EBS 242D_EIT212D Curriculum Studies in ICT edited.pdf

EBS 242D CURRICULUM STUDIES IN ICT Dr. Rosemary Twum Dr. Brandford Bervell  First Publication in 2021 by UCC Press © COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST (CoDE UCC), 2021 CoDE PUBLICATIONS, 2021 All right r...

EBS 242D CURRICULUM STUDIES IN ICT Dr. Rosemary Twum Dr. Brandford Bervell  First Publication in 2021 by UCC Press © COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST (CoDE UCC), 2021 CoDE PUBLICATIONS, 2021 All right reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted by any form or means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise without the prior permission of the copyright holder. Cover page illustrated by Enoch Mbroh  THIS MODULE FORMS PART OF CoDEUCC PACKAGE FOR THE BACHELOR IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION PROGRAMME FOR FURTHER DETAILS YOU MAY CONTACT THE PROVOST (CoDEUCC) UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST CAPE COAST TEL/FAX O3321-35203, 36947 COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST (CoDEUCC) All rights reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, Stored in a retrieval system or transmitted by any form or means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise without the prior permission of the copyright holder. ABOUT THIS BOOK This Course Book “EBS 242D Curriculum Studies in ICT” has been exclusively written by experts in the discipline to up-date your general knowledge of Education in order to equip you with the basic tool you will require for your professional training as a teacher. This three-credit course book of thirty-six (36) sessions has been structured to reflect the weekly three-hour lecture for this course in the University. Thus, each session is equivalent to a one-hour lecture on campus. As a distance learner, however, you are expected to spend a minimum of three hours and a maximum of five hours on each session. To help you do this effectively, a Study Guide has been particularly designed to show you how this book can be used. In this study guide, your weekly schedules are clearly spelt out as well as dates for quizzes, assignments and examinations. Also included in this book is a list of all symbols and their meanings. They are meant to draw your attention to vital issues of concern and activities you are expected to perform. Blank sheets have been also inserted for your comments on topics that you may find difficult. Remember to bring these to the attention of your course tutor during your face-to-face meetings. We wish you a happy and successful study. Dr. Rosemary Twum Dr. Brandford Bervell CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education i  ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It has become a tradition in academic circles to acknowledge the assistance one received from colleagues in the writing of an academic document. Those who contributed in diverse ways toward the production of this particular course book merit more than mere acknowledgement for two main reasons. First, they worked beyond their normal limits in writing, editing and providing constant support and encouragement without which the likelihood of giving up the task was very high. Second, the time span for the writing and editing of this particular course book was so short that their exceptional commitment and dedication were the major factors that contributed to its accomplishment. It is in the foregoing context that the names of Dr. Rosemary Twum and Dr. Brandford Bervell of the University of Cape Coast, who wrote and edited the content of this course book for CoDEUCC, will ever remain in the annals of the College. This special remembrance also applies to those who assisted me in the final editing of the document. I wish to thank the Vice-Chancellor, Prof. Johnson Nyarko Boampong, the Pro-Vice-Chancellor, Prof. Dora Edu-Buandoh and all the staff of the University’s Administration without whose diverse support this course book would not have been completed. Finally, I am greatly indebted to the entire staff of CoDEUCC, especially Mrs. Christina Hesse and the Production Team for formatting the scripts. Any limitations in this course book, however, are exclusively mine. But the good comments must be shared among those named above. Prof. Isaac Galyuon (Provost) ii CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education  TABLE OF CONTENTS Content Page About this Book.................. i Acknowledgement..................... ii Table of Contents..................... iii Symbols and their Meanings...... …...... viii UNIT 1: THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM … … 1 Session 1: Definition of Curriculum … … … … 3 1.1 Definitions of Curriculum … … … … 3 1.2 Concepts of Curriculum Definition … … 4 1.3 Curriculum as Learner Experiences (Process) … 4 1.4 Curriculum as a Programme… … … 5 1.5 Curriculum as Content … … … … 6 1.6 Curriculum as a Product… … … … 6 1.7 Reasons why Curriculum is important to the Teacher … … … … … … 7 Session 2: Curriculum Perspectives … … … … … 9 2.1 Curriculum Perspectives … … … … 9 2.2 Rationalists/Idealism Perspective of Curriculum… 10 2.3 Empiricists/Realists’ Perspectives of Curriculum … 11 2.4 Pragmatists/Experientialists’ Perspectives of Curriculum… … … … … … 12 2.5 Existentialists/Phenomenologists’ Perspective of Curriculum … … … … … … 13 Session 3: Additional Curriculum Perspectives… … … 15 3.1 Additional Perspectives … … … … 15 3.2 Perennialism Perspective… … … … 15 3.3 Essentialism Perspective … … … … 16 3.4 Progressivism Perspective… … … … 17 3.5 Reconstructionism Perspective … … … 17 Session 4: Implications of Perspectives and Elements of Curriculum … … … … …. … 19 4.1 Implications of Perspectives on Curriculum Implementation … … … … … 19 4.2 Implications of Rationalism/Idealism… … 20 4.3 Implications of Empiricism/Realism … … 20 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education iii  TABLE OF CONTENTS 4.4 Implications of Pragmatism/Experientialism … 20 4.5 Implications of Existentialism … … … 21 4.6 Implications of Essentialism… … … 21 4.7 Summary of Perspectives… … … … 21 4.8 Elements of Curriculum… … … … 23 4.9 Purpose … … … … … … 23 4.10 Content… … … … … … 24 4.11 Methods… … … … … … 24 4.12 Evaluation … … … … … … 24 Session 6: The Types of Curriculum… … … … … 29 6.1 Formal and Informal Curriculum … … … 29 6.2 Actual and Hidden Curriculum… … … 30 6.3 Relationship between Formal, Hidden and Actual Curricula … … … … … 31 6.4 Other Types of Curriculum… … … … 33 6.5 Characteristics/Misconceptions and Aim of Curriculum … … … … … … 35 6.6 Syllabus and Factors that Influence Curriculum … 40 UNIT 2: DETERMINANTS OF A CURRICULUM… 47 Session 1: Society as a Determinant of Curriculum… … 49 1.1 Determinants of Curriculum … … … 49 1.2 Society … … … … … … 49 Session 2: Philosophy of Education as a Determinant of Curriculum … … … … … … 51 2.1 Philosophy of Education as a Determinant of Curriculum … … …… … … 51 Session 3: Finance as a Determinant of Curriculum… … 53 3.1 Finance as a Determinant of Curriculum … … 53 3.2 Contributions of Finance in Curriculum Development …… … … … … 53 Session 4: Politics as a Determinant of Curriculum… … 57 4.1 Politics as a Determinant of Curriculum… … 57 4.2 Contributions of Politics to Curriculum Development … … … … … 57 Session 5: Learner as a Determinant of Curriculum… … 59 5.1 Learner as a Determinant of Curriculum … … 59 Session 6: Teacher as a Determinant of Curriculum … … 61 6.7 The teacher… … … … … … 61 iv CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education  TABLE OF CONTENTS UNIT 3: MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT… … … … … 63 Session 1: Tyler’s Model and Taba’s Model… … … 65 1.1 Definitions of Model … … … … 65 1.2 Tyler’s Model … … … … … 66 1.3 Criticisms of Tyler’s Model … … … 68 1.4 Taba’s Model… … … … … 68 1.5 Criticism of the Taba’s Model … … … 70 Session 2: Differences between Tyler’s Model and Taba’s Model … … … … … … 71 2.1 Differences between Tyler’s Model and Taba’s Model … … … … … 71 Session 3: Wheeler’s Model … … … … … … 73 3.1 Wheeler’s Cyclic Model of Curriculum Development… … … … … 73 Session 4: Differences Between Tyler’s Model and ` Wheeler’s Model… … … … … … 77 4.1 Differences between Tyler’s Model and Wheeler’s Model … … … … … 77 Session 5: Kerr’s, Objectives and Process Models … … … 79 5.1 Kerr’s Model … … … … … 79 5.2 Objective Model… … … … … 81 5.3 Process Model … … … … … 82 Session 6: Issues and Scope of Curriculum Development… … 85 6.1 Issues in Curriculum Development … … 85 6.2 Scope of Curriculum Development… … 86 UNIT 4: ICT CURRICULUM CONTENT AT THE BASIC SCHOOL LEVEL IN GHANA… … 86 Session 1: Overview of the ICT Curriculum at the Basic School Level and Content for Basic 1… … … … 91 1.1 Overview of the ICT Curriculum for Basic Schools In Ghana … … … … … … 91 1.2 ICT Curriculum Content for Basic 1 … … 93 1.3 Section Three: Introduction to Technology Tools… 95 Session 2: ICT Curriculum Content for Basic 2-3 … … … 97 2.1 ICT Curriculum Content for Basic 2 … … 97 2.2 ICT Curriculum Content for Basic 3… … 99 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education v  TABLE OF CONTENTS Session 3: Overview of the New Basic Computing Curriculum at the Basic School Level 4-6… … … … 103 3.1 Overview of the new Basic Computing Curriculum for Basic 4-6 in Ghana … … 104 3.2 Basic Computing Curriculum Content for Basic 4... 105 3.3 Basic Computing Curriculum Content for Basic 5... 108 3.4 Basic Computing Curriculum Content for Basic 6... 111 Session 4: ICT Curriculum Content for JHS… … … 113 4.1 ICT Curriculum Content for JHS … … … 113 4.2 ICT Curriculum Content for JHS 1 … … 114 Session 5: ICT Curriculum Content for JHS 2 … … … 117 5.1 ICT Curriculum Content for JHS 2 … … 117 Session 6: Solutions to Challenges with Curriculum Implementation in ICT… … … … … 157 6.1 Solutions to ICT Curriculum Implementation Challenges… … … … … … 157 UNIT 5: CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN ICT… … … … … … … 121 Session 1: Definition and Meaning of Curriculum Implementation in ICT … … … … … 123 1.1 Definition of Curriculum Implementation … … 123 1.2 Meaning of Curriculum Implementation in ICT… 125 Session 2: Models of Curriculum Implementation in ICT… … 127 2.1 Definition of ICT Curriculum Implementation Model … … … … … … 127 2.2 Five Key ICT Curriculum Implementation Models… … … … … … 128 Session 3: Factors to Consider In Curriculum Implementation in ICT… … … … … … … 137 3.1 Factors Influencing Curriculum Implementation in ICT… … … … … … 137 3.2 The ICT Teacher … … … … … 137 3.2 The Learners… … … … … 138 3.4 ICT Resource Materials and Facilities… … 138 3.5 Stakeholders/Interest Groups … … … 139 3.6 The School Environment… … … … 139 3.7 Culture and Ideology … … … … 139 3.8 ICT Instructional Supervision… … … 140 vi CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education  TABLE OF CONTENTS 3.9 Assessment in ICT… … … … … 140 Session 4: Key Players in Curriculum Implementation in ICT… 145 4.1 Key Players in ICT Curriculum Implementation… 145 4.2 Students… … … …… … … 145 4.3 Teachers … … … …… … … 146 4.4 Supervisors … … … …… … … 147 4.5 Principals… … … … … … 148 4.6 Curriculum Directors… … … … 148 4.7 Curriculum Consultants … … … … 148 4.8 Parents and Community Members… … … 149 Session 5: Challenges with Curriculum Implementation in ICT… 151 5.1 Challenges with Curriculum Implementation in ICT … … … … … … … 151 Session 6: Solutions to Challenges with Curriculum Implementation in ICT… … … … … 157 6.1 Solutions to ICT Curriculum Implementation Challenges … … … 157 UNIT 6: CURRICULUM EVALUATION IN ICT … 165 Session 1: Definition and Meaning of Curriculum Evaluation In ICT…… … … … … … … 167 1.1 Definition and Meaning of Curriculum Evaluation … … … … … … 167 1.2 Meaning of Curriculum Evaluation in ICT … … 169 Session 2: Nature and Purpose of Curriculum Evaluation in ICT 2.1 Nature of Curriculum Evaluation in ICT… … 171 2.2 Purpose of ICT Curriculum Evaluation… … 174 Session 3: Models for Curriculum Evaluation in ICT… … 177 3.1 Models for Curriculum Evaluation in ICT … 177 Session 4: Types of Curriculum Evaluation in ICT… … 187 4.1 Types of Curriculum Evaluation in ICT … … 187 Session 5: Stages in ICT Curriculum Evaluation Process… … 197 5.1 Stages in ICT Curriculum Evaluation Process… 197 Session 6: Challenges in ICT Curriculum Evaluation… … 221 6.1 Challenges in ICT Curriculum Evaluation… … 221 References … … … … … … … … … 225 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions … … … 236 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education vii  SYMBOLS AND THEIR MEANINGS INTRODUCTION OVERVIEW UNIT OBJECTIVES SESSION OBJECTIVES DO AN ACTIVITY NOTE AN IMPORTANT POINT TIME TO THINK AND ANSWER QUESTION(S) REFER TO READ OR LOOK AT SUMMARY SELF- ASSESSMENT QUESTION(S) ASSIGNMENT viii CoDEUCC/ Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 UNIT 1: THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM Unit Outline Session 1: Definition of Curriculum Session 2: Curriculum Perspectives Session 3: Additional Curriculum Perspectives Session 4: Implications of Perspectives and Elements of Curriculum Session 5: Assumptions Underlying Curriculum Session 6: Types of Curriculum Hi learners, we are glad to introduce you to one of the most important courses in the life of a professional teacher. I welcome you to the first unit of Curriculum Studies in Computing. This unit discusses the concepts of curriculum. Also, this unit will set the background upon which all other units will be developed. With careful thought, you will come to realise that curriculum studies is not only relevant to your profession but is also very interesting. However, one should be aware that there are some technical terms that need to be distinguished clearly when dealing with curriculum. Notwithstanding, it is sufficient to say that Curriculum Studies with Computing is an interesting course that you will learn to love as we progress through this course. Put your thinking caps on and let’s get started. This unit is divided into six main sessions which will be discussed in detail. The first session seeks to give a brief introduction to curriculum and, at the same time. explain the various definitions of curriculum as put forward by prominent and professional educationists. The types of curricula will also be discussed in detail. Session two will focus on the determinants of curriculum. Session three will also look at the models of curriculum development. Session four, on the other hand will describe curriculum implementation in greater detail. Finally, in session five curriculum evaluation would be discussed in great detail. CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 1  THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 Unit Objectives By the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. Define curriculum as applied in education. 2. Differentiate between four perspectives of curriculum. 3. State at least four implications of the perspectives of curriculum. 4. State the four elements of curriculum. 5. Describe the types of a curriculum. 2 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 1 SESSION 1: DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM Dear learner, you are warmly welcomed to the very first session of unit one of Curriculum Studies in Computing. I hope you are very much poised to start learning something new about your teaching profession. This session, as prompted earlier will delve into the numerous definitions of curriculum. The main purpose of this session is to enable learners to have a deeper understanding of what curriculum is all about. Curriculum has been defined by various educationists, this session will guide you to effectively and accurately formulate your own definition of curriculum that will meet the highest educational standard. I am sure you are very much ready to get started. Let’s begin. Objectives By the end of this session, you should be able to: 1. Define the meaning of curriculum. 2. Explain the concepts in curriculum definition. 3. State at least two reasons why curriculum is important to the teacher. Now read on … 1.1 Definitions of Curriculum We have all heard the word curriculum before. But, do we truly know what it means? From your own point of view, how best can curriculum be defined? What experience do you have in curriculum studies with regards to its concepts? Let’s look at various definitions of curriculum. As you look at each definition, write down some keywords you find similar to all the definitions. In all forms of education, whether formal or informal, there are some level of curriculum that is followed. Almost all formal educational institutions follow curriculum as the basis of imparting knowledge and skills to learners. Prominent definitions of curriculum are outlined as follows: 1. According to Gatawa (1990: 8) it is “the totality of the experiences of children for which schools are responsible”. 2. Also, curriculum is defined as a “plan or program of all experiences which the learner encounters under the direction of a school” (Tanner & Tanner, 1995: 158). CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 3  UNIT 1 DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM SESSION 1 3. All this is in agreement with Sergiovanni and Starrat (1983) who argue that curriculum is “that which a student is supposed to encounter, study, practice and master… what the student learns”. 4. Further, Beach and Reinhatz (1989: 97) define curriculum as that which outlines “prescribed series of courses to take”. 5. Tab (1962) also stated that curriculum is a plan for learning. 6. Oliver (1960) sees curriculum as of the carefully and systematically arranged sets of courses offered by a school. Do you remember the keywords you wrote down? Did you get four keywords? The following can be extracted from the definitions: 1. It has content (activities and knowledge). 2. It comprises of the learning experiences of students/pupils for which the school is responsible (the teacher and his methods, learner and methods of learning). 3. It is planned. 4. It is a series of courses to be taken by students. Great job, if you were able to write these four keywords. Let’s look at the concepts into greater detail, one by one. 1.2 Concepts of Curriculum Definition From all these definitions, curriculum could be categorised under four concepts namely: i. Learner experiences ii. Programme (or a series of courses to be taken by learners) iii. Content (intended learning) iv. Product 1.3 Curriculum as Learner Experiences (Process) In the implementation of a curriculum, it may happen that what is planned by curriculum developers is not what is actually carried out. Those who define curriculum as learner experiences are of the view that curriculum is what the learner experiences during the teaching and learning process; that is, the interaction learners have with facilitators and the knowledge or skills being imparted. The main idea here is best captured by Stenhouse (1975) who likened curriculum to a form of recipe in cooking. According to him “A curriculum is an attempt to communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it is open to critical scrutiny and 4 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 1 capable of effective translation into practice.” (pp. 4-5). This concept of curriculum may present some merits and demerits. Advantages: a. This curriculum is learner centered. b. It takes into consideration all events the learner engages in. c. It gives learners the opportunity to participate in the teaching and learning process. Disadvantages: a. The understanding of this type of curriculum is difficult to facilitators b. It is difficult to explain this type of curriculum. 1.4 Curriculum as a Programme Curriculum as a programme encompasses all the courses that learners are expected to study or cover. It also involves a wholistic education of learners in a school, society, home and clubs. Thus, as a programme, curriculum is defined from a narrow and broad perspectives. The narrow perspective concentrates on the series of courses to be studied by learners. Learners study various courses include both the core and elective courses of a particular programme. The learner is girded to acquire the needed knowledge and skills in performing a particular task. From the broader perspective, learners are taken through a programme that helps them to acquire not only academic knowledge but also personal skills that will help them to better integrate and thrive in any society or group they are associated with. In this approach, the curriculum itself develops through the dynamic interaction of action and reflection. 'That is, the curriculum is not simply a set of plans to be implemented, but rather is constituted through an active process in which planning, acting and evaluating are all reciprocally related and integrated into the process' (Grundy 1987: 115). At its centre is praxis: informed, committed action. CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 5  UNIT 1 DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM SESSION 1 Advantages: a. It describes the specific objectives that learners are supposed to achieve. b. It makes way for the wholistic development of learners. Disadvantages: a. It constrains learners to learn from a document designated for learning only things that are specific to a given programme of study. b. It provides a broad outline of contents to be learnt by a given programme but there is no guarantee that what is actually learnt is what the entire outline specified. Learners studying the same programme from different school may end up with different skills and knowledge. 1.5 Curriculum as Content The main idea behind this school of that what is to be learned is separated from how it is to be learnt. There is much concentration on what the learner should knowledge, skills, and behaviours that is to be acquired by learners. According to Kelly (1985) when teachers adopt this view, they see issues of curriculum as of no concern to them, since to them, their task is being able to transmit bodies of knowledge to students in an efficient manner as they can. However, people from this school of taught believes that curriculum is preceded with how something is to be taught. Advantage: a. The curriculum is more manageable as its scope is limited in relation to what is to be learnt. b. The curriculum is made flexible. Facilitators may plan for what is to be learnt separately from how it is to be learnt. Disadvantage: a. The idea of separating what is to be learnt from how it is to be learnt may lead to situations where learning becomes fragmented. Facilitators may end up producing incomprehensive documents for learners. 1.6 Curriculum as a Product This school of taught is mainly dependent on the behavioural objectives. Curriculum as a product entails all that is needed in carrying out teaching and learning experiences. Thus, curriculum is viewed as a document comprising all that is contained in teaching and learning such as the skills, syllabus, course materials, topics and objectives. 6 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 1 For those who hold this view, the central theory [of curriculum] is simple. Human life, however varied, consists in the performance of specific activities. Consequently, the curriculum has to give detailed attention to what people needed to know in order to work, live their lives and so on. Central to the approach is the formulation of behavioural objectives - providing a clear notion of outcome so that content and method may be organized and the results evaluated. It is this approach that brought about the idea that the objectives set in the curriculum must be stated in terms of students. “Since the real purpose of education is... to bring about significant changes in the students' pattern of behaviour, it becomes important to recognize that any statements of objectives of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students (Tyler, 1949, p. 44). Advantage: a. It breaks down the curriculum into its components that can be handled effectively by implementers. b. It helps school managers to follow directions in carrying out the activities of the curriculum. Disadvantages: a. It limits broad learning since specific topics or courses are outlined to be learnt. b. Facilitators may focus on teaching examinable content. 1.7 Reasons why Curriculum is important to the Teacher As a teacher/facilitator, what are some of the reason for studying curriculum? Do you think curriculum studies is relevant in the life of a professional teacher? Why? Let us look at some reasons why curriculum is considered of importance to the teacher. As a teacher, there is the need to know more about what is laid down in the curriculum for various reasons. Without a clear understanding of what is to be learnt by learners, teachers may end up teaching whatever they like. Therefore, it is important to have a broad knowledge of the curriculum as a professional teacher. As a teacher, you need to know what curriculum means in order to: CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 7  UNIT 1 DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM SESSION 1  Relate education to the socio-economic, technological, political and environmental demands of your society.  Relate content or the body of knowledge to your local setting.  Apply the most effective and relevant teaching and learning methodologies.  Evaluate teaching and learning processes in your education system. Kindly, try the following questions to examine your understanding of the lesson. Self-Assessment Questions Exercise 1.1 1. Explain, in your own words, the meaning of curriculum. 2. Explain any two concepts of the curriculum definition. 3. State any two reasons why it is important teacher to know about curriculum. 8 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 2 SESSION 2: CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES Hi learners, the previous session on the concept of curriculum studies of unit one guided us to understand the meaning and definitions of curriculum. It is now time to build upon what we learnt in the previous session and prepare ourselves for the highest professionalism in teaching and learning. There are many perspectives in relation to curriculum studies. The main perspectives will be discussed in this session while some additional perspectives that professional teachers need to know. This will be discussed in the next session. Let’s get started. Objectives By the end of this session, you should be able to: 1. Define curriculum perspective 2. Describe the four main perspectives of curriculum Now read on … 2.1 Curriculum Perspectives In your own words, what do we mean by the term “curriculum perspective?” What is the rational/implication behind curriculum perspectives? Simply put, curriculum perspectives are referred to as the theories of knowledge that are significant points of references in making curriculum decisions. It is noted that what goes into the curriculum depends extensively on the perspectives Zewii cited in Gatawa (1990: 21). As indicated earlier, there are numerous perspectives of curriculum studies. In this session, we will discuss four main perspectives couple with other few perspectives. It is also very important to refer to each perspective since it may have influence on some core components such as:  the teacher / facilitator  the learner / student  the methodology  the curriculum CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 9  UNIT 1 CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES SESSION 2 As indicated, there are many perspectives in curriculum education based on the various philosophical point of view. This aspect of the unit focuses on the nature of reality. There are four major philosophical schools of thought that apply to education currently. These are rationalism / idealism, empiricism realism, pragmatists / Experientialism, and existentialism (sometimes called the phenomenologists). 2.2 Rationalists/Idealism Perspective of Curriculum Based on the philosophical school of thought of the rationalist/idealist, this approach has its core on the point that ideas are the only true reality, the only thing worth knowing. According to the rationalist/idealists, focusing on conscious reasoning in the mind provides results for the search of truth, beauty, and justice that is enduring and everlasting; this was stated in Plato’s book The Republic about 400 years BC. The father of the rationalists/idealists is known to be Plato. Plato believed that there are two worlds. The first is the spiritual or mental world, which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular, and universal. There is also the world of appearance, the world experienced through sight, touch, smell, taste, and sound, that is changing, imperfect, and disorderly. This division is often referred to as the duality of mind and body. Moreover, Plato reacted against what he perceived as focusing too much on the immediacy of the sensory world. In this regard, Plato described a utopian society where “education to body and soul all the beauty and perfection of which they are capable" as an ideal. Plato strongly believed that events of sensory world must be overcome through the wake of reasoning or universal truth. Concurrently, he noted that to understand truth, one must pursue knowledge and identify with the Absolute Mind. Plato also believed that the soul is fully formed prior to birth and is perfect and at one with the Universal Being. The birth process checks this perfection, so education requires bringing latent ideas (fully formed concepts) to consciousness. The school of thought of the rationalists / idealists’ aim of education is to discover and develop individual’s abilities and full moral excellence in order to better serve society. The rationalists believe that truth and optimum moral values, when instill in each individual, will help to bring out the best in development and peaceful coexistence in societies. Therefore, the curriculum of this perspective emphasises on subjects that has to do with the mind such as philosophy, literature, religion and history. To achieve this, rationalists, indicated that there is the need to focus on teaching methods of lecture, 10 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 2 discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help students discover and clarify knowledge). Simply put, rationalists/idealists say that:  True knowledge is achieved by the mind (because of this, rationalists argue that certain truths exist and that the intellect can directly grasp these truths).  Knowledge is a series of revelations (i.e. concepts and knowledge are gained independently of sense experience: cases where the content of our concepts or knowledge outstrips the information that sense experience can provide). 2.3 Empiricists/Realists’ Perspectives of Curriculum The empiricists are of the belief that true knowledge is derived from evidence. That is, they are of the view that true knowledge is acquired by placing emphasis on the role of experience and evidence. The ultimate reality is the world with physical objects with the focus on the body or objects. The father of this school of though is Aristotle. He was a student of Plato but believed that there is more to the rationalists/idealists’ notion that knowledge only exists in the mind. Aristotle is also known to be the father of scientific method. Objects exist as they are and is left to us to seek to understand them by employing diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data available. According to Aristotle, there is the need to understand an object ultimately since objects do not change. For instance, a rose will continue to be a rose if one is aware of it or not. Further, empiricists / realists believe that knowledge comes through the sense. They believe that sense experience is the ultimate source of all concepts of knowledge. To be able to gain knowledge, one ought to have been engaged in sensory experience. In effect, empiricists’ curriculum emphasises on the subject matter of the physical world especially science and mathematics. Teachers in this perspective organize and present contents in a systematic order to demonstrate criteria used in decision making. Teaching methods focus on mastery of facts and basic skills through demonstration and recitation. Students must also demonstrate the ability to think critically and scientifically, using observation and experimentation. CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 11  UNIT 1 CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES SESSION 2 2.4 Pragmatists/Experientialists’ Perspectives of Curriculum Pragmatists and the experientialists are of the view that things that are experienced or observed are real. The pragmatists believe that reality, as we see it, is constantly changing and that learning best take place when people relate their experiences and thoughts to problems as they arise unlike the rationalists/idealists and the empiricists/realists. Interestingly, we can note that the universe is not static but dynamic and constantly changing. Therefore, there is no truth that is absolute and unchanging but rather, truth is what works. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839- 1914), who believed that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness. Another point to note about this perspective is that, they believe knowledge is full of experience and should not or cannot be imposed on the learner. The learner needs to make conscious effort to acquire his/her own knowledge through experience. The experiences that the learner goes through in life, whether in the school, home, society or groups enables the development of self-knowledge. Personal activities of the learner become the hallmark in knowledge acquisition according to the pragmatism school of thought. Philosophers also applied the pragmatist philosophy in their work. For instance, John Dewey (1859-1952) used the pragmatism in his progressive approaches. The believe is that, learners need to adapt to each other and to their environment. In addition, this perspective seek that schools should emphasize the subject matter of social experience. That is, learning is dependent on the context of place, time, circumstance etc. within which the learning takes place. Learning may be different from one society to another based on the cultural and ethnic differences, the types of cultural ties, cooperativeness and how people contribute to the development of their communities. The main aim of this type of societal ties or relationship is to help create a new social order where character development is derived from making collaborative/group decisions in light of consequences. 12 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 2 For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and projects, often having students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the disciplines together to focus on solving problems in an interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized bodies of knowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe that learners should apply their knowledge to real situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship, daily living, and future careers. 2.5 Existentialists/Phenomenologists’ Perspective of Curriculum The existentialists believe on the nature of reality being subjective, and also that it lies within the individual. According to the existentialists, the physical world has no inherent meaning outside of the human existence. Each individual’s unique perception of the world defines the reality, truth and goodness of that individual. Individual’s choice and standards are more important and central in this perspective than external standards. Existence comes before any definition of what we are. We define ourselves in relationship to that existence by the choices we make. We should not accept anyone else’s predetermined philosophical system; rather, we must take responsibility for deciding who we are. The focus is on freedom, the development of authentic individuals, as we make meaning of our lives. The existentialists or phenomenologists believe that schools exist primarily to help children in knowing who they are and their place in society. This gives the opportunity to children to learn what they want to learn and discuss subjects that are of interest to them freely. Self-Assessment Questions Exercise 1.2 1. What is curriculum perspective? 2. Give brief definitions of the following views in curriculum decision- making. a. Rationalist b. Empiricist c. Pragmatist d. Existentialist CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 13  UNIT 1 CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES SESSION 2 3. Which curriculum perspective holds that: a. knowledge is personal and subjective? b. knowledge is based on evidence? c. teachers are sources of ideas and information? d. learners must experience knowledge? Assignment 1.1 Research on other perspectives that contribute to curriculum development. 14 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 3 SESSION 3: ADDITIONAL CURRICULUM PERSPECTIVES You are welcome to the session three. In the previous session, we started discussions on the four main curriculum perspectives that may influence curriculum decision making. In this session, however, we will discuss some additional perspectives related to curriculum. I am sure you took time to research on other perspectives of curriculum that were not discussed in session two of this unit. Now, let’s explore some additional perspectives of curriculum. Objectives By the end of this session, you should be able to briefly describe: 1. Perennialism 2. Essentialism 3. Progressivism 4. Reconstructionism Now read on … 3.1 Additional Perspectives What other philosophies underpin contents of the curriculum and how they are taught or implemented in the learning environment? As discussed in session two, there are many perspectives of educational philosophies that a teacher needs to understand in order to impart knowledge to learners. Humans’ epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of knowledge and how people come to know about it identified four broad perspectives namely Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and Reconstructionism. Philosophies from these perspectives are mainly concentrated on what to teach. 3.2 Perennialism Perspective The perennialists objective of education is make sure that learners acquire understanding about the great ideas that exist in civilization. This school of thought believe that these ideas and understanding have the potential to solve problems in any era that individuals find themselves in. According to CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 15  UNIT 1 ADDITIONAL CURRICULUM SESSION 3 PERSPECTIVES them,schools should teach ideas that are perpetual and seek to truths that are enduring, constant and not changing. This is based on the notion that the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. Therefore, teaching principles that do not change is critical. Perennialists also see humans as rational beings whose minds need development and this can be done by cultivating the intellect which is the highest priority in a worthwhile education. Developing learners’ intellect places the demand on the curriculum to focus on the attainment of cultural literacy, stressing students’ growth in disciplines that are relatively permanent. Perennialists believe that education should be concerned with the mastery of content and the development of reasoning skills which can be obtained through organised and well-disciplined learning environment for lifelong search for truth. For instance, great achievements in human studies such as the works of literature and art, laws or principles of science among others. 3.3 Essentialism Perspective Essentialism is also a subject-centered philosophy. Essentialists aimed at teaching the basic skills that can be improved upon by transmitting series of progressively difficult contents and promoting students to the next level. The belief is that, there are common core of knowledge that needs to be passed on to learners in a systematic way. All generations must be trained according to the “essentials that all people must know” as to Essentialism. The essentialists, which is sometimes referred to as the conservative perspective, emphasises on the intellectual and moral standards that the school should teach. Even though the essentialists believe that core knowledge and skills need to be rigor, they also believe that the core content of the curriculum may change unlike the perennialists. Essentialists called on schools to employ practical lessons that prepare learners to become helpful members of society. They focus should also be on the facts; the objective reality out there--and "the basics," training students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should champion the need for hard work, respect or authority and discipline. Policies should be taught as they are; schools should not try to set or influence policies. Teachers are to help students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness. So, teacher is a key factor of the learning process in schools and they almost should know everything to teach students in a proper way 16 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 3 (Ergün, 2013, p. 87; Gutek, 2014, p. 289). The focus is on the teacher to produce quality and effective students for the workforce. 3.4 Progressivism Perspective Perspective of the progressivists is concentrated on the wholistic development of the individual learner rather than the content being imparted or the teacher that facilitates the teaching and learning experience. They believe that students (learners) should test ideas by active experimentation just as the pragmatist (experientialists) and the empiricists (realists). Learning is rooted in the questions learners ask as they experience the world; actively but not passively. The learner continuously thinks through situations while experiencing the physical and cultural context to make meaning and solve problems. Consequently, teachers who follow the progressivists perspective of philosophy use the scientific method in order to enable learners to study contents and events systematically from the onset. Thus, the focus is on how one comes to know. So, learning environment should always be arranged according to the needs and interests of the students. Because of this idea, goals of education must be in dynamic change based on the cultural, social and technological developments. The educational philosophy of progressivism was established in the mid-1920s through the mid-1950s in America. As pragmatism is recognized as the parent of the progressivists, John Dewey is the proponent of this school of thought. One of his tenets was that the school should improve the way of life of our citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. Shared decision making, planning of teachers with students, student-selected topics are all aspects. Books are tools, rather than authority. 3.5 Reconstructionism Perspective Reconstructionism is also another perspective that is based on the pragmatists view and states that the main task of education is to arrange and reshape society continuously. Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the need to address social questions and at the same time embark on a quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy. Consequently, educators of this perspective focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 17  UNIT 1 ADDITIONAL CURRICULUM SESSION 3 PERSPECTIVES of education. Teachers and students are constantly engaged in discussions that will help create a better society for all. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was the founder of social reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World War II. He recognized the potential for either human annihilation through technology and human cruelty or the capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and human compassion. George Counts (1889-1974) recognized that education was the means of preparing people for creating this new social order. The social reconstructionism is likened to the critical theorists who believe that systems must be transformed to overcome oppression and improve human conditions. Some human societies are full of people who oppress the poor and the vulnerable and take away their rights and freedom. The Brazilian Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was the one who lead the education and literacy as the tool for social change after living in poverty. According to Freire, people must learn to resist oppression and fight people that oppress others in order not to become victims themselves. For social reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum must focus on student experience and taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hunger, international terrorism, inflation, and inequality. Social studies and literature should champion contents that help students to develop strategies to handle and solve controversial issues. These strategies may include inquiries, dialoguing, multiple perspectives among others. Self-Assessment Questions Exercise 1.3 1. Differentiate between perennialism and essentialism. 2. How different is the progressivism from reconstructionism? 18 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 4 SESSION 4: IMPLICATIONS OF PERSPECTIVES AND ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM Hi learners, you are welcome to session four of unit one. So far, we have discussed the philosophical perspectives from the general or world view (in session two) and that from the educational philosophies (in session three). In this session, we want to explore some of the implications of these perspectives on the curriculum as well as the elements of curriculum. These perspectives have influenced the types of curriculum that are implemented in schools. It is prudent to talk about the implications as well as the elements of curriculum which this session seeks to explore. I hope you are excited to know more about the implications and elements. Get ready to uncover and learn more from this session. Objectives By the end of this session, you should be able to: 1. discuss the implications of at least two perspectives on curriculum 2. summarize the implications of these perspective for the teacher and learner. 3. explain all the four elements of curriculum Now read on … 4.1 Implications of Perspectives on Curriculum Implementation Which of the perspectives or philosophies would you describe as authoritarian or non-authoritarian? Why? Which of the general or world view of philosophies as describe in session two best fits with your own view of reality? Why? Each perspective or philosophy has its own belief that influence how knowledge or truth should be imparted to learners. As such we will discuss the implications of selected perspectives in this session. CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 19  UNIT 1 IMPLICATIONS OF PERSPECTIVES AND SESSION 4 ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM 4.2 Implications of Rationalism/Idealism As the rationalists believe that true knowledge is achieved by the mind, it has the ability to influence the types of teaching methods to employ. Rationalists contend that certain truths exist and is left to the learner, who is an intellect to directly grasp these truths. This means that, teachers / facilitators need to create opportunities that will help learners to discover knowledge or truth about reality on certain issues. In this type of learning environment, more of the task may be left on the learner. Also, rationalists believe that knowledge is a series of revelations. This implies that, knowledge is acquired in a sequential manner. Teachers need to arrange content in orders that will be best understood by learners. On the other hand, knowledge acquired by learners may provide information beyond the concepts acquired via sense experience. Therefore, they argue that subject matter should be made constant for all. 4.3 Implications of Empiricism/Realism The empiricists believe that true Knowledge is derived from evidence. The implication of this belief is that, learners must experience the concept being taught and the evidence of working concepts. For instance, teachers Information and Communication (ICT) Teachers need to provide teaching experiences that are practical in nature. The realists believe that the most efficient and effective way to find out about reality is to study it through organized, separate, and systematically arranged subject matter. Further, the empiricists believe that authentic knowledge comes through the senses. In this regard, teaching and learning experiences need to be appealing to the sensory organs. The use of multimedia in teaching should be considered as one of the methods of empiricists while designing the curriculum. 4.4 Implications of Pragmatism/Experientialism Knowledge is hypothetical and changing constantly, need to be experience but not imposed as it is a personal activity and can be constructed socially. The pragmatists suggested that the curriculum must offer subjects that will provide opportunities for various projects and activities that are relevant to the needs, abilities, and interest as well as the socio-economic conditions of the learners. 20 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 4 4.5 Implications of Existentialism According to the existentialists/phenomenologists, knowledge is personal and subjective as it is one’s own unique perception of one’s world. This gives rise to the following implications.  Subjects are merely tools for the realization of subjectivity. Learning is not found in the structure of knowledge nor in organized discipline, but in the student’s willingness to choose and give meaning to the subject.  Literature and the humanities are important in the existentialist curriculum. Literature is useful and relevant for awakening choice- making in basic human concerns. History is important in finding out how men in the past have faced and answered recurrent human questions like guilt, love, suffering or freedom.  The arts stimulate aesthetic expression, not merely imitate styles of selected models. Humanistic studies are rich sources of ethical values. 4.6 Implications of Essentialism Essentialists believe that there exists a critical core of information and skill that an educated person must have. In light of this, their curriculum emphasizes the importance of traditional moral values that students need to become upstanding citizens. 4.7 Summary of Perspectives It is good to see at a glance the implications of perspectives on the learner, teacher, methodology as well as the curriculum. Table 4.1 below show the summaries of the perspectives. CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 21  UNIT 1 IMPLICATIONS OF PERSPECTIVES AND SESSION 4 ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM Table 4.1: Summaries of the Perspectives Perspectives Learner Teacher Method Curricu lum Rationalist Recipient of Source of Drilling Subject information ideas, facts Lecturing matter and Subject- of information matter based symbol and idea Empiricist Recipient of Demonstrator Lecturing Subject information of process Teacher- matter centred of the physical world Pragmatist Experiences Researcher, Inquiry Problem knowledge project Participatory solving director Problem- Hypothe solving tical Subject to change Problem s Projects Existentialist Ultimate Facilitator of Inquiry Subject chooser, choices Discovery matter search for of personal choices identity Not rigid Source: Adapted from Beach and Reinhatz (1989) 22 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 4 4.8 Elements of Curriculum The core of curriculum has four main elements that are constantly interacting with each other. These elements are: a. Purpose (Goals and objectives) b. Content (Subject matter) c. Methods (Learning experiences) d. Evaluation (Assessment) The interaction that exists between these four elements is revealed in Fig. 4.1. Note: It is the interaction of these elements in the social, political, economic, technological and environmental context that constitute a curriculum. Fig. 4.1: Interaction between the Elements of Curriculum (Adapted from Gatawa, 1990) Now, let us explore each of the elements of curriculum as presented in Fig. 1.1. 4.9 Purpose The purpose of most curriculum is to solve issues in the society. In this regard, the purpose of curriculum tries to:  meet the social aspirations of society  outline the goals and aims of the programme  express goals and objectives. CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 23  UNIT 1 IMPLICATIONS OF PERSPECTIVES AND SESSION 4 ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM In education, most curriculum set goals that help in the wholistic development of individuals. As such, goals and objectives are categorised into the three main domains of learning namely:  Cognitive which refers to the intellectual tasks  Psychomotor which refers to the muscular or hands-on skills, and  Affective which refers to the feelings and emotions. 4.10 Content The content of every curriculum refers to the subject matter which the curriculum seeks to impart to learners. The content is divided into bodies of knowledge of which examples include computing, mathematics, English, science among others. The content of the curriculum also portrays the skills to be acquired by learners and the desired attitudes and values that need to accompany them. The content must meet the standards of the society and reflect theories that have been established. The content should be able to produce intellects of different ideologies, vocations and technical skills. These skills must be related to solving problems of society. 4.11 Methods Every curriculum must contain strategies that need to be employed in imparting its content, aims and objectives. Curricula shows the best teaching methods that flow with a particular content or subject matter. However, it should be noted that methodologies used in the curriculum are not absolute and may vary from one teacher to another. More so, teachers may use more than one methodology in delivering the subject matter to learners. 4.12 Evaluation Evaluation or assessment provides the tool for performing a check on what the curriculum set out to achieve. It checks various parameters to determine the appropriate content to present in relation to the aims and objectives. It helps curriculum designers to select teaching methods or learning experiences that are appropriate to the purpose of the curriculum. Again, evaluation helps to check how effective the methods selected are. There can be the selection of appropriate methods but if not well implemented, it may not produce the best results hence the need to check the effectiveness of the methodologies. 24 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 4 Curriculums are designed to solve societal problems. It is the evaluation of the curriculum that provides the tool for checking whether or not the curriculum is providing answers to issues/problems of the society. That is, evaluation gives feedback to planners, learners, teachers, the industry, the society about how the curriculum is fairing and whether there is a need to effect change or not. As an assessor or teacher, key components of evaluations need to be taken into consideration. To conduct evaluations, the right judgement must be made in relations to the inputs and means of evaluation, the content, outputs and outcomes of the whole learning process. Self-Assessment Questions Exercise 1.4 1. Which of the perspectives implies that learners need to discover truth that already exists? 2. Which of the perspectives implies that knowledge is to be constructed socially? 3. Tabulate four perspectives and how they affect teachers, learners, methods and the curriculum. 4. Draw a diagram to illustrate the elements of a curriculum and how they are interrelated. CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 25  UNIT 1 IMPLICATIONS OF PERSPECTIVES AND SESSION 4 ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM This is a blank sheet for short notes on: Issues that are not clear; and Difficult topics, if any 26 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 5 SESSION 5: ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING CURRICULUM You are very much welcome to the session five of unit one. How is the learning going so far? I hope you are enjoying it and discovering new things in relation to curriculum. In the previous session, we looked at the implications of perspectives and the elements of a curriculum. I am sure you can now identify the elements of curriculum and how they influence learning experiences. Curriculum has underlying assumptions that educationists work with. It is prudent to grasp these assumptions. Therefore, this session will help us to explore key assumptions that underline curriculum. Let us begin. Objectives By the end of this session, you should be able to: 1. State at least four assumptions underlying curriculum. 2. State the categories under which the goals of curriculum are stated Now read on … 5.1 Assumptions Underlying Curriculum Why do you think curriculum development should have assumptions? Do you think the assumptions will contribute much to the success of the curriculum development? Why? Assumptions could be defined as the belief of something or event being true or possible without any strong evidence or proof. Assumptions is somehow part of everyone. They can change often or become rigid depending on individual’s circumstances. Assumptions has the tendency to blind us, or increase our hopes. Majority of the situations we find ourselves in may be defined by our assumptions of situations. They can influence our decision making, the actions we take among others. CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 25  UNIT 1 ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING SESSION 5 CURRICULUM There are many assumptions that underlie a curriculum. The most generic curriculum assumptions include: a. It is learnable. Teachers should be able to translate the content of every curriculum in order to make learning easy for students. Students should be able to learn skills from curriculums. b. It is worthy of study. Each curriculum should contain significant values that is worthy of studying. c. It is comprised of the most important things a person should know. These important things include concepts, skills, competencies, ideas etc. d. It is a catalyst for improving human lives as a result of knowing and mastering all the things that are included in the curriculum. The meaning of this assumption is that, there is something valuable that the learner of the curriculum will know and be able to do when its content, values, skill are mastered. Moreover, those who study it will both be able to (as a matter of cognitive transfer) and tend to (as a matter of habits and behaviour) use what has been learned in a way that makes their life better. This should, most immediately, result in personal change. e. That as a result of its study and mastery, culture and society will experience improvement, evolution, and growth. Personal change eventually should lead to social change. If societies are not changing, that implies either that they don’t need changing or education cannot change them. The former is unlikely and the latter is unacceptable. f. Another underlying assumption of a given curriculum should be that, as a ‘part,’ it is aligned with other parts and is or can easily become parallel with the other ‘bits and pieces’ of education. This means that existing infrastructure–from buildings and technology and textbooks and assessment forms to teachers and instructional strategies and school and district hierarchies–should be curriculum-friendly or that we should revise the curriculum to be infrastructure-friendly. 26 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 5 5.2 Curriculum Goals Goals are very important to any project or activity that one sets to undertake. Likewise, each curriculum has its goal. Curriculum goals are generic. That is, they are broad statements that directs learners towards long term outcomes. These goals are typically designed to be met by students after a longer period of time such as a year of schooling or a series of courses in a discipline. Therefore, one needs to know that goals are always farther reaching than objectives. This means that, at the end of the curriculum, learners should be more productive members of their societies. Goals and objectives of an effective curriculum should be in such a way that produce two outcomes. First and foremost, each student should acquire the same knowledge from the same courses no matter the teacher who taught or facilitated it. Secondly, students should be able to finish a course and be ready to move on to the next course, year, or life stage. The main aim of these goals and objectives is to standardize learning objectives for all learners and make outcomes simple for teachers. According to the domains of learning, these goals and objectives can be categorised into:  Cognitive  Psychomotor  Affective However, it is important to consider the following when deciding on the goals and objectives of curriculum. Time Frame Every curriculum should have a time bound for imparting truth, knowledge and skills to learners. However, educators ought to make changes to the curriculum from time to time to meet the current needs of society. The need for change is appropriate since human lives in our communities and societies are constantly experience change in many aspects. There is also the reason to believe that students may encounter change at their workplaces and must be prepare to face changes. As we are now living in a global village, students must acquire skills that are relevant to meet the increasing demand for labour CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 27  UNIT 1 ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING SESSION 5 CURRICULUM abroad. Curriculum needs to prepare students to be aligned with international standards so that the competency of workers in Ghana is compatible with a set standard. Research, science, technology are some areas that are constantly changing. Accountability Where pupil performance is used as a high-stake accountability measure, there is concern that schools prioritise certain parts of the curriculum over others (‘teaching to the test’). Where accountability systems focus on “borderline” or “cliff edge” measures, targeted teaching may limit some pupils’ experience of the school curriculum. International benchmarking can markedly affect curriculum policy. Standards To support school effectiveness, accountability systems should feature:  clear responsibilities  coherent, aligned objectives at all levels  transparent performance assessment criteria. Accountability measures can increase or decrease the achievement gap; it is all in the application. Engagement Teacher education can support teachers’ engagement with assessment data to inform classroom teaching and learning. The extent to which pupils’ experiences of assessments, such as test anxiety, specifically relate to accountability is unclear. Placing undue emphasis on the performance of some groups at the expense of others may lessen pupil engagement. Self-Assessment Questions Exercise 1.5 1. State four assumptions underlying curriculum development. 2. What are the categories under which the goals of curriculum are stated? 28 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 6 SESSION 6: THE TYPES OF CURRICULUM Hello Student! Welcome to another yet interesting session that enlighten the teacher trainee to understand the various curricula. It is very important to the life of teachers to really have an understanding and the knowledge about curriculum. It is expected that the knowledge derived from this session will enable the teacher to grasp the in- depth knowledge in the subject matter. This session explores formal curriculum and informal curriculum, actual curriculum and hidden curriculum, how the types of curricula are interrelated to one another. This session will also deal with the type of curriculum such as received, electronic and internal. The core and extra-mural curriculum will also be discussed. These ones (core and extra-mural curriculum) are not autonomous type of curriculum. The session will also deal with characteristics of curriculum and some misconceptions that people have about curriculum. We will also discuss the aim of national curriculum. Finally, the session will look at the syllabus and its importance. Under this session, factors that influence curriculum will be discussed. Let’s get started. Objectives By the end of this session, you should be able to explain the following: 1. Describe the types of curricula 2. State the characteristics, misconceptions and aims of curriculum 3. Differentiate between a syllabus and a curriculum Now read on … 6.1 Formal and Informal Curriculum Formal Curriculum This type of curriculum is also called overt, explicit or written curriculum. The formal curriculum is what is to be studied by leaners and officially endorsed by the government through the Ministry of Education and other educational stakeholders in the country. According to Urevbu (1985:3), formal curriculum refers to: What is laid down as the syllabus or that which is to be learnt by students. It is the officially selected body of knowledge which government, through CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 29  THE TYPES OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 6 the Ministry of Education or anybody offering education, wants students to learn. The formal curriculum may refer to educational texts, documents, films and supportive learning and teaching materials that are critically chosen to help achieve intended instructional goals. Formal curriculum is formally designated and reviewed by the curriculum directors/planners, teachers and administrators collectively. This curriculum meets specified objectives of educating identified groups of learners or students in their varying settings. School administrators and curriculum leaders should make the written curriculum authentic, specific and comprehensive. The formal curriculum (written or overt) comprises those things in textbooks, and content and concepts in the district curriculum guides. However, those “formal” elements are frequently not taught. Informal Curriculum This type of curriculum can also be called societal curriculum. As defined by Cortes (1981). Cortes defines this curriculum as: [the] massive, ongoing, informal curriculum of family, peer groups, neighbourhoods, churches, organizations, occupations, mass media, and other socializing forces that “educate” all of us throughout our lives. Teachers or instructors may not adhere to the presented formal curriculum but can include other aspects of knowledge derived from other sources. Teachers can get information from the social media to incorporate in his or her lesson delivery. This can be expanded to comprise of (Twitter; Facebook; Youtube; Google; etc.) 6.2 Actual and Hidden Curriculum Actual Curriculum Refers to both written and unwritten syllabuses from which students encounter learning experiences (Tanner and Tanner 1975). Learning experiences can be selected from other sources rather than the prescribed, official and formal syllabuses. The actual curriculum is the total sum of what students learn and teachers teach from both formal and informal curricula. 30 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 6 Hidden Curriculum This type of curriculum is also called collateral curriculum. It is that which is implied by the very structure and nature of schools, much of what revolves around daily or established routines. The "hidden curriculum," which refers to the kinds of learning children derive from the very nature and organizational design of the public school, as well as from the behaviors and attitudes of teachers and administrators. They are set of attitudes, values and practices which the school places premium on and tries to promote but are not written down or documented. It is unintended planned curriculum. It is not deliberately planned but may modify behaviour or influence learning outcomes and experiences. Urevbu (1985: 3) describes the hidden curriculum as the non-academic but educationally important component of schooling. It can be said that what is acquired or learned from hidden curriculum is usually remembered longer than information learned at school. For example; Student behaviors where they are sitting up straight and are continually quiet; students getting in and standing in line silently; students quietly raising their hands to be called on; the endless competition for grades, and so on. 6.3 Relationship between Formal, Hidden and Actual Curricula The figure below shows the diagrammatical representation of the relationship that exist between formal, hidden and actual curricula. Formal = Hidden /Written Actual /collateral curriculum Curriculum curriculum A C B Figure 2. 1: The Formation of Actual Curriculum CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 31  THE TYPES OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 6 Circle A represents the presented, formal learning experiences that is officially designed by the government through the Ministry of Education to meet instructional goals per the objectives of the curriculum. Circle B represents the learning experiences students acquire values that cannot be considered in the formal or informal curriculum. It represents the unintended planned learning experience that students acquire outside formal and informal curriculum. Circle C represents what students actually learn from both the formal and hidden curricula. It is the curriculum that is implemented within the classroom or the school as a whole. Three Interactive Elements of the Curriculum The formal, informal, and hidden elements of the curriculum are connected and interactive, rather than discrete—experienced by students as a dynamic interplay of teaching and learning processes, content, and activities in and out of the classroom. The relationship between them is illustrated in Figure 2.2 Together they shape the life experience of all students. They simultaneously define students’ present learning and develop the skills, knowledge, and attitudes needed to create future opportunities for them and others within an increasingly connected and globalized society. Together they make up the total student experience. The point in the center, where all three elements work together, is a potentially dynamic and powerful space offering rich opportunities for learning for all students. Figure 2. 2: Relationship between Formal, Hidden and Informal Curricula 32 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 6 6.4 OTHER TYPES OF CURRICULUM Concomitant curriculum What is taught, or emphasized at home, or those experiences that are part of a family’s experiences, or related experiences sanctioned by the family. (This type of curriculum may be received at church, in the context of religious expression, lessons on values, ethics or morals, molded behaviors, or social experiences based on the family’s preferences.) Rhetorical Curriculum Elements from the rhetorical curriculum are comprised from ideas offered by policymakers, school officials, administrators, or politicians. This curriculum may also come from those professionals involved in concept formation and content changes; or from those educational initiatives resulting from decisions based on national and state reports, public speeches, or from texts critiquing outdated educational practices. The rhetorical curriculum may also come from the publicized works offering updates in pedagogical knowledge. The internal curriculum  Processes, content, knowledge combined with the experiences and realities of the learner to create new knowledge. While educators should be aware of this curriculum, they have little control over the internal curriculum since it is unique to each student.  Educators can explore this curriculum by using instructional assessments like “exit slips,” reflective exercises, or debriefing discussions to see what students really remember from a lesson. It is often very enlightening and surprising to find out what has meaning for learners and what does not. The Null Curriculum  That which we do not teach, thus giving students the message that these elements are not important in their educational experiences or in our society.  The null curriculum is simply that which is not taught in schools. Somehow, somewhere, some people are empowered to make conscious decisions as to what is to be included and what is to be excluded from the overt (written) curriculum. Since it is physically impossible to teach everything in schools, many topics and subject areas must be intentionally excluded from the written curriculum. CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 33  THE TYPES OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 6 Received curriculum Those things that students actually take out of classrooms. Those concepts and content that are truly learned and remembered. Received curriculum can be defined as to what the learner actually carry out of the learning environment or what the learner learns and not what was essentially planned by the facilitator. One learner's perception can be totally different to another learner. Electronic curriculum  Those lessons learned through searching the Internet for information, or through using e-forms of communication.  Students who use the Internet on a regular basis, both for recreational purposes (as in blogs, wikis, chatrooms, through instant messenger, on-line conversations, or through personal e-mails and sites like Twitter, Facebook, or YouTube) and for personal online research and information gathering are bombarded with all types of media and messages.  Lessons should include how to critically appraise the accuracy and correctness of e-information as well as reliability of electronic sources  Involves appropriate and acceptable behavior on the internet (netiquette)  Includes differences between fair usage and plagiarism.  Much of the e-information may be factually correct, informative, or even entertaining or inspirational but there is also a great deal of other e- information that may be very incorrect, dated, passé, biased, perverse, or even manipulative.  The implications of the electronic curriculum for educational practices are that part of the overt curriculum needs to include lessons on how to be wise consumers of information, how to critically appraise the accuracy and correctness of e-information, as well as how to determine the reliability of electronic sources.  Also, students need to learn how to be artfully discerning about the usefulness and appropriateness of certain types of information. Like other forms of social interaction, students need to know that there are inherent lessons to be learned about appropriate and acceptable “netiquette” and online behaviors, to include the differences between “fair and legal usage,” versus plagiarism and information piracy 34 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 6 Core curriculum The core curriculum refers to the “heart” of the learning outcomes learners must go through. The core curriculum can also be explained as a group or collection of courses or subjects that all students in a specific school or class are supposed to learn. It is important to note that, the core curriculum is not an autonomous type of curriculum. It is a group of courses that learners should study in order to be recognized as educated and thereby fulfilling the educational goals of the nation or the society. The students have no other choice but to study the prescribed course or subjects. Extra Mural curriculum It refers to the experiences or learning activities that leaners are taken through by the teacher but which are not specified in the formal or written curriculum. Teachers can sometime teach these experiences and even assess them intentionally. This includes activities performed by students that do not fall under school or college curriculum but helps in promoting skills and developing abilities of students. The extra-curricular activities performed by students do not relate to their professional life based on classroom grades or scores. It helps students to learn something new. For example: Coaching and training students in the various aspect of sports are example of extra mural curriculum. 6.5 Characteristics/Misconceptions and Aim of Curriculum Characteristics of Curriculum An analysis of the definitions of Curriculum shows some important elements that need to be considered and which give some highlight and insights into how particular value orientations have evolved and why. The fundamental concepts of curriculum include: 1. Content: which may be depicted in terms of concept, theories, maps, topics, and themes; all of which are abstractions which individuals have invested and named; 2. Organization: planning is based upon scope and sequence (order of presence over time); can be tightly organized or relatively open-ended. This means curriculum should be thoroughly planned for effective implementation. CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 35  THE TYPES OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 6 3. Concern with the experiences of learners, and 4. It is a series of courses to be taken by learners. In addition, a curriculum considers the learners and their interaction with each other, the teacher and the materials. The output and outcomes of a curriculum are evaluated. To sum it up, one could view the curriculum as a composite whole comprising the teacher, the learner, teaching and learning methodologies, anticipated and unanticipated experiences, outputs and outcomes possible within a learning institution. Misconceptions of Curriculum There are a lot of misconceptions about curriculum shared by the public. The student-teacher should be aware of these misconceptions, as well as others that may be unique to individuals. Being aware of these misconceptions will assist the student teacher to confront and critique the misconceptions so that they can intelligently create, use and interpret their school’s curriculum. Examples of common misconceptions include the following: 1. The curriculum is just a textbook or list of topics from which a student is to be taught and assessed. 2. The syllabus is the curriculum and once the syllabus has been completed, the teacher’s work is largely finished. 3. Curriculum should be developed by offsite experts, and teachers should implement it as the designers intended. 4. The curriculum tells teachers what to teach, how to teach it, and what types of exercises to assign to their students 5. The curriculum should be based on the final examination, not the other way around. 6. The curriculum is exactly what the teacher teaches and expects students to learn. (There is no hidden curriculum.) 7. The curriculum is best delivered by lecturing. Aim of National ICT Curriculum The National Curriculum offers pupils with an introduction to the core knowledge that they need to be educated citizens. The main goal of the national curriculum is to embody rigour and high standards and create coherence in what is taught in schools, and ensure that all children are taught 36 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education THE CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 6 the essential knowledge in the key subject disciplines. Ghana’s national curriculum emphasizes on ICT as a key to effective communication, teaching and learning in the 21st century. ICT is seen in the new curriculum as a cross cutting issue which cuts all the four pillars; subject and curriculum knowledge, literacy studies, pedagogic knowledge and supported teaching in school. The rational for computing emanates from the importance computing plays as one of the essential school subjects that permeates and can be applied to all areas of learning. The curriculum provides students with access to important computing ideas, knowledge and skills that they can draw on in their personal and work lives, as well as their learning of other school subjects. Computing learning provides the opportunity for students to develop essential skills and competencies, and motivates learners to become flexible problem solvers and life-long learners. In an increasingly technological age, the possession of problem-solving and decision-making skills is an essential pre-requisite and these are acquired in the learning of computing. Information and communication technology is pervasive in society. Learning about and learning with ICT in school is crucial for all students. Rapid ICT developments affect the way in which the curriculum is offered to students. There are several challenges for implementing ICT in the school environment. Issues of ICT Curriculum and Learning/ Teaching of ICT Influence of technological developments Technological developments affect the labour market, science and society. This influence must be reflected in specific knowledge and skills in the subjects, learning areas and examination programs so that students can specialize later. Although there are orientational developments in this, such as in the NVTI vocationally-oriented programs, technological developments per subject or learning area deserve attention across the board. Learning using ICT Linked-data technology offers possibilities to link data and, for example, to offer customization to students more easily. It can relieve teachers and make students more aware of their own learning process. Research evidence shows that linking educational goals from database to teaching methods, exam CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 37  THE TYPES OF CURRICULUM UNIT 1 SESSION 6 questions and syllabi of the exam program gives teachers more control over the learning processes and allows them to use a method more freely. Curriculum Development at School Using ICT ICT offers teachers and school leaders tools to make choices for the education program at their school. The Curriculum in Image website is a digital tool that schools can use to get started with the school curriculum. The Teacher and ICT The use of ICT in education can lead to positive results for the learning outcomes of students, and contribute to their digital literacy. The teacher’s knowledge and skills determine the success of that effort. Teachers need technological, didactic and professional knowledge to be able to use ICT consciously in education. The expertise of teachers to be able to integrate ICT into the curriculum deserves attention. Concepts of School Curriculum The curriculum operates (or is made) in different ways at different levels:  Supra – transnational ideas about education  Macro – national level policy intentions  Meso – policy guidance (ES, LEA)  Micro – school-level curricular practices  Nano – classroom interactions (Thijs & van den Akker, 2009) The supra level usually refers to international debates or agreements on aims and quality of education, and is sometimes fueled by the outcomes of internationally comparative studies. Curriculum development at the supra and macro levels is usually of a ‘generic’ nature, while ‘site-specific’ approaches are more applicable for the levels closer to school (meso) and classroom (micro) practice. Moreover, the process of curriculum development can be seen as narrow (developing a specific curricular product) or broad (a long term, ongoing process of curriculum improvement, often including many related aspects of educational change, e.g. teacher education, school development, and examinations). In order