers and community By synthesizing these theories, the developmental guidance model aims to create a structured, age-appropriate, system of support that helps students grow in all aspects of their lives. By learning lifelong skills and attitudes, students become more likely to gain a sense of control and success in their lives. The principles of developmental guidance programs are based on a proactive, structured approach to ensure that students receive the guidance they need at each stage of their development. Some key principles are: ○ Comprehensiveness- address all aspects of student development, including academic, career, social, emotional growth Application: Programs should include a wide range of services and activities (classroom guidance lessons, individual and group counseling, career exploration, and crisis intervention…) ○ Being proactive and preventive- Programs should be proactive in addressing potential issues before they become significant problems, and should equip students with skills to prevent challenges in the future Application: Programs should include activities such as teaching coping skills, conflict resolution, decision making, and goal-setting, which will help students navigate challenges in a healthy and productive way. ○ Being developmentally appropriate- Guidance should be tailored to the developmental stages of students, ensuring that it is relevant to their age, needs, and abilities. Application: Programs should offer age-appropriate lessons and counseling, taking into account the cognitive, emotional, and social levels of students. ○ Being student-centered- The focus of the program should be on the individual needs of each student, recognizing that each student’s developmental journey is unique. Application: Programs should be flexible to accommodate different learning styles, cultural backgrounds, and personal experiences, ensuring that each student receives personalized support. ○ Collaborative effort- Programs require the cooperation and involvement of various members, including students, parents, teachers, counselors, and the community. Application: Counselors should work closely with teachers, administrators, parents, and community members to ensure a supportive environment that fosters student growth. ○ Being systematic and sequential- Programs should be organized in a way that provides structured, continuous support throughout a student’s education. Application: Programs should include sequential activities and lessons, built upon skills learned at earlier stages of development (early elementary lessons may focus on basic social skills, while high school guidance may focus on career and college planning). ○ Being balanced between prevention and intervention- While focusing on prevention, developmental guidance programs should provide intervention when problems arise. Application: Programs should include a balance between preventive programs such as study skills workshops and responsive services like crisis counseling. ○ Being data-driven and accountability-based- Programs should be evaluated and improved based on data that tracks student outcomes and program effectiveness.  Application: Counselors and administrators should use student performance data, feedback, and assessments of program outcomes to make informed decisions and continuously improve the guidance program. ○ Equitable access- Every student should have access to guidance and support they need, regardless of background or circumstance. Programs should actively work to remove barriers to access and ensure that all students receive appropriate guidance. ○ Career and life planning focus- Programs should help students prepare for their future, not only academically but also in terms of life skills and career readiness. Application: Programs should include guidance in decision-making, goal-setting, and exploration of career options that align with students’ strengths and interests. Developmental Guidance Curriculum and Goals The guidance curriculum is a planned effort to provide each student with a set of skills and experiences that helps enhance all learning. Outcomes of personal growth might be desirable for any educational program. There are 8 goals that characterize every developmental guidance and counseling program (in K-12): a. Understanding the school environment attending to become more familiar with facilities, procedures, and programs, including the guidance program and the roles of school counselors b. Understanding self and others helping to learn more about their abilities, interests, and personal characteristics includes self-assessment, self-acceptance, and development of self- confidence c. Understanding attitudes and behavior understanding of self and others, giving attention to how habits, attitudes affect behavior teaching that behaviors can be changed if desired d. Decision making and problem solving setting goals, making responsible decisions emphasis on responsibility and personal e. Interpersonal and communication skills relates to friendship, relationships with students, teachers, etc.  f. School success skills helping students be more successful in school includes study skills, learning behaviors, time management, conflict resolution g. Career awareness and educational planning understanding about the world of work, increasing career awareness, in depth career exploration related to personal skills, interests also making educational plans (developing employability skills, learning how to search for a job, selecting courses, etc.) h. Community pride and involvement becoming responsible and productive members of their communities Principles of Developmental Guidance 1. Developmental guidance is for all students 2. Developmental guidance has an organized and planned curriculum a. is built upon helping students with their cognitive, affective, and physical growth, giving special attention to potential, motivation, and achievement b. concretes on learning c. concerned with behavior, too (see above for more) 3. Developmental guidance is sequential and flexible a. some skills are taught best at specific age levels, and the skills taught should provide continuity (ex. orientation to school-> assessment of goals -> …) b. the program can be moved around to accommodate student and teacher readiness (timely teaching)/ sometimes new units must be developed to address a particular need 4. Developmental guidance is an integrated part of the total educational process a. Counselors may create a personalized guidance lesson which draws upon and applies something that has been learned in an academic class (ex. derste mektup yazmayı öğrenmenin iş başvurularında da kullanılabilmesi) 5. Developmental guidance involves all school personnel a. although counselors are in charge of organizing and planning developmental guidance programs, some units of the programs may best be delivered by other school personnel (ex. teachers during class, or when they work as advisors) b. the implementation of the program requires cooperation among all school personnel 6. Developmental guidance helps students learn more effectively and efficiently a. everything in the guidance program is eventually directed at helping students learn more effectively and efficiently  7. Developmental guidance includes counselors who provide specialized counseling services and interventions a. some students may need more specialized services from time to time, counselor help them cope with their ongoing problems There are many young people who are considered ‘at risk’. They come from less advantaged/minority families and consequently are often less prepared to gain the most out of school. These students are considered a prime population for special attention (counselor assistance). Immigrant children face learning and adaptation problems. Early interventions and development approaches in the schools can help bring down the barriers. These approaches help all students learn to respect the value of diversity, rights of others, to form positive working relationships with adults and peers. A Comprehensive Guidance and Counseling Program School counselors must provide the leadership that is needed to develop a comprehensive guidance program, which offers a full range of services and activities (individual and small group counseling, large group guidance, peer helper training, consultation, etc.). They are advocates for students and seek to enhance student achievement through guidance and counseling services. ASCA models should serve as a template for the development of a school counseling program. Counselors could adapt the framework to their current programs. However, the model is flexible as it’s impossible to develop one ideal program that could be used in every school. It only identifies fundamental domains and standards. The foundation of the comprehensive guidance program model is lodged in self-development of a person’s lifespan with an emphasis on the knowledge, skills and attitudes needed for career development. The model emphasizes 3 domains of human growth: ○ self-knowledge and interpersonal skills ○ life roles, settings, and events emphasizing knowledge and understanding of the interrelatedness of various life roles ○ life career planning The major activities and responsibilities of personnel involved in the guidance program: ○ guidance curriculum/structured classroom activities, organized around domains of student competencies ○ individual planning, including activities to assist students in monitoring and understanding their growth  ○ responsive services, with such as info seeking, crisis counseling, and consultation with teachers and parents ○ system support, with activities geared toward program management and operations Comprehensive guidance and counseling programs have been conceptualized as result-based systems that construct essential counselor roles around critical outcomes to be achieved by all students. Counselor job satisfaction and defined job roles are related. Roles of School Personnel in Guidance Good guidance permeates the school environment. It means better school morale among students and teachers. Effective guidance and counseling programs take the cooperation and active participation of all school personnel. A comprehensive program is built primarily on the work of: ○ Administrators ○ Teachers ○ Counselors ○ Other support personnel A principal ○ provides leadership to the guidance program. ○ provides personnel to the school’s guidance team. ○ provides administrative support and encouragement. ○ participates actively in defining and clarifying the guidance assignments and roles. ○ provides adequate time, space, facilities, and materials needed to implement the program. ○ consults with the guidance committee regarding the organization, monitoring, evaluation of the guidance program. ○ helps to identify guidance needs in the school and recommend possible guidance units or interventions. ○ communicates the philosophy and structure of the program to parents and the general public. ○ consults with the guidance committee regarding special issues, or problems that develop among students and school personnel. A school counselor ○ provides social-emotional support to students. ○ assumes leadership in organizing and developing a comprehensive developmental guidance and counseling program.  ○ provides individual/small group counseling services to students. ○ organizes and leads large group guidance units, activities. ○ trains and coordinates peer facilitators and related projects. ○ consults with parents, teachers, and administrators regarding special concerns and needs, or interventions of students. ○ develops guidance units that evolve from student needs and assessments. ○ helps to develop and coordinate teachers as advisors program (TAP). ○ serves as a professional resource to teacher-advisors about brief counseling and behavior change. ○ helps to identify students who have special needs and to find alternative services for them. ○ coordinates faculty and staff development programs. ○ coordinates student assessment, advisement, community resources, special education, etc. A teacher ○ helps to develop and implement a comprehensive developmental guidance program within the school. ○ helps to identify students who need special attention in learning more efficiently. ○ works as a teacher-advisor, meets designated students individually or in a group. ○ attempts to know personally each student and their parents who are in the TAP group. ○ follows-up with advisees regarding academic progress, grade reports, discipline referrals, special concerns, and general info. ○ builds a group cohesiveness among assigned TAP groups of students. ○ seeks assistance for advisees whose needs are beyond the limits of TAP or classroom guidance. ○ identifies students' needs and makes recommendations to the guidance committee. ○ consults with counselors regarding the guidance needs of the advisees. ○ participates in staff-development programs that will help in providing guidance activities and brief counseling experiences for students. A school registrar ○ coordinates the school record keeping system and maintains all student files. ○ helps to identify target student populations who might benefit from counseling services. ○ registers new students. ○ coordinates with counselors the transition of individual students transferring between schools.  An occupation specialist or career counselor ○ develops a comprehensive career resource center. ○ collects national state and local publications, materials, and other career resources. ○ provides career development guidance units that can be used during TAP time. ○ consults with teachers regarding career interests. ○ helps to identify the career interests and needs of students. ○ works with students/parents in terms of career and educational planning. ○ creates career guidance connections on the internet. ○ develops organized guidance units that help students explore career and educational opportunities. A school psychologist ○ focuses on students’ mental health and learning capabilities, conducting evaluations and offering counseling. ○ administers psychological assessments to identify learning difficulties or behavioral issues. ○ designs individualized learning plans in collaboration with special education teams. ○ provides counseling for emotional or behavioral problems. ○ promotes positive mental health strategies within the school. Chapter 3 The Teacher as Student Advisor Student’s usually can’t receive individual attention and counseling from school counselors due to the high number of students. Only with teacher involvement and commitment is developmental guidance possible. The way teachers interact with students can make a difference in how well students learn. They feel encouraged and try harder if they feel like their teacher is caring and interested in them. Some characteristics of such teachers are: ○ seeing students point of view ○ personalizing the education experience ○ being flexible and open to try new ideas ○ developing a helping relationship with students and parents ○ modeling interpersonal and communication skills ○ fostering a positive learning environment When students have problems, they turn to those who they think can be the most helpful. Trained school counselors are usually not the students’ first of a helper,  because students don’t see counselors as often as they see their peers/teachers and their image often is too aligned with authority, discipline, and administrative procedures. There is a need for teachers to be directly involved in developmental guidance. A teacher-advisor program (TAP) is a program where teachers are designated as student advisors to a group of students. The best ratio is about 1 to 15 students. Advisors are responsible for helping their advisees to deal with the problems of growing up and getting the most out of school. They’re responsible for an advisee’s cumulative folder, teacher-student/parent conferences, group guidance experiences, and follow-up on academic progress reports. There should be at least 2 TAP sessions a week. The topics of TAP group sessions can be (respectively): ○ getting acquainted with the school and each other ○ study skills and habits ○ self-assessment ○ communication skills ○ decision making and problem solving ○ peer relationships ○ motivation ○ conflict resolution ○ wellness ○ career development ○ educational planning ○ community involvement But what’s the counselor’s role in TAP? ○ Counselors will be invited and help co-lead some guidance units and sessions with teachers. They serve as models/consultants to teachers. They work for and with teachers. ○ Counselors will develop special guidance units based on particular needs of a student group/population and present to them during TAP sessions. ○ They meet with students during TAP hours, which allows the counselors to disrupt academic classes less. ○ Counselors will pull students who are disruptive or who can’t adjust to TAP and target them for special attention. ○ Counselors coordinate TAP as a leader if no TAP coordinator is employed. Teachers need to understand the philosophy behind TAP and how it is related to developmental guidance. The time commitment for TAP needs to be adequate. TAP must have a developmental guidance curriculum, with supporting materials and activities.  Teachers need preparation in guidance and interpersonal skills. TAP needs administrative support. TAP nneds to be monitored and evaluated. Advantages of TAP A small group of students designated to one teacher resolves the problem of the inadequacy of high counselor-student ratios. It enables all students to know an adult personally in the school who cares about them and who can assist them with some guidance. TAp ist the only way a comprehensive guidance and counseling program can be fully implemented in a school because it involves all school personnel. TAP helps create positive learning environments in school. More students receive more guidance services. Limitations of TAP Not all teachers can work effectively as teacher-advisors to students. The success of TAP depends upon administrator and teacher knowledge and support. Chapter 4 The Counselor: A Developmental Guidance Specialist ASCA: ‘Developmental guidance is that component of all guidance efforts which fosters planned interventions within educational and other human services programs at all points in the human life cycle to vigorously stimulate and actively facilitate the total development of individuals in all areas (i.e. personal, socal, emotional, career, moral-ethical, cognitive, and aesthetic) ant to promote the integration of the several components into an individual’s lifestyle.’ ○ However, the explanation above fails to spell out the role of a school counselor. Counselors will need a sharper role definition and they will need some new theories and strategies. Counseling Theories Revisited 4 most used approaches in developmental guidance and counseling: Client-Centered Counseling ○ most used approach ○ emphasizes ‘fully functioning’ individuals are open to experiences in life and trust themselves to do those things that feel right. It’s based on the following premises:  A human being functions as a total organism and any change to part may produce changes in other parts. (physical, behavioral, etc.) Individuals have their own perceptual fields, which is their reality. Interactions from these perceptual fields lead to the development of their self-concepts. The self-concept is a learned sense of self from one’s experiences. (IF the person’s not flexible) any experience that’s not consistent with the self-concept is perceived as a threat. Conflicts arise when self-concepts and external events are incongruous (tutarsız). ○ It assumes people have the capacity to discover themselves the necessary resources for their growth. If certain helping conditions are present in a client’s life, then the person will become more ‘self-actualizing’ and naturally move toward more positive and self-enhancing behaviors. ○ A genuine caring relationship is more important than techniques. ○ The primary focus is on what a person is experiencing, assuming self-disclosing talk produces the necessary insight for change. (Student talks, counselor listens with care ,respect, genuineness, and empathy in a safe environment.) Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) ○ a more active and directive session including homework, rather than just waiting for the client to gain insight. ○ How we talk and think influence how we feel and behave. ○ Self-talk needs to be reevaluated, sometimes eliminated, and positive self-talk put in its place. ○ In a developmental guidance and counseling program, counselors establish a close relationship with the student and confront/point out the illogical ideas of students about themselves. As ideas are challenged, resistance is worked through. The counselor plays an active role in analyses and teaching. ○ Some typical irrational beliefs are ‘I must be loved by everyone to be happy.’, ‘I must be perfect beyond reproach.’, ‘People who make mistakes are worthless and should be punished.’, ‘You can’t overcome your past.’… ○ Common techniques are confronting, reframing ideas, role-playing, humor, homework assignments, guided imagery, and practice activities. Behavioral Counseling ○ Some behavioral techniques are operant conditioning, relaxing/ anxiety relieving behavioral procedures, modeling, imitation, reinforcement. ○ The procedures of behavioral counseling include these steps: Identify the problem in terms of observable and recordable behavior.  Assess the problem by collecting baseline data and ascertaining any relevant behavioral history. Specify the goals, usually selecting one behavior. Select and apply the methods to be used and assess the progress until the goal’s obtained. ○ Behavior therapists focus their attention on specific behaviors instead of generalities (Ex. He’s a good listener.) Reality Therapy ○ All students seek an identity. Whatever identity they develop becomes their reality. (Ex. A ‘failure identity’ results in adaptation of irrational identity patterns, apathy, being uninvolved, etc.) ○ The key is to first build a positive relationship and then to emphasize that each person assumes responsibility for their own behavior. While attention is given to behavior change, individuals are encouraged to understand themselves, to set goals, and to make responsible decisions. Irresponsible behavior is confronted. ○ Glasser’s ‘ theory’ supplements reality theory. It focuses on helping students develop routine behaviors and habits that enhance their lives by making them feel more in control and responsible for the consequences for their actions. Other Theories ○ Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theory a theory that suggests behavior is the product of mental forces and impulses that have their origin in childhood It’s often used to describe deviant (sapkın) behavior. ○ Adlerian Psychology suggests that a person’s behavior is purposeful and goal-directed and that we can understand the meaning of the behavior by understanding the goal. emphasizes people must see themselves as unique individuals who have the capacity to make decisions and s-> Students are assisted to gain insight into behavior and alternatives for solving problems ○ Gestalt Theory suggests that human mind perceives the world in patterns or systems focuses on personal congruence, nonverbal behavior, and the use of imagery to cause change ○ Solution-focused Therapy is action-oriented, emphasizing what can be done in the near future to resolve a problem rather than what contributed to the problem behavior ○ Strength-based Counseling  focuses on what’s going right in a person’s life. Past and present successes are found by the client and counselor and use these to address current and future challenges. draws upon an individual’s innate and learned strengths in dealing with life’s challenges ○ Brief Counseling can refer to counseling that lasts from 1 to 20 sessions, although the latter is not practical in most schools typically draws upon techniques associated with REBT and basic learning approaches emphasis is on using efficient methods to help resolve problems or to help clients gain personal insights. Goal setting and homework techniques are often used. There is a need for new counseling theories, ones that are school based and most likely will be based on problem-solving models. The Professional Counselor Being a professional counselor obliges one to be a member of the state and national professional associations. The primary organization for school counselors is ASCA, which focuses on providing professional development, enhancing school counseling programs, drawing the ethical framework, and researching effective school counseling practices. American Counseling Association (ACA) have 19 divisions: Association for Assessment in Counseling Education Association for Adult Development and Aging Association for Creativity in Counseling American College Counseling Association Association for Counselors and Educator in Government Association for Counselor Education and Supervision Association for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Issues in Counseling Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development American Mental Health Counselors Association American Rehabilitation Counseling Association American School Counselor Association (ASCA) Association for Spiritual, Ethical, and Religious Values in Counseling Association for Specialists in Group Work Counseling Association for Humanistic Education and Development Counselors for Social Justice  International Association of Addictions and Offender Counselors International Association of marriage and Family Counselors National Career Development Association National Employment Counseling Association A school counselor may belong to more than one division. ASA currently recognizes 3 professional credentials: accreditation, certification, licensure. There are many ethical obligations of a counselor such as determining whether they’re qualified to provide a particular service. Precautions are taken to protect individuals from physical or psychological traumas resulting from the work of a counselor. Counseling relationships and confidential info are private unless there is a situation of self harm, harm to others, abuse or neglect, and court orders/subpoenas. In such cases, the counselor is obligated to inform responsible authorities. Some scool counseling related issues are AIDS, ADHD, censorship, child abuse/neglect prevention, college entrance test prep, conflict resolution, corporal punishment in the schools, cross/multicultural counseling, discipline, dropout prevention, education planning, evaluation, gender equity, gifted student programs, peer helping, sexual orientation, special needs students, students-at-risk, student safety on the internet… ASCA recommends a counselor/student ratio of 1 to 250. However, the reality is almost double the number of students. How should counselors manage their time? Basic Counselor Interventions Individual counseling  ○ involves a personal, one-to-one interaction between the counselor and a student working together on a problem/topic of interest. ○ is a more intense experience as the student can be interviewed in greater depth ○ The estimated individual counseling session is 30 minutes. ○ It usually is not possible to meet with students individually continuously, so counselors usually prioritize students at-risk. ○ There are also ‘one-time’ interviews with other students. Small group counseling ○ involves a counselor working with 2-6 students simultaneously. ○ Common concerns and interests can provide a foundation for most groups. ○ 4-8 sessions are ideal. ○ Counselors usually lead groups where members participate in structured learning activities but the sessions can also be spontaneous and free-flowing. Large group counseling ○ consists of meeting 9 or more students, generally scheduled for 20 to 55 minutes depending on grade level. ○ Classroom guidance, for example, is a typical counselor intervention at the elementary level. A counselor may work with an entire class and work with the classroom teacher in providing group guidance activities. ○ Cooperative learning methods are used (Students work together in small groups/with the total group). ○ TAP is considered a large group counseling. Peer facilitator training and projects ○ Students as helpers to other students. Students learn how to help others and participate in supervised projects. ○ Most of what peer facilitators do can be classified into 4 roles: student assistants to counselors and teachers, tutors, special friends, small group leaders. ○ They aren’t counselors but they can help extend guidance services throughout the school by helping other students to think about their problems, concerns, and assist them in finding help. ○ Ideally, school counselors are the ones who train and supervise students in helping projects. Consultation ○ Generally it is the process of helping someone to think about a work related problem. Consultation with teachers, parents, students, administrators, and community helpers is part of the counselor’s job. ○ Consultation can also take place in groups such as teacher seminars. In most cases, the counselor will facilitate a discussion instead of offering expert advice. Coordination of Guidance Services  ○ The counselor is the coordinator and administrator of guidance services in the school and this involves many activities: being involved in a school’s standardized testing program, coordinating the data that go into cumulative folders (if there’s no registrar), helping coordinate the educational placement of students or staff meetings or staff-development ○ These coordination tasks shouldn’t turn into administrative tasks. Priority-Setting How do we set priorities? Start by asking the students and faculty to help you identify the guidance needs in your school. A needs assessment of a written questionnaire, including most common problems and guidance suggestions, could be distributed to students and teachers. A guidance committee composed of teachers and counselors could also be helpful as they can interview other teachers and listen for special needs. Parents and community members can help identify priorities by suggesting topics about which they’re concerned. State and community reports by governmental agencies may also provide some clues regarding student needs (drug use, teenage suicides, etc.) Crisis situations such as mass losses from a natural disaster, national crisis (9/11), anxiety attacks or serious child neglect take priority. Working with groups of people takes higher priority than individuals alone. Always schedule your interventions to use your time effectively! Career Development Programs include clarifying work values and developing plans. assessing abilities, personality traits, and interests. providing occupational and career information. helping students learn interviewing and job hunting skills. increasing awareness of educational and training opportunities. encouraging skill training, goal setting, and decision making. integrating academic and career skills in a school curriculum. reviewing and evaluating student action plans. Counselors have to inform the students and parents about the work of a counselor. Then, they will have a better idea of how best to use the guidance office and counselor services. Developmental counselors base their work on helping students learn more effectively and efficiently. Counselors are concerned with the personal problems of students because they can detract from learning. Chapter 5 The Counselor as Facilitator A facilitator is someone who is adept in the use of interpersonal skills and who can assist individuals or groups to move toward their goals, help people explore their ideas and arrive at responsible decisions. School counselors and teachers are described as facilitators. The Facilitative Model The model can be used on students, parents, administratives, and others. It’s not an attempt to replace counseling theories, the model emphasizes certain aspects of helping relationships and facilitative processes that can make you more effective. The model consists of 4 parts: ○ the facilitative conditions of a helping relationship Forming a counseling relationship, one in which a person feels free to self-disclose, depends on some fundamental facilitative conditions: caring understanding acceptance respect friendliness/warmth trustworthiness empathy congruence/authenticity/genuineness active listening non-directive approach (encouraging clients to find their own solutions rather than directing them) ○ facilitative processes It refers to the interactions that take place and the dynamics of the interpersonal relationship. Building a helping relationship by creating the facilitative conditions is done through self- disclosure ○ is the primary process in counseling and involves revealing one’s self to others  ○ Both clients and the counselor can self-disclosure. ○ When the counselor does it, it refers to the counselor sharing personal experiences, thoughts and feelings with the client as a way to build trust or deepen relationships. The client is assumed to model your behavior. It should be intentional, timely, relevant to the client’s needs, and maintain professional boundaries. ○ It shouldn’t be done in a way of giving advice. feedback ○ can validate attitudes and behaviors, or help modify/ make changes in one’s life. ○ The info students receive can be used to assess their development and progress. ○ Counselors also need feedback from others to know what they are being perceived in their work. increased awareness and decision making ○ People experience a greater awareness of themselves and others and they feel more confident in making decisions and solving problems after the former steps. responsible action ○ Eventually the clients are encouraged to take some action to make a decision and solve a problem. ○ facilitative responses help create facilitative conditions and enhance the helping relationship Some high facilitative responses are: the feeling-focused response ○ directs attention to what a person is feeling. A feeling has to be present in this type of response. ○ People feel better understood when someone senses what they are feeling in a situation and mirrors back those feelings ○ Ex. ‘You seem confused’, ‘That was exciting for you.’, ‘It hurts to think about it.’. clarifying/summarizing response ○ After listening attentively, you may want to clarify a significant idea or summarize some themes you heard expressed by paraphrasing the words of your client.  ○ Ex. ‘Let’s see then, you intend to enter the military after graduation.’, ‘You apparently have already made your plans.’ open question (açık uçlu sorular sormak) ○ are much more inviting to self-disclosure than closed questions. ○ asks for more information and encourages answers with more explanation. How the person responds can provide valuable clues and information. ○ Ex. ‘What can you tell me about your teachers?’, ‘What is it that’s confusing to you?’. ○ What/Why questions are better than a Why question because the latter tends to ask people to explain or justify themselves. facilitative feedback (as a compliment or confrontation) ○ involves reducing blind areas in a relationship. ○ The response is a personal one in which you are expressing your own feelings about a person’s behavior. ○ How can you compliment or confront people without them feeling defensive? Be specific about the behavior. (What has the person done? (Give examples.)) Tell how the person’s behavior makes you feel. (Compliment or confrontation) Tell what your feelings make you want to do. (How do you want to respond now?) simple acknowledgement ○ such a response is effective in bringing closure to someone’s comment. ○ Ex. ‘Thank you for sharing that.’, ‘Okay.’, ‘Thanks.’. linking ○ is especially facilitative in groups. It’s effective when a group leader identifies similarities/differences of feelings/likings/events/ideas that are occurring among a group. ○ Such responses help develop a sense of togetherness in a group and add to group cohesiveness. ○ Ex. ‘Juan and James, You’re excited about trying out for the soccer game.’  Some low facilitative responses are: advising/evaluating ○ such responses tell people how to behave or judge their behavior. ○ Students hear a lot of advice, but when it’s relevant and practical, it can be helpful and it might facilitate people toward their goals. ○ Ex. ‘Don’t drop geometry, you’ll need it later in college.’, ‘If you’d make a study plan, then you’d get more homework done.’. ○ Evaluative statements are judgemental, whether positive or negative, and are unlikely to be facilitative. Even when used as a secondary reinforcer. ○ Ex. ‘That's great!’ analyzing/interpreting ○ tries to explain the reason behind people’s thoughts or behaviors in the hope this will provide insight. ○ Ex. ’You want to be an engineer because your father wants that for you.’, ‘Don’t you see being critical of school is just another way of you expressing your unhappiness with your family’s situation?’ ○ tends to discourage self-discourage by confronting people who then become defensive and hesitate to share their thoughts. reassuring/supporting ○ intends to tell people we believe in them. These responses are meant as an encouragement but they can easily dismiss someone’s feelings and fail to facilitate self-disclosure. ○ Ex. ‘Everyone feels like that at your age.’, ‘Things will turn out okay.’, ‘I know how you feel.’. ○ facilitative activities and tasks can be used to build relationships and expendite the facilitative processes. These activities are structured learning experiences that may be used with individuals or groups. Some activities/tasks, for example, are designed to elicit self disclosure and increase self awareness, encourage self-assessment and feedback, focus on decision making and problem solving. Ex. starting with introductions during grıoup counseling (activity), requesting group work assignment (task). Counseling can both be directive and nondirective. Direct services with students are in-person interactions between school counselors and students and include instruction, appraisal/advisement and counseling. Direct counseling involves the counselor being the problem solver, authority, or the expert. The counselor takes an active role in guiding the student toward specific goals or solutions. It may involve providing clear decisions, or offering structured interventions. Nondirect counseling involves the counselor being a listener, supporter, or facilitator. In this type of counseling, students lead the conversation as the counselor supports them with empathy, helping the student explore their own feelings and thoughts. Involuntary counselees are students who are required or encouraged by a teacher, administrator, or parent to attend counseling. They are often resistant to engage in the counseling process as they didn’t seek out counseling on their own. They may see counseling as a punishment and be defensive. The counselor’s role is more challenging as building trust and rapport with involuntary counselees take more time and effort. Counselors often have to be patient with the resistance, lack of motivation, and difficulty to build rapport they will face. They may start with nondirective strategies to avoid triggering further resistance. They have to create a safe space, be understanding, focus on strengths instead of problems, set attainable goals, be flexible, and be patient with the counselee. —————————————————————————————————————— The Science of Neglect Beginning shortly after birth, the typical ‘serve and return’ interactions that occur between young children and their caregivers affect the formation of neural connections and the circuitry of a developing brain. Over the next few months, as babies reach out through greater engagement through cooing, crying, etc., and adults ‘return the serve’ by responding with similar vocalizing/expressiveness, the architecture of a developing brain is shaped. In contrast, if adult responses are unreliable, or absent, the development of the brain can be disrupted, and subsequent health, learning, and behavior can be impaired. Because this is sensed as a threat, which activates biological stress response systems and, excessive activation of those systems can have a toxic effect on the developing brain. Chronic neglect is associated with a wider range of damage than active abuse including cognitive delays, stunting of physical growth, impairments in self-regulation skills, etc. It also increases the risk for emotional, cognitive, and behavioral disorders, anxiety, depression, cardiovascular problems, learning difficulties, and poor school achievement. Science helps to differentiate 4 types of unresponsive care: The negative consequences of deprivation and neglect can be reversed or reduced through appropriate and timely interventions. Empathy vs Sympathy Empathy: fuels connection. is feeling with people (It’s understanding what a person is feeling and being with them as they go through it.). is a vulnerable choice, because in order to connect with that person, we have to connect with something in ourselves that knows that feeling. Ex. ‘I don’t even know what to say right now, I’m just so glad you told me.’ Sympathy: drives disconnection. may use ‘At least…’ sentences. tries to find a silver-lining in a bad situation, which usually doesn’t help Ex. ‘-I had a miscarriage. +At least you know you can get pregnant.’ A response can rarely make something better, what makes something better is connection. Sayfa